When writing scientific papers use. Methodological approaches and methods of scientific research

Before embarking on a scientific article, it is necessary to outline a plan and stages for carrying out the main activities for further work on the topic, that is, to draw up a program of scientific work on the article.

Stages of work on a scientific article

There are the following main stages of work on a scientific article:

Substantiation of the topic, choice of object and determination of the purpose of the study;

Selection and analysis of scientific literature on the chosen topic, including using the Internet;

Development of the hypothesis of scientific work;

Drawing up a plan and structure of a scientific article, development of a program and research methodology;

Conducting research and summarizing its results, conclusions;

Registration of a scientific article;

Publication of scientific work.

The first five of the listed stages of scientific research partially intersect, and their implementation may coincide in time.

The idea of ​​scientific work is formed at the first stage of the research. A number of elements should be clearly defined here (Fig. 16.2).

Rice. 16.2. Elements influencing the formation of the concept of a scientific article

After that, the name of the scientific work is determined, which can then be corrected.

When writing a scientific article, first of all, you need to have a clear idea of ​​the level of development of the topic under study in science. Therefore, you first need to familiarize yourself with the main literature on the topic (monographs, articles, Internet information). The reliability of the results obtained is enhanced by the combined use of information sources of various types, but it is very important that these sources accurately meet the tasks set and correlate with the topic of scientific work.

At the stage of formulating the idea, it is desirable to draw up a preliminary work plan. Sometimes it is necessary to draw up a prospectus plan.

Next, select and develop the collected information on the topic of scientific research. The material can be prepared in any sequence, in separate parts, without careful stylistic processing. The main thing is to prepare the materials in full for the next stages of work on the manuscript of the article.

At the next stage, the collected and processed information is grouped - the option of its sequential placement is chosen according to the work plan. The personal computer greatly facilitates this process. The text typed in a text editor should be structured accordingly. When using a personal computer is the possibility:

See each part of the scientific work and the entire article as a whole;

Follow the development of the main provisions;

Achieve the correct sequence of presentation;

Determine which parts of the scientific article need to be supplemented or shortened.

In this case, all materials are gradually placed in the proper order, in accordance with the plan. If there is no computer, then it is recommended to write each section of a scientific article on separate sheets or cards on one side, so that later they can be cut and placed in a certain sequence.

In parallel with the grouping of the material, the rubrication of the text is determined in accordance with the requirements for the structure of a scientific article. The result of work at this stage is a logical combination of parts of the manuscript, the creation of its draft layout, which needs further processing.

The processing of the manuscript consists in clarifying its content, design and literary editing. Polishing the text of the manuscript begins with an assessment of its content and structure. They check and critically evaluate each conclusion, each formula, table, figure, each sentence, a single word. You should check how the title of the scientific article corresponds to its content, how logically and consistently the material is presented. It is advisable to once again check the argumentation of the main provisions, scientific novelty, theoretical and practical significance of the work, its conclusions and recommendations. It should be borne in mind that both excessive conciseness and excessive detail in the presentation of the material are still inappropriate. They help the perception of the content of the work of tables, diagrams, graphs.

The next stage of work on a scientific article is to check the correctness of its design. This applies to headings, references to literary sources, citation, writing numbers, signs, physical and mathematical quantities, formulas, constructing tables, preparing illustrative material, creating a bibliographic description. With the rules for the design of scientific articles, specific requirements are imposed, so you should first of all be guided by the requirements of publishers and editors.

The final stage of preparing a scientific article is literary editing. Its complexity depends on the style culture of the author. Simultaneously with literary editing, he decides how to place the text and which highlights should be made in it.

Note that handwritten text is difficult to change. It is easier to detect omissions and shortcomings in typewritten or computer text.

For novice researchers, it is very important not only to know well the basic provisions that characterize the thesis, term paper as a qualifying scientific work, but also to have at least the most general idea of ​​the methodology of scientific creativity, because, as modern educational practice of higher educational institutions shows, such researchers have The first steps towards mastering the skills of scientific work most of all raise questions of a methodological nature. First of all, they lack experience in organizing their work, in using the methods of scientific knowledge and in applying logical laws and rules. Therefore, it makes sense to consider these issues in more detail.

Any scientific research from a creative idea to the final design of a scientific work is carried out very individually. But still, it is possible to identify some general methodological approaches to its implementation, which are usually called study in the scientific sense.

The method of scientific research is a way of knowing objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, there are methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels.

The empirical level methods include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling, etc.

The methods of the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

The methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutical, etc. Some scientists refer the method of system analysis to this level, while others include it among the general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) private - for related sciences;

4) special - for a particular science, area of ​​scientific knowledge. A similar classification of methods can be found in the legal literature.

From the considered concept of method, it is necessary to delimit the concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research.

Under the research technique is understood a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and under the research procedure - a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

A technique is a set of methods and techniques of cognition. For example, the methodology of criminological research is understood as a system of methods, techniques, means of collecting, processing, analyzing and evaluating information about crime, its causes and conditions, the personality of the offender and other criminological phenomena.

Any scientific research is carried out by certain methods and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Each science has its own methodology. Legal sciences also use a certain methodology. Legal scholars define it in different ways. So, V.P. Kazimirchuk interprets the methodology of jurisprudence as the application of a system of logical techniques and special methods for studying legal phenomena determined by the principles of materialistic dialectics.

