How many palace coups in the 18th century. Educational portal - everything for the student of law

The focus of attention of Russian diplomats was the traditional Black Sea problem and the active protection of the conquests in the Baltic.

Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774

April 1769 - the first two campaigns under the command of A.M. Golitsyn were unsuccessful, although before his departure he nevertheless took Khotyn (September 10) and Iasi (September 26). Then the Russian troops took Bucharest. Soon Moldova swore allegiance to Russia.

After a series of victories by I.F. Medem, Kabarda swore allegiance to Russia.

In 1770 Russia scored even greater victories over Turkey. Russian troops occupied Izmail, Kiliya, Akkerman and others.

1770, June 25-26; July 7 and July 21 - the victory of the Russian fleet at Chesme and the troops of P.A. Rumyantsev at Larga and Cahul.

July 1771 - Yu.V. Dolgoruky was announced the approval of eternal friendship with Russia, as a result, Russia formed its own peace conditions that did not suit Austria.

In June 1774 Russian troops again raided the Danube. The Turks suffered several defeats at once.

§ The Crimean Khanate was declared independent;

§ The fortresses of Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn pass to Russia;

§ The Black and Marmara Seas are declared free for merchant ships of Russian citizens;

§ Georgia is freed from the heaviest tribute by young men and girls sent to Turkey;

§ Turkey pays Russia 4.5 million rubles. for military expenses.

1783 - the liquidation of the Crimean Khanate, the entry of its territory into Russia. Foundation of Sevastopol.

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791.

August 21, 1787 the Turkish fleet attacked the Russian guards near Kinburn. The defeat of the Turks, the failure of their attempt to seize the Crimea from the sea and destroy Sevastopol.

1788 - the actions of the Russian army focused on the assault on the Turkish fortress Ochakov, since the main forces of the Turkish fleet were stationed in the harbor. In the battle near Serpent's Island, under the command of F.F. Ushakov, the Russians won. December - successful assault on Ochakov;

§ Turkey ceded to Russia all the lands of the Black Sea up to the Dniester River, gave Ochakov;

§ Turkey undertook to pay damages for raids in the North Caucasus;

§ Moldavia, Bessarabia and Wallachia were still in the hands of the Porte, and the issue of the protectorate of Georgia was not resolved.

Russian-Swedish war 1788-1790.

In the summer of 1788 the Tripartite Alliance was created against Russia (England, Prussia, Holland), finally, Prussia, England and Turkey achieved an attack on Russia by Sweden.

June 1788 - Swedish troops besieged the fortresses of Neishlot and Friedrichsgam, the Swedish fleet entered the action and entered the Gulf of Finland;

July 1788 - the battle near the island of Hogland, the victory of the Russians, thereby the Russians stopped the attempt of Gustav III to capture St. Petersburg;

1789 - Russian troops launched an offensive in Finland, the victory of Russia;

1772 - the first partition of Poland, according to which Russia received Eastern Belarus with borders along the Western Dvina, Druti and Dnieper.

1793 - the second partition of Poland, according to which Russia received Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine;

1794 - uprising in Poland under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko;

1795 - the third partition of Poland, according to which Russia received Western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland and part of Volhynia;

The era of palace coups

The era of palace coups is considered the time from 1725 to 1862 - approximately 37 years. In 1725, Peter I died, without transferring the throne to anyone, after which a struggle for power began, which was marked by a number of palace coups.

The author of the term "palace coups" is the historian IN. Klyuchevsky. He designated another time period for this phenomenon in Russian history: 1725-1801, since in 1801 the last palace coup in the Russian Empire took place, ending with the death of Paul I and the accession of Alexander I Pavlovich.

To understand the reason for the series of palace coups of the 18th century, one should return to the era of Peter I, or rather, to 1722, when he issued the Decree on the succession to the throne. The decree abolished the custom of transferring the royal throne to direct descendants in the male line and provided for the appointment of an heir to the throne at the will of the monarch. Peter I issued a Decree on the succession to the throne due to the fact that his son, Tsarevich Alexei, was not a supporter of the reforms he was carrying out and grouped the opposition around him. After the death of Alexei in 1718, Peter I was not going to transfer power to his grandson Peter Alekseevich, fearing for the future of his reforms, but he himself did not have time to appoint a successor.

N. Ge "Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich in Peterhof"

After his death, his widow was proclaimed empress Catherine I, which relied on one of the court groups.

Catherine I occupied the Russian throne for a little over two years, she left a will: she appointed Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich as her successor and outlined in detail the order of succession to the throne, and all copies of the Decree on succession to the throne under Peter II Alekseevich were confiscated.

But Peter II died, also without leaving a will and heir, and then the Supreme Privy Council (created in February 1726 with members: Field Marshal General His Serene Highness Prince Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, General Admiral Count Fyodor Matveyevich Apraksin, State Chancellor Count Gavriil Ivanovich Golovkin, Count Peter Andreevich Tolstoy, Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Golitsyn, Baron Andrei Ivanovich Osterman, and then Duke Karl Friedrich Holstein - as we can see, almost all the "chicks of Petrov's nest") were elected empress Anna Ioannovna.

Before her death, she appointed her successor John Antonovich, also describing in detail the further line of inheritance.

Deposed John Elizaveta Petrovna relied in substantiating her rights to the throne on the will of Catherine I.

A few years later, her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich was appointed Elizabeth's heir ( Peter III), after the accession to the throne of which his son became the heir PavelI Petrovich.

But soon after that, as a result of a coup, power passed to the wife of Peter III Catherine II, referring to the "will of all subjects", while Paul remained the heir, although Catherine, according to a number of data, considered the option of depriving him of the right to inherit.

Having ascended the throne, in 1797, on the day of his coronation, Paul I published the Manifesto on the succession to the throne, compiled by him and his wife Maria Feodorovna during the life of Catherine. According to this manifesto, which canceled Peter's decree, "the heir was determined by the law itself" - Paul's intention was to exclude in the future the situation of removal of legitimate heirs from the throne and the exclusion of arbitrariness.

But the new principles of succession to the throne for a long time were not perceived not only by the nobility, but even by members of the imperial family: after the assassination of Paul in 1801, his widow Maria Feodorovna, who drafted the Manifesto of Succession with him, cried out: “I want to reign!”. The manifesto of Alexander I on accession to the throne also contained the Petrine wording: “and his Imperial Majesty’s heir, who will be appointed”, despite the fact that, according to the law, Alexander’s heir was his brother Konstantin Pavlovich, who secretly renounced this right, which also contradicted the Manifesto of Paul I.

The Russian succession to the throne stabilized only after the accession to the throne of Nicholas I. Here is such a long preamble. And now in order. So, EkaterinaI, PeterII, Anna Ioannovna, Ioann Antonovich, Elizaveta Petrovna, PeterIII, CatherineII, PavelI…

EkaterinaI

Catherine I. Portrait of an unknown artist

PeterII Alekseevich

Emperor of All Russia, son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and Princess Charlotte-Sophia of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel, grandson of Peter I and Evdokia Lopukhina. He was born on October 12, 1715. He lost his mother at the age of 10, and his father fled to Vienna with the serf of his teacher N. Vyazemsky, Efrosinya Fedorovna. Peter I returned the recalcitrant son, forced him to renounce the right to the throne and sentenced him to death. There is a version that Alexei Petrovich was strangled in the Peter and Paul Fortress, without waiting for her execution.

Peter I did not care about his grandson, as he assumed in him, as in his son, an opponent of reforms, an adherent of the old Moscow way of life. Little Peter was taught not just “something and somehow”, but also anyone, so he practically did not receive education by the time he ascended the throne.

I. Wedekind "Portrait of Peter II"

But Menshikov had his own plans: he convinced Catherine I in her will to appoint Peter as heir, and after her death he ascended the throne. Menshikov betrothed him to his daughter Maria (Peter was only 12 years old), moved him to his house and actually began to run the state himself, regardless of the opinion of the Supreme Privy Council. Baron A. Osterman, as well as Academician Goldbach and Archbishop F. Prokopovich, were appointed to train the young emperor. Osterman was a clever diplomat and a talented teacher, he captivated Peter with his witty lessons, but at the same time set him up against Menshikov (the struggle for power in a different version! Osterman "bet" on Dolgoruky: a foreigner in Russia, albeit crowned with the glory of a skilled diplomat, can manage its policy only in close alliance with the Russians). It all ended with the fact that Peter II removed Menshikov from power, taking advantage of his illness, deprived him of his ranks and fortune, and exiled him with his family, first to the Ryazan province, and then to Berezov, Tobolsk province.

So, the mighty Menshikov fell, but the struggle for power continued - now, as a result of intrigues, the Dolgoruky princes get the championship, who involve Peter in a wild life, revelry, and, having learned about his passion for hunting, take him away from the capital for many weeks.

On February 24, 1728, the coronation of Peter II takes place, but he is still far from state affairs. Dolgoruky betrothed him to Princess Ekaterina Dolgoruky, the wedding was scheduled for January 19, 1730, but he caught a cold, fell ill with smallpox and died on the morning of the proposed wedding, he was only 15 years old. So the Romanov family was cut off in the male line.

What can be said about the personality of Peter II? Let's listen to the historian N. Kostomarov: “Peter II did not reach the age when a person's personality is determined. Although contemporaries praised his abilities, natural mind and kind heart, but these were only hopes for a good future. His behavior did not give the right to expect from him in time a good ruler of the state. He not only disliked teaching and deeds, but hated both; nothing fascinated him in the state sphere; he was completely absorbed in fun, being all the time under someone's influence.

During his reign, the Supreme Privy Council was mainly in power.

Board results: decrees on streamlining the collection of poll tax from the population (1727); restoration of the hetman's power in Little Russia; promulgation of the Bill Charter; ratified a trade agreement with China.

Anna Ioannovna

L. Caravak "Portrait of Anna Ioannovna"

After the untimely death of Peter II, the issue of succession to the throne is again on the agenda. There was an attempt to enthrone the bride of Peter II, Catherine Dolgoruky, but she was unsuccessful. Then the Golitsyns, rivals of the Dolgoruky, put forward their own candidate - the niece of Peter I, Anna of Kurland. But Anna came to power by signing the terms. What is it - the "conditions" (conditions) of Anna Ioannovna?

This is an act that was drawn up by the members of the Supreme Privy Council and which Anna Ioannovna had to fulfill: not to marry, not to appoint an heir, not to have the right to declare war and conclude peace, introduce new taxes, reward and punish subordinate high officials. The main author of the conditions was Dmitry Golitsyn, but the document, drawn up immediately after the death of Peter II, was read out only on February 2, 1730, so the bulk of the nobility could only guess about its content and be content with rumors and assumptions. When the conditions were made public, there was a split among the nobility. On January 25, Anna signed the conditions proposed to her, but when she arrived in Moscow, she accepted a deputation of opposition nobles, concerned about the strengthening of the power of the Supreme Privy Council, and with the help of officers of the guards regiments, on February 28, 1730, she swore the nobility as a Russian autocrat, and also publicly refused from conditions. On March 4, she abolishes the Supreme Privy Council, and on April 28 she solemnly crowns herself and appoints her favorite E. Biron as chief chamberlain. The era of Bironovism begins.

A few words about the personality of Anna Ioannovna.