A similar concept of the scientific methodology of law and the state is given in a textbook on the theory of state and law: this is the application of a set of certain theoretical principles, logical techniques and special methods for studying state-legal phenomena determined by the philosophical worldview.

From the point of view of A.D. Gorbuzy, I.Ya. Kozachenko and E.A. Sukharev, the methodology of jurisprudence is a scientific knowledge (research) of the essence of state and law based on the principles of materialism, adequately reflecting their dialectical development.

Regarding the latter point of view, it should be noted that the concept of methodology is somewhat narrower than the concept of scientific knowledge, since the latter is not limited to the study of the forms and methods of knowledge, but studies the issues of the essence, object and subject of knowledge, the criteria for its truth, the boundaries of cognitive activity, etc.

Ultimately, both lawyers and philosophers under the methodology of scientific research understand the doctrine of the methods (method) of cognition, i.e. about the system of principles, rules, methods and techniques intended for the successful solution of cognitive tasks. Accordingly, the methodology of legal science can be defined as the doctrine of the methods of research of state-legal phenomena.

There are the following levels of methodology:

1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.

2. Private research methodology for a group of related legal sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition, for example, state-legal phenomena.

3. The methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition, for example, the methodology of forensic science, criminology and other legal sciences.

They are widely developed and applied in science XX. in. and represent a kind of intermediate methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences. The general scientific children of everything include such concepts as information, model, isomorphism (from the Greek isos - the same and morpho - form), structure, function, system, element, etc.

On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, the corresponding methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophical methodology with special scientific knowledge and its methods. General scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling. formalization, etc. An important role of these approaches is that, due to their intermediate nature, they mediate the mutual transition of philosophical and particular scientific knowledge (and corresponding methods).

PRIVATE SCIENTIFIC METHODS, that is, a set of methods, principles of cognition, research methods and procedures used in a particular branch of science corresponding to a given basic form of the movement of matter. These are the methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and the humanities (social) sciences.

DISCIPLINARY METHODS, i.e., systems of techniques used in a particular discipline that is part of any branch of science or that arose at the intersection of sciences. Each fundamental science, as we have already found out, is a complex of disciplines that have a specific subject and unique research methods.

METHODS OF INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH as a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods (resulting from a combination of elements of different levels of methodology), aimed mainly at the intersection of scientific disciplines.

Thus, in scientific knowledge there is a complex, dynamic, integral, subordinated system of diverse methods of different levels, spheres of action, orientation, etc., which are always implemented taking into account specific conditions.

Let us briefly consider some of the methods, techniques and means of scientific research used at its various stages and levels.

SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH are OBSERVATION - a purposeful perception of the phenomena of reality (associated with their description and measurement), COMPARISON and EXPERIMENT, where there is an active intervention in the flow of the processes under study.

Among the SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF THEORETICAL RESEARCH, formalization, axiomatic and hypothetical-deductive methods are most often singled out;

• 1. FORMALIZATION - displaying meaningful knowledge in sign form (formalized language). It is created to accurately express thoughts in order to eliminate the possibility of ambiguous understanding. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas). The relations of signs replace statements about the properties and relations of objects. Formalization plays an essential role in clarifying scientific concepts. However, the formal method - even if it is carried out consistently - does not cover all the problems of the logic of scientific knowledge (which the logical positivists hoped for).
• 2. AXIOMATIC METHOD - a method of constructing a scientific theory based on some initial provisions-axioms (postulates), from which all other statements of this theory are derived in a purely logical way, through proof. To derive theorems from axioms (and in general some formulas from others), special rules of inference are formulated.
• 3. HYPOTHETICAL-DEDUCTIVE METHOD - a method of theoretical research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are ultimately derived. Thus, this method is based on the derivation (deduction) of conclusions from hypotheses and other premises, the truth value of which is unknown. And this means that the conclusion obtained on the basis of this method will inevitably have only a probabilistic character.

In science, the so-called. GENERAL LOGICAL METHODS AND METHODS OF RESEARCH. Of these, we can distinguish:

• 1. ANALYSIS - real or mental division of an object into its component parts and SYNTHESIS - their unification into a single whole.
• 2. ABSTRAGING - the process of abstracting from a number of properties and relationships of the phenomenon under study with the simultaneous selection of properties of interest to the researcher.
• 3. IDEALIZATION - a mental procedure associated with the formation of abstract (idealized) objects that are fundamentally unrealizable in reality ("point", "ideal gas", "absolutely black body", etc.). These objects are not "pure fictions", but a very complex and very indirect expression of real processes. They represent some limiting cases of the latter, serve as a means of analyzing them and constructing theoretical ideas about them. Idealization is closely related to abstraction and thought experiment. methodology science philosophy research
• 4. INDUCTION - the movement of thought from the individual (experience, facts) to the general (their generalizations in the conclusions) and DEDUCTION - the ascent of the process of cognition from the general to the individual.
• 5. ANALOGY (correspondence, similarity) - the establishment of similarities in some aspects, properties and relationships between non-identical objects. On the basis of the revealed similarity, an appropriate conclusion is made - a conclusion by analogy. Its general scheme: object B has features a, c, c, e; object C has attributes c, c, e; therefore, the object C probably has the feature a. Thus, analogy provides not reliable, but probable knowledge.
• 6. MODELING - a method of studying certain objects by reproducing their characteristics on another object - a model that is an analogue of one or another fragment of reality (real or mental) - the original model. Between the model and the object of interest to the researcher, there must be a known similarity (similarity) in physical characteristics, structure, functions, etc. Modeling forms are very diverse. For example, subject (physical) and symbolic. An important form of the latter is mathematical (computer) modeling.