She was born on January 28, 1693, was the fourth daughter of Tsar Ivan V (brother and co-ruler of Peter I) and Tsarina Praskovya Feodorovna Saltykova, granddaughter of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. She was brought up in an extremely unfavorable environment: her father was a weak-minded person, and she did not get along with her mother from early childhood. Anna was haughty and not of a high mind. Her teachers could not even teach the girl to write correctly, but she achieved "bodily well-being." Peter I, guided by political interests, married his niece to the Duke of Courland Friedrich Wilhelm, the nephew of the Prussian king. Their marriage took place on October 31, 1710 in St. Petersburg, in the palace of Prince Menshikov, and after that the couple spent a long time in feasts in the capital of Russia. But, as soon as he left St. Petersburg for his possessions at the beginning of 1711, Friedrich-Wilhelm died on the way to Mitava - as they suspected, due to immoderate excesses. So, not having time to be a wife, Anna becomes a widow and moves to her mother in the village of Izmailovo near Moscow, and then to St. Petersburg. But in 1716, by order of Peter I, she left for permanent residence in Courland.

And now she is the All-Russian Empress. Her reign, according to the historian V. Klyuchevsky, “is one of the dark pages of our empire, and the darkest spot on it is the empress herself. Tall and obese, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more hardened during her early widowhood amid diplomatic intrigues and court adventures in Courland, she brought to Moscow an evil and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and entertainment. Her yard was full of luxury and bad taste and was filled with crowds of jesters, tricksters, buffoons, storytellers ... Lazhechnikov tells about her "amusements" in the book "Ice House". She loved horseback riding and hunting, in Peterhof in her room there were always loaded guns ready for shooting from the window at flying birds, and in the Winter Palace they specially arranged an arena for her, where they drove wild animals, which she shot.

She was completely unprepared to govern the state, besides, she did not have the slightest desire to govern it. But she surrounded herself with foreigners completely dependent on her, who, according to V. Klyuchevsky, "fell into Russia, like cheese from a holey bag, stuck around the courtyard, sat down on the throne, climbed into all profitable places in management."

Portrait of E. Biron. Unknown artist

All affairs under Anna Ioannovna were run by her favorite E. Biron. The cabinet of ministers created by Osterman was subordinate to him. The army was commanded by Munnich and Lassi, and the yard was commanded by the bribe taker and passionate gambler Count Levenvold. In April 1731, a secret investigative office (torture chamber) began to work, supporting the authorities with denunciations and torture.

Board results: the position of the nobility was significantly facilitated - they were assigned the exclusive right to own peasants; military service lasted 25 years, and by a manifesto of 1736, one of the sons, at the request of his father, was allowed to stay at home to manage the household and train him in order to be fit for civil service.

In 1731, the law on single inheritance was repealed.

In 1732, the first cadet corps was opened to educate the nobility.

The subjugation of Poland continued: the Russian army under the command of Minich took Danzig, while losing more than 8 thousand of our soldiers.

In 1736-1740. there was a war with Turkey. The reason for it was the constant raids of the Crimean Tatars. As a result of the campaigns of Lassi, who took Azov in 1739, and Minikh, who captured Perekop and Ochakov in 1736, won a victory at Stauchany in 1739, after which Moldavia accepted Russian citizenship, the Belgrade peace was concluded. As a result of all these military operations, Russia lost about 100 thousand people, but still did not have the right to keep a navy in the Black Sea, and could only use Turkish ships for trade.

To keep the royal court in luxury, it was necessary to introduce raids, extortionate expeditions. Many representatives of ancient noble families were executed or sent into exile: Dolgorukovs, Golitsyns, Yusupovs and others. Chancellor A.P. Volynsky, together with like-minded people, in 1739 drew up a “Project for the Correction of State Affairs”, which contained demands for the protection of the Russian nobility from the dominance of foreigners. According to Volynsky, the government in the Russian Empire should be monarchical with the broad participation of the nobility as the dominant class in the state. The next governmental instance after the monarch should be the senate (as it was under Peter the Great); then comes the lower government, from representatives of the lower and middle nobility. Estates: spiritual, urban and peasant - received, according to Volynsky's project, significant privileges and rights. All were required to be literate, and the clergy and nobility were required to be more educated, the hotbeds of which were to serve as academies and universities. Many reforms were also proposed to improve justice, finance, trade, etc. For this they paid with execution. Moreover, Volynsky was sentenced to a very cruel execution: to put him alive on a stake, having previously cut out his tongue; to quarter his like-minded people and then cut off their heads; confiscate the estates and exile Volynsky's two daughters and son into eternal exile. But then the sentence was reduced: three were beheaded, and the rest were exiled.

Shortly before her death, Anna Ioannovna learned that her niece Anna Leopoldovna had a son, and declared the two-month-old baby Ivan Antonovich the heir to the throne, and before he came of age, she appointed E. Biron as regent, who at the same time received “power and authority to manage all state affairs as internal, as well as foreign ones.

IvanVI Antonovich: Biron's regency - Minich's coup

Ivan VI Antonovich and Anna Leopoldovna

Biron's regency lasted about three weeks. Having received the right to regency, Biron continues to fight with Munnich, and in addition, spoils relations with Anna Leopoldovna and her husband Anton Ulrich. On the night of November 7-8, 1740, another palace coup took place, organized by Munnich. Biron was arrested and sent into exile in the province of Tobolsk, and the regency passed to Anna Leopoldovna. She recognized herself as the ruler, but did not take an actual part in public affairs. According to contemporaries, "... she was not stupid, but she was disgusted with any serious occupation." Anna Leopoldovna constantly quarreled and did not speak to her husband for weeks, who, in her opinion, “had a good heart, but no mind.” And disagreements between spouses naturally created the conditions for court intrigues in the struggle for power. Taking advantage of the carelessness of Anna Leopoldovna and the dissatisfaction of Russian society with the continued German dominance, Elizaveta Petrovna enters the game. With the help of the guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment devoted to her, she arrested Anna Leopoldovna along with her family and decided to send them abroad. But the chamber-page A. Turchaninov made an attempt to make a counter-coup in favor of Ivan VI, and then Elizaveta Petrovna changed her mind: she arrested the entire family of Anna Leopoldovna and sent him to Ranenburg (near Ryazan). In 1744, they were taken to Kholmogory, and at the direction of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, Ivan VI was isolated from his family and, 12 years later, secretly transferred to Shlisselburg, where he was kept in solitary confinement under the name of a "famous prisoner."