The methodology of scientific knowledge, like science itself, is a concrete historical phenomenon. As for the modern, POST-NON-CLASSICAL stage of the development of science, it is characterized by the following main METHODOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS:

• 1. Changing the nature of the object of study (it is increasingly becoming a self-developing open complex "man-sized systems") and strengthening the role of interdisciplinary, integrated programs in their study.
• 2. Awareness of the need for a global comprehensive view of the world. Hence the convergence of the natural and social sciences (and the exchange of their methods), Eastern and Western thinking, rational and irrational, scientific and non-scientific approaches, etc. Methodological pluralism is becoming more and more characteristic of modern science.
• 3. Widespread introduction in all private sciences and scientific disciplines of the ideas and methods of synergetics - the theory of self-organization, focused on the search for the laws of evolution of open non-equilibrium systems of any nature - natural, social, cognitive.
• 4. Promotion to the forefront of such concepts as uncertainty (a type of interaction devoid of a finite stable form), scholasticity, probability, order and chaos, nonlinearity, information, etc., expressing the characteristics of our non-equilibrium, unstable world as a whole and each of its spheres . The categories of chance, possibility, development and contradiction, causality have found a second life and fruitfully work in modern science.
• 5. The introduction of time into all scientific disciplines, the ever wider dissemination of the idea of ​​development - the "historicization", "dialectization" of science.
• 6. The connection of the objective world and man, the destruction of the rigid branching of the natural and social sciences, the convergence and interaction of their methods, the ever-growing importance of the "anthropic principle", which establishes a connection between the Universe and the evolution of human life on Earth.
• 7. Increasing mathematization of scientific theories and the increasing level of their abstractness and complexity, increasing the role of quantitative formal-abstract methods of cognition. This process is closely intertwined with the growing importance of philosophical methods, without which no science can do today.
• 8. Increasing the role of “understanding methods” (hermeneutics apparatus), “personal methods” (for example, biographical), value and information approaches, the method of social and humanitarian expertise, role-playing and simulation games, quantitative and statistically probable methods and means of cognition, etc. .

The methodology of work on scientific research includes the sequence of the following works.

Choice of research topic. The topic is chosen by the student based on his scientific interest. The teacher can also help in choosing a topic.

Study planning. Includes compilation calendar plan scientific research and plan scientific research.

Study Schedule includes the following elements:

selection and formulation of a scientific problem;

· development of the plan of scientific research;

collection and study of source material, search for the necessary literature;

analysis of the collected material, theoretical development of a scientific problem;

a report on the preliminary results of the study to the supervisor (teacher);

Written registration of scientific research;

· discussion of the work (at a seminar, in a student scientific society, at a conference, etc.).

Each element of the schedule is dated by a start time and an end time.

Scientific research plan characterizes its content and structure. It should include: introduction, main body, conclusion, list of sources used, applications.

Introduction includes: relevance themes; analysis literature on the issue; analysis of the state of scientific Problems; definition object and subject research; educational research goal; tasks research.

Relevance topics involves isolating the scientific and practical significance of the chosen topic.

Analysis literature on the problem requires the establishment of a range of main and related publications on the research topic and their brief description.

Any scientific research begins with the definition Problems: A theoretical or practical question to which you do not know the answer and which needs to be answered. A problem is a bridge from the unknown to the known. "The problem is knowledge about ignorance."

Definition object and subject research. The object of study answers the question: what consider?", the subject of the study answers the question: " as is the object being considered? what new relationships, properties, aspects and functions of the object disclosed by this study?”.

Target research is what result the researcher intends to get, how he sees it?

Tasks research should be relevant to the problem and subject of research. Four tasks are usually formulated, the advancement and solution of which allows achieving the set goal.

Main part. This part of the study is divided into theoretical and practical (experimental). Each of them may consist of chapters, which may be subdivided into paragraphs.

In the theoretical part, based on the study of literary sources of domestic and foreign authors, the essence of the problem under study is considered, various approaches to the solution are analyzed, and the author's own position is stated.

When designing a scientific reference apparatus, it is required to maintain the uniformity of footnotes (references). The title of the book is given by the title page. In references to materials of periodicals, quotation marks in their titles are removed. Links are indicated by numbers, which are indicated under the line at the bottom of the page (inline). In all cases, it is obligatory (with direct citation, presentation of the author's views and opinions, use of statistical data, results of sociological research, etc.): in the interlinear text, as well as in the list of references, indicate the author, the cited work, the year and place of its publication, publisher, total number of pages (in the bibliography) or specific page numbers cited (in the bibliography).

The practical part is analytical in nature. In it, the author gives an analysis of the problem under study on specific examples.

When writing a scientific study, descriptiveness, passion for empirical facts are not allowed. It is important to ensure conciseness and clarity of formulations, accuracy in the use of a special conceptual apparatus. Proposals (main conclusions) are also developed, generalizations are formulated for chapters.