In 1762, Peter III secretly examined the former emperor. He disguised himself as an officer and entered the casemates where the prince was kept. He saw “a rather tolerable dwelling, and sparsely furnished with the poorest furniture. The prince's clothes were also very poor. He was completely clueless and spoke incoherently. Either he claimed that he was Emperor John, then he assured that the emperor was no more in the world, and his spirit passed into him ... ".

Under Catherine II, his guards were instructed to persuade the prince to monasticism, but in case of danger, "kill the prisoner, and not give the living into the hands of anyone." Lieutenant V. Mirovich, who learned the secret of the secret prisoner, tried to free Ivan Antonovich and proclaim him emperor. But the guards followed the instructions. The body of Ivan VI was exhibited for a week in the Shlisselburg fortress "for news and worship of the people", and then buried in Tikhvin in the Bogoroditsky Monastery.

Anna Leopoldovna died in 1747 from childbed fever, and Catherine II allowed Anton Ulrich to leave for her homeland, since he did not pose a danger to her, not being a member of the Romanov family. But he refused the offer and stayed with the children in Kholmogory. But their fate is sad: Catherine II, after strengthening the dynasty with the birth of two grandchildren, allowed the children of Anna Leopoldovna to move to her aunt, the dowager queen of Denmark and Norway. But, as N. Eidelman writes, “ironically, they lived in their homeland - in prison, and then abroad - in freedom. But they yearned for that prison in their homeland, not knowing any language other than Russian.”

Empress Elizabeth Petrovna

S. van Loo "Portrait of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna"

PeterIII Fedorovich

A.K. Pfantzelt "Portrait of Peter III"

Read about it on our website:.

EkaterinaII Alekseevna the Great

A. Antropov "Catherine II the Great"

Empress of All Russia. Before the adoption of Orthodoxy - Princess Sophia-Frederica-Augusta. She was born in Stettin, where her father, Christian-August, Duke of Anhalt-Zerbst-Bernburg, at that time served as a major general in the Prussian army. Her mother, Johanna Elisabeth, for some reason disliked the girl, so Sophia (Fike, as her family called her) lived in Hamburg with her grandmother from early childhood. She received a mediocre upbringing, tk. the family was in constant need, its teachers were random people. The girl did not stand out for any talents, except for a penchant for command and for boyish games. Fike was secretive and prudent from childhood. By a happy coincidence, during a trip to Russia in 1744, at the invitation of Elizabeth Petrovna, she became the bride of the future Russian Tsar Peter III Fedorovich.

Catherine already in 1756 was planning her future seizure of power. During a serious and prolonged illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Grand Duchess made it clear to her "English comrade" H. Williams that one should only wait for the death of the Empress. But Elizabeth Petrovna died only in 1761, and her legitimate heir, Peter III, husband of Catherine II, ascended the throne.

Teachers of the Russian language and the Law of God were assigned to the princess, she showed enviable perseverance in learning in order to prove her love for a foreign country and adapt to a new life. But the first years of her life in Russia were very difficult, besides, she experienced neglect from her husband and courtiers. But the desire to become a Russian empress outweighed the bitterness of trials. She adapted to the tastes of the Russian court, only one thing was missing - an heir. And that is exactly what was expected of her. After two unsuccessful pregnancies, she finally gave birth to a son, the future Emperor Paul I. But by order of Elizabeth Petrovna, he was immediately separated from his mother, showing for the first time only after 40 days. Elizaveta Petrovna herself raised her grandson, and Catherine took up self-education: she read a lot, and not only novels - her interests included historians and philosophers: Tacitus, Montesquieu, Voltaire, etc. Thanks to her diligence and perseverance, she was able to achieve respect for herself, with her not only well-known Russian politicians, but also foreign ambassadors began to be considered. In 1761, her husband, Peter III, ascended the throne, but he was unpopular in society, and then Catherine, with the help of the guardsmen of the Izmailovsky, Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments, overthrew her husband from the throne in 1762. She also stopped attempts to appoint her regent under her son Pavel , which N. Panin and E. Dashkova sought, and got rid of Ivan VI. Read more about the reign of Catherine II on our website:

Known as an enlightened queen, Catherine II was unable to achieve love and understanding from her own son. In 1794, despite the opposition of the courtiers, she decided to remove Paul from the throne in favor of her beloved grandson Alexander. But a sudden death in 1796 prevented her from achieving what she wanted.

Emperor of All Russia PavelI Petrovich

S. Schukin "Portrait of Emperor Paul I"

In 1725, the Russian Emperor Peter I died without leaving a legitimate heir and without transferring the throne to the chosen one. Over the next 37 years, his relatives - contenders for the Russian throne - fought for power. This period in history is called era of palace coups».

A feature of the period of "palace coups" is that the transfer of supreme power in the state was carried out not by inheriting the crown, but was carried out by guardsmen or courtiers using forceful methods.

Such confusion arose due to the absence of clearly defined rules for succession to the throne in a monarchical country, which caused a struggle between supporters of one or another applicant among themselves.

The era of palace coups 1725-1762.

After Peter the Great, the following sat on the Russian throne:

Catherine I - wife of the emperor,
Peter II - grandson of the emperor,
Anna Ioannovna - the emperor's niece,
Ioann Antonovich - great-nephew of the previous one,
Elizaveta Petrovna - daughter of Peter I,
Peter III - the nephew of the previous one,
Catherine II is the wife of the previous one.

In general, the era of upheavals lasted from 1725 to 1762.

Catherine I (1725–1727).

One part of the nobility, headed by A. Menshikov, wanted to see the second wife of the Emperor Catherine on the throne. The other part is the grandson of Emperor Peter Alekseevich. The dispute was won by those who were supported by the guard - the first. Under Catherine, A. Menshikov played an important role in the state.

In 1727, the Empress died, appointing the young Peter Alekseevich as successor on the throne.

Peter II (1727–1730).

Young Peter became emperor under the regency of the Supreme Privy Council. Gradually Menshikov lost his influence and was exiled. Soon the regency was canceled - Peter II declared himself ruler, the court returned to Moscow.

Shortly before the wedding with Catherine Dolgoruky, the emperor died of smallpox. There was no will.

Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740).

The Supreme Council invited the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to rule in Russia. The challenger agreed to conditions that limited her power. But in Moscow, Anna quickly settled in, enlisted the support of part of the nobility and violated the previously signed agreement, returning the autocracy. However, it was not she who ruled, but the favorites, the most famous of which is E. Biron.

In 1740, Anna died, having chosen the baby John Antonovich (Ivan VI) as the heir to her great-nephew under the regent Biron.

The coup was carried out by Field Marshal Munnich, the fate of the child is still unclear.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761).

Again, the guards helped the native daughter of Peter I seize power. On the night of November 25, 1741, Elizabeth Petrovna, who was also supported by commoners, was literally brought to the throne. The coup had a bright patriotic coloring. His main goal was to remove foreigners from power in the country. The policy of Elizabeth Petrovna was aimed at continuing the affairs of her father.

Peter III (1761–1762).

Peter III is the orphaned nephew of Elizabeth Petrovna, the son of Anna Petrovna and the Duke of Holstein. In 1742 he was invited to Russia and became heir to the throne.

During the life of Elizabeth, Peter married his cousin, Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbskaya, the future Catherine II.

Peter's policy after the death of his aunt was aimed at an alliance with Prussia. The behavior of the emperor and his love for the Germans alienated the Russian nobility.

It was the emperor's wife who completed the 37-year leapfrog on the Russian throne. She was again supported by the army - the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky guards regiments. Catherine was brought to the throne as once - Elizabeth.

Catherine proclaimed herself Empress in June 1762, and both the Senate and the Synod swore allegiance to her. Peter III signed the abdication.

The death of Peter the Great marked the end of one era - the period of rebirth, transformations and reforms, and the beginning of another, which went down in history under the name "era of palace coups", which is studied in the History of Russia in the 7th grade. About what happened in this period of time - 1725-1762 - we are talking today.

Factors

Before speaking briefly about the era of palace coups in Russia, it is necessary to understand what the term “palace coup” means. This stable combination is understood as a forceful change of power in the state, which is carried out through a conspiracy by a group of courtiers and relies on the help of a privileged military force - the guard. As a result, the current monarch is overthrown and a new heir from the ruling dynasty, a protege of a group of conspirators, is enthroned. With the change of the sovereign, the composition of the ruling elite also changes. During the period of coup d'état in Russia - 37 years, six sovereigns have changed on the Russian throne. The reasons for this were the following events:

After Peter I, there were no direct heirs in the male line: son Alexei Petrovich died in prison, convicted of treason, and the youngest son Peter Petrovich died at an early age;
Adopted by Peter I in 1722, the "Charter on the succession to the throne": according to this document, the decision on the heir to the throne is made by the ruling monarch himself. Thus, various groups of supporters gathered around possible contenders for the throne - noble groups that were in confrontation;
Peter the Great did not have time to make a will and indicate the name of the heir.

Thus, according to the definition of the Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, the beginning of the era of palace coups in Russia is considered to be the date of the death of Peter I - February 8 (January 28), 1725, and the end - 1762 - the year Catherine the Great came to power.

Rice. 1. Death of Peter the Great

Distinctive features

The palace coups of 1725-1762 had several common features:

Favoritism : around a possible contender for the throne, a group of persons was formed - favorites, whose goal was to be closer to power and have influence on the balance of power. In fact, the nobles close to the sovereign concentrated all power in their hands and completely controlled the sovereign (Menshikov, Biron, princes Dolgoruky);
Reliance on the Guards Regiment : guards regiments appeared under Peter I. In the Northern War, they became the main striking force of the Russian army, and then were used as the personal guard of the sovereign. In other words, their privileged position and proximity to the king played a decisive role in their "fate": their support was used as the main striking force in palace coups;
Frequent change of monarchs ;
Appeal to the legacy of Peter the Great : each new heir, claiming the throne, demonstrated the intention to strictly follow the course of Peter I in foreign and domestic policy. However, often what was promised went against the current affairs and deviations from his program were observed.

Rice. 2. Portrait of Anna Ioannovna

Chronological table

The following chronological table presents all six Russian rulers whose reign is historically associated with the era of palace coups. The first line answers the question which of the rulers opened the gap in the political life of Russia in the 18th century - Catherine I. Other monarchs follow in chronological order. In addition, it is indicated with the help of which forces and court groups, each of them came to power.

What have we learned?

According to the new decree of Peter I on changes in the order of succession to the throne, the person entitled to inherit the royal throne in Russia was indicated in the current monarch. This document did not contribute to the establishment of order and stability in the state, but on the contrary, it led to the era of palace coups, which lasted 37 years. This period includes the activities of six monarchs.