Citation it is expedient only for a logically complete fragment of the text, i.e. a guarantee of the immutability of the transfer of the meaning of the source must be provided. The quotation must be word for word, letter for letter, and punctuation marks follow the source. There are several exceptions to this: you can omit one or more words or sentences if the idea of ​​the author of the quotation is not distorted (such a quotation has punctuation in the places of the missing words); the main words are highlighted in quotation marks, but an ellipsis is placed at the end; the case of words in a quote changes when words or phrases are quoted, quotes starting with a lowercase letter, if the first words are at the beginning of a sentence, and some others.

Conclusion. In conclusion, the theoretical and practical conclusions and proposals of the study are summarized and summarized. They should be concise and clear, showing the content, significance, validity and effectiveness of the research carried out.

List of sources used is an integral part of scientific research. This list is placed at the end of the work, after the "Conclusion". The bibliographic description of the document as a whole is unified, but when compiling entries for certain types of documents, additional rules may apply.

Applications. The appendix provides auxiliary material: tables of digital data, extracts from instructions, other documents, methodological materials, illustrations of an auxiliary nature (diagrams, drawings) and other materials. Applications are drawn up on separate sheets, each application has its own thematic heading, and in the upper right corner there is an inscription: "Appendix 1", "Appendix 2", etc.

Thus, the given sequence of stages of the scientific research methodology contributes to the qualitative disclosure of the scientific problem posed, the consolidation of theoretical knowledge, and forms the researcher's additional skills for independent analysis of theory and practice.

findings

1. Any scientific research from a creative idea to the final design of a scientific work is carried out very individually. But, each study, regardless of its author, has common methodological approaches to its conduct, which are commonly called studies in the scientific sense.

2. To study in the scientific sense means to conduct exploratory research, as if looking into the future. Imagination, fantasy, dream, based on the real achievements of science and technology, are the most important factors of scientific research. But at the same time, scientific study is a sound application of scientific foresight, it is a well-thought-out calculation.

3. The development of scientific research requires compliance with certain stages and rules. The entire presentation must follow a strict logical plan and reveal its main purpose.

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Scientific work is an important area of ​​activity for a sociologist. Depending on the specific goal and task, a scientist can carry out a scientific search based on existing knowledge that has not yet been verified or look for something that is not yet known, but can be predicted.

Scientific activity involves the mastery of basic terms, concepts and categories, such as analysis, aspect, verification, genesis, hypothesis, definition, proof, law, regularity, idea, truth, classification, concept, method, technique, methodology, scientific theory, scientific research , scientific fact, paradigm, principle, problem, synthesis, system, theory, factor.

Sociology unites several groups of scientific categories. The first group includes the basic categories of theoretical sociology (society, social relations, social structure, social mobility, etc.). The second group includes definitions of a society that is at a particular stage of development (traditional, industrial, modern society, postmodern society, etc.). The third group integrates concepts related to special sociological theories and individual branches of sociological knowledge (sociology of education, sociology of organization, etc.). The fourth group of categories are those that reveal the essence of sociological research (object, subject, goal, tasks, technique, procedure, general and sample population, social indicators and indicators, etc.).

Sociology is a multi-paradigm science, which makes it difficult to unambiguously evaluate all social phenomena from the point of view of a single methodology. But, nevertheless, sociological knowledge, unlike ordinary knowledge, is based on scientific methods, which implies: the presence of special research methods, the accuracy of the data obtained, the reproducibility of the results obtained not only by the researcher themselves, but also by other people who used the same methodology in similar conditions and some novelty of the obtained results.

Sociology uses three basic principles for the implementation of the scientific approach. The first - the principle of empiricism - implies the mandatory use of empirical procedures. The second - the principle of explanation or theoretical substantiation of the obtained experimental data - allows you to reveal the reasons underlying, derive patterns and incorporate them into the system of knowledge. The third principle - objectivity - implies the independence of the researcher from ideological influences.

The most common in science are formal, meaningful, qualitative, quantitative, essential and activity approaches.

The formal approach makes it possible to reveal stable connections between the elements of the process or phenomenon under consideration, which are considered out of connection with the entire process or phenomenon as a whole.

The historical approach involves consideration of the specific origin and development of an object or phenomenon. The qualitative approach is aimed at identifying a set of signs, properties, features of the phenomenon under study, researchers collect specific historical facts.

The qualitative approach makes it possible to identify a set of features, properties, features of the phenomenon or process under study, which determine its originality and belonging both to itself and to the class of phenomena and processes of the same type with it.

The quantitative approach is aimed at identifying the characteristics of various phenomena, processes according to the degree of development or intensity of their inherent properties, expressed in numbers and values. In objects, phenomena and processes, common properties are distinguished, regardless of the nature of their homogeneity/heterogeneity.

The essential approach reveals the inner, deep sides of any objects and phenomena.

All of the above approaches are interrelated, but independent of each other. Each specific study may include combinations of them.

The research approach can also be considered as a basic principle, a basic provision. Most often in sociology systemic, complex and activity approaches are used.

The system approach allows us to consider the object as a whole, to identify the variety of types of its internal connections. The implementation of system analysis involves studying it in different aspects. In practice, the system-component aspect is often used, within which the elements or components of the system, its subsystems are identified and their functional purpose is analyzed. When using the system-structural aspect, it is assumed that the system is considered through component relationships, relationships between elements, as well as between elements and the system as a whole. At the same time, both aspects are used only during the reorganization of the system, but independent use is effective in conditions of relative stability of the object under study and the environment.

An integrated approach is based on the idea of ​​the versatility of each phenomenon under study, which determines the applicability of the knowledge of all disciplines involved in the study of an object, aimed at achieving a single goal - to obtain comprehensive knowledge about it.

The activity approach appeals to the social activity of people, which, on the one hand, is carried out according to laws and patterns independent of people, on the other hand, people themselves implement it in accordance with their social status, knowledge and abilities. According to the activity approach, the field of activity, the social consequences of activity characterize the social life of representatives of different social strata and a particular individual. Based on this approach, sociologists, studying various types of activities of social groups and individuals, develop a system of social indicators (qualitative and quantitative characteristics of individual properties and states of social objects and processes, the totality of which reflects their essential features in statics and dynamics) and social indicators (characterizing the states and processes of functioning and development of social objects), with the help of which it is possible to analyze trends and offer prospects for the development of modern society.

Research approaches are based on different theories and paradigms. A scientific paradigm is a set of philosophical and methodological principles adopted in this science as a model for setting and solving research problems, a model of cognitive activity, in accordance with which scientific research is organized and conducted. The category of "paradigm" is broader than the concept of theory. A theory is a set of views, ideas aimed at interpreting a phenomenon. A paradigm can combine several theories and develop them to a new level of generalization.

The formation of sociological science began with a mythological, mechanistic and statistical understanding of social phenomena.

Modern sociological thinking is based on paradigms that have a systemic, dialectical and diatropic character. The main systemic paradigms include functionalism, structuralism, structural functionalism and institutionalism, among which there are many similarities, due to their focus on the analysis of social systems. The dialectical vision of social problems is most clearly traced in the paradigms formed within the framework of the Marxist paradigm, neo-Marxist paradigm, critical sociology (T. Adorno, M. Horkheimer, G. Marcuse and other representatives of the so-called Frankfurt School). Diatropic understanding of social life is manifested in a variety of interpretive paradigms, which include understanding sociology, symbolic interactionism, phenomenology and ethnomethodology.

Modern sociologists have tried to create theoretical and methodological constructions that have a unifying character and synthesized content, suitable for the study of any social phenomenon and process, both at the micro and macro levels. For example, the “general theory of social action” by T. Parsons, “integral sociology” by P.A. Sorokin, the teachings of P. Bourdieu, E. Giddens, P. Monson, P. Sztompka, V.A. Yadova, G.V. Osipova and V.G. Nemirovsky. But, as scientists note, all theories that now claim the role of unifying-universal paradigms fundamentally contradict each other and reject each other to a greater extent than unsynthesized paradigms of a systemic, dialectical and diatropic nature. Therefore, their appearance did not lead to the monoparadigm of sociology. However, there is still no paradigm shared by all sociologists (or at least the majority) and, presumably, will not be for a long time. None of the current sociological paradigms provides a comprehensive knowledge of social reality, but contributes to its understanding. In this regard, it is important to note that the choice of a research paradigm is not carried out arbitrarily, not at the whim of sociologists. It is predetermined primarily by the design of the study, its theme, purpose and objectives.

So, modern sociology is polyparadigmatic, it implies the possibility and necessity of using different approaches to understanding the phenomena and processes it studies. This circumstance has both positive and negative consequences.

Positive consequences are expressed in the fact that polyparadigm ensures the versatility of sociological research, creates the possibility of considering the same phenomenon in different aspects, discovering many facets in it.

Negative consequences are expressed in the complication of comparing the data and conclusions obtained in different studies in situations where these studies are based on different paradigms.

Scientific knowledge is usually divided into theoretical (a system of logically interrelated concepts and principles for analyzing the processes under study) and empirical (designed to verify the initial theoretical positions on the basis of specific data obtained empirically). The difference in the main levels of scientific knowledge lies in the ways of reproducing objective reality, in the approaches and methods of building systemic knowledge.

A method is a conscious and consistently applied way to achieve a goal. Scientific methods are divided into general and special. The general ones are used throughout the research process by a wide variety of sciences and can usually be combined into large groups: methods of theoretical research; methods used at the theoretical and empirical level and methods of empirical research.

In theoretical research, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, the method of idealization and formalization, and the axiomatic method are used.

The most important of the above is the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, according to which the process of cognition is divided into two independent stages. At the first stage, there is a transition from the sensually concrete in reality to abstract definitions. A single object is dissected, described using a variety of concepts and judgments, and turns into a set of abstractions. At the second stage, the thought moves oppositely from the abstract definitions of the object to the concrete in cognition and thinking. At this stage, the original integrity of the object is restored, which is reproduced in thinking in all its versatility.

Idealization is the mental construction of ideal objects that do not exist in reality and abstraction from the impact of external forces on ideal objects, which allows us to simplify complex systems and apply mathematical research methods.

Formalization is a method of studying various objects by displaying them in special symbols.

The axiomatic method uses axioms, assumptions without evidence. All other propositions of the theory are derived from the axioms on the basis of the logical rules of the given theory.

Special methods in each science are their own and are determined by the nature of the subject and the specific object being examined. The sociological method as a collective concept characterizes the main ontological and methodological attitudes of a sociologist during the conduct of sociological research. Sociological methods include: micro- and macro-approach, study of a particular case or mass survey, free interview or formalized survey.

In theoretical sociology, genetic, hypothetical-deductive, comparative-historical methods are used.

The genetic method is based on the analysis of the origin of social phenomena and processes, analyzes their origin and development, establishes the initial conditions, stages and trends in the development of the object of study.