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1. General characteristics of the era of palace coups

The overstrain of the country's forces during the years of Peter the Great's reforms, the destruction of traditions, and the violent methods of reform caused an ambiguous attitude of various circles of Russian society towards the Peter's heritage and created the conditions for political instability.

From 1725, after the death of Peter I and until Catherine II came to power in 1762, six monarchs and many political forces behind them were replaced on the throne. This change did not always take place in a peaceful and legal way, which is why this period of V.O. Klyuchevsky is not entirely accurate, but figuratively and aptly called " era of palace coups".

2. Background of palace coups

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to the Peter's heritage. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and rejection of reforms. Both the so-called "new nobility", which had come to the fore in the years of Peter the Great thanks to their service zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended its narrow class interests and privileges, which created a fertile ground for internal political struggle.

Palace coups were generated by a sharp struggle of various factions for power. As a rule, it came down most often to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne.

At that time, the guards began to play an active role in the political life of the country, which Peter brought up as a privileged "support" of the autocracy, who, moreover, assumed the right to control the compliance of the personality and policy of the monarch with the legacy that her "beloved emperor" left.

The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.

To a large extent, palace coups were provoked by the unresolved problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism for the transfer of power,

3. The struggle for power after the death of Peter I

Dying, Peter did not leave an heir, having only time to write with a weakening hand: "Give everything ...". The opinion of the leaders about his successor was divided. "Chicks of Petrov's nest" (A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy , I.I. Buturlin , P.I. Yaguzhinsky etc.) advocated for his second wife Catherine, and representatives of the noble nobility (D.M. Golitsyn , V.V. Dolgoruky and others) defended the candidacy of their grandson - Peter Alekseevich. The outcome of the dispute was decided by the guards, who supported the empress.

accession Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (VTS) created under the Empress, to which the first three colleges, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, did not lead to anything. Furthermore, temporary worker decided to strengthen his position through the marriage of his daughter with the young grandson of Peter. P. Tolstoy, who opposed this plan, ended up in prison.

In May 1727, Catherine 1 died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the military-technical cooperation. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo. But, pushing away old allies and not acquiring new ones among the well-born nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 was arrested and exiled with his whole family to Berezovoe, where he soon died.

A significant role in discrediting the personality of Menshikov in the eyes of the young emperor was played by the Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the military-technical cooperation, the tutor of the tsar, nominated to this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman - A clever diplomat who, depending on the alignment of forces and the political situation, was able to change his views, allies and patrons.

The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation changed, in which aristocratic families (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn) began to predominate, and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the MTC was put an end to, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, who was surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor by the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was betrothed to Peter II, but while preparing for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question arose about the heir to the throne, because. with the death of Peter II, the male line of the Romanovs ended, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.

4. Supreme Privy Council (STC)

In the conditions of a political crisis and timelessness, the military-technical cooperation, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgoruky and Golitsyns), decided to invite the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the throne, since back in 1710 she was married off by Peter to the Duke of Courland , early widowed, lived in cramped material conditions, largely at the expense of the Russian government.

It was also extremely important that she had no supporters and no connections in Russia. As a result, this made it possible, beckoning with an invitation to the brilliant St. Petersburg throne, to impose their own conditions and get her consent to limit the power of the monarch.

D.M. Golitsyn came up with the initiative to draw up really limiting autocracy " conditions ", according to which:

1) Anna undertook to rule together with the military-technical cooperation, which actually turned into the highest governing body of the country.

2) Without the approval of the military-technical cooperation, it could not legislate, impose taxes, dispose of the treasury, declare war or make peace.

3) The empress did not have the right to grant estates and ranks above the rank of colonel, to deprive her of estates without trial.

4) The Guard was subordinate to the military-technical cooperation.

5) Anna undertook not to marry and not to appoint an heir, but in case of non-fulfillment of any of these conditions, she was deprived of the "crown of Russia".

There is no consensus among scientists in assessing the nature and significance of the "invention of the leaders." Some see in the "conditions" a desire to establish, instead of autocracy, an "oligarchic" form of government that would meet the interests of a narrow layer of noble nobility and lead Russia back to the era of "boyar self-will." Others believe that it was the first constitutional draft to limit the arbitrary rule of the despotic state created by Peter, from which all segments of the population, including the aristocracy, suffered.

Anna Ioannovna after meeting in Mitava with V.L. Dolgoruky, sent by the military-technical cooperation for negotiations, accepted these conditions without any hesitation. However, despite the desire of members of the military-technical cooperation to hide their plans, their contents became known to the guards and the general masses " nobility ".

From this environment, new projects for the political reorganization of Russia began to emerge (the most mature one belonged to the V.N. Tatishchev ), which gave the nobility the right to elect representatives of the highest authorities and expanded the composition of the military-technical cooperation. Specific requirements were also put forward aimed at facilitating the conditions of service of the nobles. D.M. Golitsyn, realizing the danger of isolating the military-technical cooperation, met these wishes and developed a new project, which suggested limiting the autocracy by a system of elected bodies. The highest of them remained the military-technical cooperation of 12 members. Previously, all issues were discussed in the Senate of 30 people, the Chamber of Nobility of 200 ordinary nobles and the Chamber of Citizens, two representatives from each city. In addition, the nobility was exempted from compulsory service.

The supporters of the inviolability of the principle of autocracy, led by A. Osterman and F. Prokopovich, who attracted the guards, managed to take advantage of the disagreements between the adherents of the constitutional restriction of the monarchy. As a result, having found support, Anna Ioannovna broke the "conditions" and restored the autocracy in full.