The essence of the hypothetical-deductive method is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which a statement of facts is derived. It is used to create a theoretical model of the studied social object, the truth of which is established in the process of sociological research and social practice.

The comparative-historical method singles out the general and the specific in social phenomena when comparing the same phenomenon at different stages of historical development or two different coexisting phenomena. This method can be implemented by comparison-matching, through which the nature of heterogeneous objects is revealed; historical-typological comparison, with the help of which the similarity of phenomena not related in origin is explained by the same conditions of their genesis and development; comparison, in which the elements of mutual influence of various phenomena are fixed.

General scientific methods used in both theoretical and empirical research include abstraction, analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, modeling, etc.

Analysis is the division of the whole into its constituent elements in order to study them separately. It helps to clarify the various connections between facts, which gives the study a logical integrity and completeness.

Synthesis is the combination of the parts obtained during the analysis into a whole, which may precede or follow the analysis.

Induction is a conclusion from the particular to the general, when, on the basis of knowledge about a part of the objects of a class, a conclusion is made about the class as a whole.

Deduction is an inference in which a conclusion about a certain element of a set is made on the basis of knowledge of the general properties of the entire set.

Modeling - the study of objects of knowledge on models of real objects to improve the characteristics of the latter and forecasting.

Sociological research is a way of obtaining knowledge about the modern world, based on a rigorous collection of facts and their sociological explanation. In a sociological study, the following types are distinguished: theoretical / empirical / methodological, fundamental / applied, descriptive / anamnestic / prognostic, field / laboratory, experimental / comparative; longitudinal/panel/repeated, biographical/generational/cohort. Modern methods of sociological research include the study of an individual case, monographic survey, mass statistical observation.

To study a sociologist, first of all, he looks for a problem that deserves attention. A scientific problem should more or less accurately reflect the problematic social situation. The purpose of sociological research is to find an answer to the question: what kind of information and what specific result is this research focused on. Achieving the goal should correspond to the objectives of the study: theoretical, methodological and applied. The goal and objectives are necessarily formulated in the final qualifying work of the bachelor. As a rule, a sociological study presents a hypothesis - a scientifically based assumption about the structure of social objects, the nature of their connections, the mechanism of their functioning and development. The hypothesis is also indicated in the final qualifying work of the bachelor. As a result of the study, the hypothesis is either rejected or confirmed, and then becomes the provisions of the theory.

In empirical research, sociologists widely use quantitative (survey: interviewing and consulting) and qualitative methods (data analysis, content analysis, observation, experiment).

PLANNING AND PREPARATION OF THE FINAL QUALIFICATION WORK OF THE BACHELOR

The preparatory work begins with the choice of the topic of the bachelor's final qualifying work (an approximate subject of the bachelor's final qualifying theses is given in Appendix 7). The theme of the bachelor's final qualification work should be related to the problems of the scientific school "Sociology of Knowledge", which is conceptually developing at the faculty. The topics of bachelor's final qualification works include the most relevant, least developed, and applied topics. The theme of the bachelor's final qualifying work is determined by public requests, requests from industrial organizations and the tasks of experimental activities solved by the teachers of the Higher School of Science and Technology. The Bachelor's final qualifying work includes the results of research activities of departments, faculty and third-party research and production and / or research organizations.

After getting acquainted with the approximate topic of the final qualifying work offered by the department, the student independently chooses the topic in accordance with his scientific interests and the possibilities of attracting practical material for writing the work, including that obtained during the industrial practice. The bachelor's final qualifying work includes independent research materials of the author, collected or received during the internship and coursework.

The results of the final qualifying work of the bachelor are recommended for use and / or can be introduced into modern production. It is not allowed to write a final qualifying work on the same topic by students on the same practice base. Students who started working on a particular topic in their first years and demonstrated the results in term papers, reports and speeches at student scientific conferences have advantages in consolidating this topic in their final qualifying work.

Fixing the topic of the final qualifying work is carried out on the basis of the student's application addressed to the director of the Higher School of Economics (see Appendix 2). Simultaneously with the statement of the topic of the final qualifying work, the student writes a statement on the observance of professional ethics when writing the final qualifying work of the bachelor (see Appendix 3).

The student performs the final qualifying work under the guidance of a supervisor from among those teaching at the Higher School of Modern Sciences of Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov (HSE MSU), who has a degree of candidate or doctor of science and recommended by the educational and methodological commission of the HSE MSU (AMC HSE MSU) teachers. To solve practical problems, practical co-leaders can be involved to solve production problems at a particular enterprise. The student’s application for approval of the topic of the bachelor’s final qualification work (with an indication of its translation into English) (see Appendix 2), as well as a brief annotation signed by the proposed supervisor, is submitted for consideration by the educational and methodological commission of the Higher School of Economics of Moscow State University. Changing the topic of the bachelor's final qualification work is carried out at the request of the student, signed by the supervisor, and after the appropriate discussion and approval by the educational and methodological commission of the Higher School of Education and Science of Moscow State University. After February 10 of the fourth year of study, changing the topic of the bachelor's final qualification work is not allowed.

The student is responsible for the quality and timely delivery of the final qualifying work. The deadlines for submitting the stages of preparation of the final qualification work are contained in Appendix 1.

Intermediate attestation of a student for the preparation of a bachelor's final qualification work is carried out in three stages: 1) no later than February 10 of the 4th year of study on the basis of submitting the first chapter/section of the bachelor's final qualification work to the scientific and methodological department; 2) no later than March 30 of the 4th year of the student's study on the basis of the student's submission to the scientific and methodological department of the Higher School of Economics and Technology of a report on the progress of its implementation with the signature of the supervisor; 3) no later than May 25 of the 4th year of study, the student undergoes a preliminary defense in the presence of the head and members of the department of the bachelor's final qualifying work, based on the results of which a conclusion is made on the admission / non-admission of the bachelor's final qualifying work for submission to the defense.

The report on the progress of the bachelor's final qualification work should contain: a brief introduction to the problems of the work. Including substantiation of the relevance of the chosen topic, formulation of the problem under study, definition of the object and subject of research, setting the goal and objectives of the bachelor's final qualification work, explanation of the student's planned contribution to the development of the topic under study; a brief description of the sources of information, both for the theoretical and practical parts, as well as the methodology for data analysis; description of the practical part of the work, data on approbation of the work at various round tables, conferences, etc. Among other things, it is necessary to clearly indicate how much planned work has already been done at the time of writing the report, what results this has led to, and what work remains to be done in order to achieve the goal of the bachelor's final qualifying work; forecast of the practical significance of the work; a brief summary of the structure of the final qualifying work of the bachelor. The report should not exceed 3 pages. The description of the practical part of the bachelor's final qualification work should be at least half of the volume of the report.

Writing a final qualification work begins with the selection of literature on the problem under study. To search for literature, it is necessary to use bibliographic reference books, computer catalogs of libraries, information retrieval systems of the Internet. In parallel with the selection of theoretical sources, it is necessary to collect materials from empirical studies conducted by scientists on this issue.

The plan of the final qualifying work is compiled on the basis of the studied literary sources. The titles of the work reflect the key issues of the topic, the titles of the paragraphs reflect more specific issues. Each chapter and paragraph should have its own title and numbering. The titles of chapters should not duplicate the title of the topic, and the titles of paragraphs should not duplicate the titles of chapters. The wording should clearly and clearly reflect the essence of the problem under consideration. As the final qualifying work is written, the names of its constituent parts are specified, but do not fundamentally change. At the final stage of writing the work, on the basis of the plan, the Content of the final qualifying work is drawn up (see Appendix 5). The list of references and the plan of the final qualifying work are agreed with the supervisor and approved by him.

The bachelor's final qualification work must contain the following structural elements and in the following order:

title page in the form of Appendix 4;

statement of compliance with professional ethics when writing a bachelor's final qualifying work in the form of Appendix 3

(only for two copies of the work signed with the name of the student);

· annotations of the final qualification work of the bachelor in two languages ​​(Russian and English) of no more than 150 words each;

introduction;

· main part;

· conclusion;

· bibliography;

applications (if necessary)

Introduction (1.5-2 pages) contains:

rationale for the choice of the topic of the bachelor's final qualifying work and its relevance;

the formulation of the purpose and objectives of the study;

definition of the object and subject of research;

· a brief review of the literature on the topic, allowing to determine the position of the work in the general structure of publications on this topic;

a description of the methodological apparatus of the study;

formulation of the main questions and hypotheses of the study;

substantiation of the theoretical and practical significance of the research results;

information about the approbation of the presented study;

Brief description of the structure of the work.

The main part of the work consists of two Chapters (four paragraphs) or three Sections. The volume of one paragraph can be from 10 to 17 pages. The volume of one Section can be up to 25 pages. Chapters/sections and paragraphs should be comparable in length. Structuring the final qualifying work into Chapters is advisable if it has a predominantly fundamental focus. In the first paragraph, the theoretical development of the Theoretical Object of Research is done, in the second paragraph - the Subject of Research, the mechanisms of the influence of the state of the Subject of Research on the state of the Object of Research are revealed, in the third paragraph, the approach to the method of conducting empirical research is revealed, in the fourth paragraph, the meaningful results of the author's empirical research are revealed. Structuring the final qualifying work into Sections is advisable in cases where the material is difficult to divide into four paragraphs and the final qualifying work is predominantly applied. In the first Section, the theoretical development of the Theoretical Object and the Subject of Research is made, in the second Section, the approach to the methodology for conducting empirical research is revealed, in the third Section, the meaningful results of the author's empirical research are revealed. Thus, the methodological and empirical part is developed more fully and in detail. At t theoretical development of the Object and Subject of the study, the rationale for the theoretical approach to the analysis of the phenomenon under study is given, the definition of the conceptual apparatus used, through which the phenomena under study, their meaningful characteristics are described, the system of variables is distinguished, on the basis of which the conceptual model of the study is built, This model is the final result of the theoretical development of the Object and subject of study. At the same time, a reasoned presentation of the choice of certain approaches, one's own point of view on the theoretical description of the phenomena under study, the use of certain concepts is given. The text of the final qualifying work is built in a reasoning, logical and demonstrative style. It is necessary to avoid a review style of presentation and include in the content of the theoretical part of the study an analysis of only those theories that are to some extent necessary for constructing a conceptual model of the study. The ability to fully and deeply carry out the theoretical development of the Object and Subject of the study is the most important criterion for assessing the level of the final qualifying work, its compliance with the qualification requirements and the condition for obtaining a high positive assessment.