The reasons for the failure of the "supreme leaders" were the short-sightedness and selfishness of the majority of the MTC members, who sought to limit the monarchy not for the sake of the interests of the whole country, or even the nobility, but for the sake of preserving and expanding their own privileges. The inconsistency of actions, political inexperience and mutual suspicion of individual noble groups, who were supporters of the constitutional order, but feared by their actions to strengthen the military-technical cooperation, also contributed to the restoration of autocracy. The bulk of the nobility was not ready for radical political change.

The decisive word belonged to the Guard, which, after some hesitation, finally supported the idea of an unlimited monarchy.

Finally, the far-sightedness and unscrupulousness of Osterman and Prokopovich, the leaders of the party of supporters of the preservation of autocracy, played an important role.

5. Board of Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)

From the very beginning of her reign, Anna Ioannovna tried to erase even the memory of "conditions" from the consciousness of her subjects. She liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating instead the Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman. Since 1735, the signature of the 3rd cabinet of ministers, according to her decree, was equated with the signature of the empress. Dolgoruky, and later Golitsyn were repressed.

Gradually, Anna went to meet the most urgent requirements of the Russian nobility: their service life was limited to 25 years; that part of the Decree on Uniform Succession, which limited the right of the nobles to dispose of the estate when it was inherited, was canceled; easier to get an officer's rank. For these purposes, a cadet noble corps was created, at the end of which an officer rank was awarded; it was allowed to enlist the nobles for service from infancy, which made it possible for them, upon reaching the age of majority, to receive an officer's rank "by length of service."

An accurate description of the personality of the new empress was given by V.O. Klyuchevsky: "Tall and obese, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more hardened by early widowhood ... among court adventures in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, having already 37 years , brought to Moscow an evil and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and gross entertainment".

Amusements of Anna Ioannovna cost the treasury very dearly, and although she, unlike Peter, could not stand alcohol, the maintenance of her court cost 5-6 times more. Most of all, she loved to watch jesters, among whom were representatives of the most noble families - Prince M.A. Golitsyn, Count A.P. Apraksin, Prince N.F. Volkonsky. It is possible that in this way Anna continued to take revenge on the aristocracy for her humiliation with "conditions", especially since the military-technical cooperation at one time did not allow entry into Russia to her Courland favorite - E. Biron.

Not trusting the Russian nobility and not having the desire, and even the ability to delve into state affairs herself, Anna Ioannovna surrounded herself with people from the Baltic states. The key role at court passed into the hands of her favorite E. Biron.

Some historians call the period of Anna Ioannovna's reign "Bironism", believing that its main feature was the dominance of the Germans, who neglected the interests of the country, demonstrated contempt for everything Russian and pursued a policy of arbitrariness in relation to the Russian nobility.

However, the government's course was determined by Biron's enemy, A. Osterman, and arbitrariness was rather repaired by representatives of the domestic nobility, headed by the head of the Secret Chancellery, A.I. Ushakov. Yes, and the damage to the treasury of the Russian nobles inflicted no less than foreigners.

Favorite, hoping to weaken the vice-chancellor's influence A. Osterman , managed to introduce his protege into the Cabinet of Ministers - A. Volynsky . But the new minister began to pursue an independent political course, developed the "Project for the Correction of Internal State Affairs", in which he advocated the further expansion of the privileges of the nobility and raised the issue of the dominance of foreigners. By this he aroused the discontent of Biron, who, having teamed up with Osterman, managed to get Volynsky accused of "insulting her imperial majesty" and lead him to the chopping block in 1740.

Soon Anna Ioannovna died, appointing her niece's son as his successor. Anna Leopoldovna , Duchess of Brunswick, baby Ivan Antonovich under Biron's regency.

In the context of general dissatisfaction of the nobility and especially the guard, which the regent tried to disband, the head of the military collegium, field marshal Minich staged another coup d'état. But Minich himself, famous for the words: "The Russian state has the advantage over others that it is controlled by God himself, otherwise it is impossible to explain how it exists", soon did not calculate his own strength and was retired, missing Osterman in first place.

6. The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761)

On November 25, 1741, the "daughter" of Peter the Great, relying on the support of the guards, carried out another coup d'état and seized power. The peculiarities of this coup were that Elizaveta Petrovna had broad support from ordinary people of the city and the lower guards (only 17.5% of the 308 guards participants were nobles), who saw in her the daughter of Peter, all the hardships of whose reign had already been forgotten, and whose personality and actions began to be idealized. The coup of 1741, unlike the others, had a patriotic overtone, because. was directed against the dominance of foreigners.

Foreign diplomacy tried to take part in the preparation of the coup, seeking political and even territorial dividends through its assistance to Elizabeth. But all the hopes of the French ambassador Chétardie and the Swedish ambassador Nolken, in the end, were in vain. The implementation of the coup was accelerated by the fact that the ruler Anna Leopoldovna became aware of Elizabeth's meetings with foreign ambassadors, and the threat of forcible tonsure as a nun loomed over the lover of balls and entertainment.

Having seized power, Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed a return to her father's politics, but it was hardly possible for her to rise to such a level. She managed to repeat the era of the reign of the great emperor rather in form than in spirit. Elizabeth began with the restoration of the institutions created by Peter 1 and their status. Having abolished the Cabinet of Ministers, she returned the Senate to the importance of the highest state body, restored Berg - and the Manufactory Collegium.

Under Elizabeth, the German favorites were replaced by Russian and Ukrainian nobles, who were more interested in the affairs of the country. So, with the active assistance of her young favorite I.I. Shuvalova was opened in 1755 Moscow University. At the initiative of his cousin, from the late 1740s. de facto head of government P.I. Shuvalova , in 1753 a decree was issued "on the abolition of internal customs and petty fees", which gave impetus to the development of trade and the formation of an internal all-Russian market. By decree of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1744, the death penalty was actually abolished in Russia.

At the same time, its social policy was aimed at the transformation of the nobility from the service to the privileged class and fortification. She instilled luxury in every possible way, which led to a sharp increase in the expenses of the nobles for themselves and the maintenance of their court.