In the methodological part of the final qualification work, based on the identified research variables, it is necessary to justify the construction of a system of social and socio-psychological indicators of empirical research that allow assessing the state of the studied phenomena, analyze the advantages and disadvantages of primary data collection methods in relation to the research problem and justify the choice of measurement method , which will be used to evaluate the selected indicators. If necessary, the methodological part should provide a meaningful description of the measurement tool with a description of its components (blocks of indicators) and their role in assessing the state of the empirical object of study.

In the empirical part of the final qualification work, the main attention should be paid to summarizing the obtained primary data, identifying relationships between indicators. On this basis, it is necessary to highlight the observed trends in the standing of the object and subject of study and the nature of the interdependence of their standings. The empirical data obtained are only a means of establishing relationships and are presented only as confirmation of the validity of the generalizations made. At the same time, it is necessary to give a meaningful analysis of the primary data with a description of the nature of the distribution of the values ​​of research indicators, methods for constructing indicators on their basis and the distribution of their values. When analyzing, there is no need to give all the values ​​of indicators and indicators, but to give only the values ​​that to a certain extent characterize the state of the phenomenon under study.

At the end of each of the Paragraphs, Chapters or Sections of the final qualifying work, Conclusions are necessarily made, which are a set of all the main meaningful results (intermediate conclusions) obtained within the framework of this paragraph or Section. At the same time, the Conclusions necessarily include those provisions of the final qualifying work, which, in the author's opinion, constitute its novelty. Conclusions follow immediately after the text of the Paragraph or Section.

The conclusions for each Chapter are a summary of the results obtained for each Paragraph, which will be used in subsequent Paragraphs and Chapters of the final qualifying work.

The conclusion reflects the generalized results of the study in accordance with the goal and objectives of the study, and also reveals the significance of the results obtained. At the same time, it cannot be replaced by a mechanical repetition of the conclusions for individual chapters. The conclusion should not exceed 2 pages.

The list of references is drawn up in accordance with Appendix 6.

The appendices include materials that have additional reference or documentary value, but are not necessary for understanding the content of the bachelor's final qualification work, for example, copies of documents, excerpts from reporting materials, certain provisions from instructions and rules, statistical data. Applications should not make up more than 1/3 of the total volume of the final qualification work of the bachelor.

REGISTRATION OF THE FINAL QUALIFICATION WORK OF THE BACHELOR.

Only stitched works made with the help of a computer set are accepted for protection. The recommended volume of the bachelor's final qualification work is from 60 to 75 printed pages without a title page, table of contents, bibliography, applications.

The text of the bachelor's final qualification work must be printed on one side of a standard sheet of A4 format (270 x297 mm) in compliance with the following characteristics:

Times New Roman font

size 14;

interval –1.5;

top and bottom margins -20 mm, left -30 mm, right -10 mm;

· headings of sections are printed in bold type Times New Roman, size 14. One blank line is left after the heading of the section;

· Headings of the second and third levels (paragraph and paragraph) are printed in bold Times New Roman, size 16 and 14, respectively.

Logically complete elements of the text, united by a single thought, should be separated into separate paragraphs. The first line of a paragraph must be indented. The shift to the right of the first line of the paragraph should be the same for the entire text of the bachelor's thesis and equal to 1.5.

All pages of the final qualifying work of the bachelor must be numbered in Arabic numerals through numbering throughout the text, including applications. The title page is included in the general page numbering, but the page number is not put on it.

Chapters, paragraphs, paragraphs (except for the introduction, conclusion and list of references) are numbered in Arabic numerals (for example, chapter 1, paragraph 1.1, paragraph 1.1.1). In this case, the words: “paragraph” and “paragraph” are not written before the number, after the number is followed by the name of the corresponding subsection.

Headings of sections of all levels, words Introduction, Conclusion, List

literature, Applications are written without quotes, without a dot at the end and are aligned to the left edge of the page. The word Table of Contents is aligned in the middle of the page. Wrapping in headings is not allowed.

Each chapter, table of contents, introduction, conclusion, list of references, each appendix begins on a new page.

Graphs, schemes, diagrams are located in the work directly after the text that has a link to them (aligned to the center of the page). The title of graphs, charts, diagrams is placed under them, written without quotes and contains the word Drawing without quotes and an indication of the serial number of the figure, without the number sign, for example: Figure 1. The name of the figure.

When constructing graphs along the coordinate axes, the corresponding indicators are entered, the letter designations of which are placed at the ends of the coordinate axes, fixed by arrows.

Tables are located in the work directly after the text that has a link to them (aligned to the center of the page). Tables are numbered in Arabic numerals through numbering throughout the work. The table number should be placed in the upper left corner above the table heading after the word Table, without the No. sign. Each table should indicate the units of measure for the indicators and the time period to which the data refer. If the unit of measurement in the table is common to all numerical data, then it is given in the table header after its name.

If the tables, diagrams, graphs, etc., given in the work do not exceed 1/2 page in volume, then they should be carried out directly according to the text of the work. If they exceed the specified volume - take out separately in the annex to the work. The given tables should have the name and designation of units (% or others). When analyzing practical material, the title of the table should contain the name of the organization whose material is being studied and the time period of the study.

An example of a properly formatted table according to the text of the final qualifying work:

Table 1

Rates of solved crimes per 100,000 population aged 14-17 and juvenile crimes in Moscow and the Moscow Region in 2010

Continuation of Table 1