These expenses fell on the shoulders of the peasants, who in the era of Elizabeth finally turned into "baptized property", which, without the slightest remorse, could be sold, exchanged for a thoroughbred dog, etc. The attitude of the nobles towards the peasants as "talking cattle" was caused and ended by that time a cultural split in Russian society, as a result of which the Russian nobles, who spoke French, no longer understood their peasants. The strengthening of serfdom was expressed in the landlords obtaining the right to sell their peasants as recruits (1747), and also to exile them without trial to Siberia (1760).

In her domestic and foreign policy, Elizaveta Petrovna took into account national interests to a greater extent. In 1756, Russia, on the side of a coalition of Austria, France, Sweden and Saxony, entered the war with Prussia, supported by England. Russia's participation in " Seven Years' War "1756-1763 put the army of Frederick II on the brink of disaster.

In August 1757, in the battle of Gross-Egersdorf, the Russian army of S.F. Apraksin as a result of the successful actions of the detachment of General P.A. Rumyantseva achieved the first victory. In August 1758, General Fermor at Zorndorf, having suffered significant losses, managed to achieve a "draw" with the army of Friedrich, and in August 1759, at Kunersdorf, the troops of P.S. Saltykov defeated her.

In the autumn of 1760, Russian-Austrian troops captured Berlin, and only the death of Elizaveta Petrovna on December 25, 1761 saved Prussia from complete catastrophe. Her heir, Peter III, who idolized Frederick II, left the coalition and concluded a peace treaty with him, returning to Prussia everything lost in the war.

Despite the fact that Elizaveta Petrovna, unlike her father, used her unlimited power not so much in the interests of the state, but to satisfy her own needs and whims (after her death, 15 thousand dresses remained), she voluntarily or unwittingly prepared the country and society for next era of change. During the 20 years of her reign, the country managed to "rest" and accumulate strength for a new breakthrough, which came in the era of Catherine II.

7. The reign of Peter III

Elizabeth Petrovna's nephew, Peter III (the son of Anna's elder sister and the Duke of Holstein) was born in Holstein and from childhood was brought up in hostility to everything Russian and reverence for German. By 1742 he was an orphan. The childless Elizabeth invited him to Russia and soon appointed him her heir. In 1745 he was married to an unfamiliar and unloved Anhalt-Zerbst Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta (in Orthodoxy named Ekaterina Alekseevna).

The heir had not outlived his childhood, continuing to play tin soldiers, while Catherine was actively engaged in self-education and longed for love and power.

After the death of Elizabeth, Peter turned against himself the nobility and the guards with his pro-German sympathies, unbalanced behavior, the signing of peace with Frederick II, the introduction of Prussian uniforms, and his plans to send the guards to fight for the interests of the Prussian king in Denmark. These measures showed that he did not know, and most importantly, did not want to know the country he headed.

At the same time, on February 18, 1762, he signed a manifesto "On the granting of liberty and freedom to all Russian nobility", freeing the nobles from compulsory service, abolishing corporal punishment for them and turning them into a truly privileged class. Then the terrifying Secret Investigative Office was abolished. He stopped the persecution of schismatics and decided to secularize church and monastic land ownership, prepared a decree on the equalization of all religions. All these measures met the objective needs of Russia's development and reflected the interests of the nobility. But his personal behavior, indifference and even dislike for Russia, mistakes in foreign policy and an insulting attitude towards his wife, who managed to gain respect from the nobility and guards, created the prerequisites for his overthrow. Preparing the coup, Catherine was guided not only by political pride, a thirst for power and the instinct of self-preservation, but also by the desire to serve her new homeland.

8. The results of the era of palace coups

Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, and even more so the social system of society and boiled down to the struggle for power of various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish interests. At the same time, the specific policy of each of the six monarchs had its own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth created the conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy that would occur under Catherine II.

*Ruler*	*Board dates*	*Participants of the coup*	*coup prop*	*Main events*
Catherine I (wife of the late Peter the Great)		The Supreme Privy Council, in which A.D. Menshikov	Guards regiments	Bypassing the main contenders: the grandson of Peter I - Peter Alekseevich and the princesses Anna and Elizabeth.
Peter II (grandson of Peter I from the eldest son Alexei Petrovich)		Supreme Privy Council, Princes Dolgoruky and Andrey Osterman	Guards regiments	Catherine I She named the name of Peter II as a successor with the condition of his further marriage to Menshikov's daughter. But Menshikov was deprived of all privileges and exiled to Berezov.
Anna Ioannovna (daughter of Peter I's older brother Ivan)		Andrei Osterman, Biron and close associates of the German nobles	Guards regiments	Bypassing the main contenders - the daughters of Peter the Great - Anna and Elizabeth.
John Antonovich under the regency of Biron (son of Anna Leopoldovna - great-niece of Peter I)		The Duke of Courland Biron, who was arrested a few weeks later. Anna Leopoldovna and her husband Anton Ulrich of Brunswick became regent under the young emperor)	German nobility	Bypassing Princess Elizabeth
Elizaveta Petrovna (daughter of Peter I)		Doctor of Princess Lestok	Preobrazhensky Guards	As a result of the coup, Anna Leopoldovna and her husband were arrested and imprisoned in a monastery.
Peter III (grandson of Peter I, son of Anna Petrovna and Karl Friedrich of Holstein)				Became sovereign after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna according to her will
Catherine II (wife of Peter III)		Guards brothers Orlov, P.N. Panin, Princess E. Dashkova, Kirill Razumovsky	Guards regiments: Semenovsky, Preobrazhensky and Horse Guards	As a result of the coup, Pyotr Fedorovich signed his abdication, was arrested and soon died of violent death.