3. Didactic concepts (I. A. Comenius, J. F. Herbart, J. Dewey, P. P. Galperin, Shota Amonashvili).

The concept of didactics, the main didactic categories:

Didactics (didaktos - teaching, didasko - study (from Greek)) - a part of pedagogy that studies the problems of learning and education (learning theory).

For the first time the word didactics was introduced by the German teacher Wolfgang Rathke. Ya. A. Komensky interpreted didactics as the universal art of teaching everyone everything. At the beginning of the 19th century, the German educator Herbart introduced the theory of educational teaching into didactics.

Didactics - the science of training and education, their goals and content, methods, means and results achieved.

1) teaching - the ordered activity of the teacher in the transfer of ZUNs, their awareness and practical application;

2) doctrine - the process during which new forms of behavior and activity arise on the basis of ZUNs, exercises and social experience;

3) education - a systematic, purposeful, specially organized process of interaction between teachers and students, aimed at the transfer of knowledge and skills and the development of creative abilities;

4) education - the result of training, the system of the volume of ZUNs received in the learning process;

5) knowledge - understanding, preserving in memory and the ability to reproduce the basic facts of science and the theoretical generalizations that follow from them;

6) skills - mastering the ways of applying knowledge in practice, which manifests itself in activities;

7) skill - automatic ability to accurately and quickly perform actions based on existing knowledge (as a result of repeated performance of a certain action);

8) subject – area of ​​scientific knowledge;

9) educational material - the content of the educational subject, which is determined by GOST;

10) The purpose of training - what is the goal of learning and what are its efforts aimed at;

12) teaching method - a way to achieve the goal;

13) means of education - subject support of the educational process (voice of the teacher, classroom equipment, TCO);

14) learning outcomes - what comes to learning, the specific implementation of the intended goals.

Subject, tasks and contradictions of didactics:

Didactics covers the entire system of education in all subjects.

Didactics is:

General - the concept of teaching, learning; factors influencing the learning process; conditions in which training is carried out and results

Private - a method of teaching subjects, a subject that has its own specifics of teaching

The main tasks of didactics:

1) development of problems - what to teach, how to teach, whom to teach;

2) to study the patterns of educational and cognitive activity of students and ways to activate it in the learning process;

3) organization of cognitive activity to master scientific knowledge and skills;

4) to develop cognitive mental processes and creative abilities in students;

5) develop more advanced organization of the learning process, introduce new learning technologies in learning;

Didactics performs the following functions:

1) training - the transfer of the ZUN system at each age stage of personality development;

2) developing - the formation and development of the mental qualities of the individual, their change;

3) educational - the connection between knowledge and attitudes to the outside world, to oneself and other people.

The driving forces of learning are contradictions - opposing opinions clashing in conflict :

a) contradictions between the interest of students and the subject;

b) the contradiction between teaching and learning;

c) the contradiction between the level of previous knowledge and new knowledge;

contradictions between the required and achieved level of students' attitudes towards learning, i.e. motive for learning and practically learned knowledge.

Didactic concepts (J. A. Komensky, I. F. Herbart, J. Dewey, P. P. Galperin, Shota Amonashvili):

In didactics, there are 3 main concepts of learning :

a) traditional - the main role in it is played by teaching and the activities of the teacher (J. A. Komensky, Herbart, Disterverg and I. G. Pestolotsi);

b) pragmatic - the main role is given to the teachings and activities of students (D. Dewey, L. Tolstoy, V. Lai);

c) modern - the main role of the interaction of teaching and learning, the activities of the teacher and students (Zankov, Davydov, Elkonin, Ilyin).

Ya. A. Comenius .

The concept of didactics first appeared in his work The Great Didactics. He said that children in school should be treated equally by all: noble and plebeian, rich and poor. He introduced the principle of visibility, which he called the "golden rule of didactics." A great merit is the introduction of the class-lesson system of school education. The concept of “lesson” and “change” appeared, divided the year into quarters and singled out vacations. The class consists of a permanent group of children. The "Great Didactics" singled out 4 six-year stages of development, which include years of training and education of a young person:

Maternal school (from birth to 6 years);

Mother tongue school (from 6 to 12 years old);

School of Latin Language (from 12 to 18 years old);

Academy and travel (from 18 to 24 years old).

Training programs have been developed for all these levels. Ya. A. Comenius paid more attention to 3 features of a person: mind (connection with thinking), hand (connection with activity), language (connection with speech). Thanks to these features, a person is capable of self-development.

Sh. Amonashvili. "Technology of humane pedagogy".

Amonashvili's pedagogy is humane pedagogy. It focuses on the personality of the child and absolutely denies authoritative pedagogy, i.e. command and command. The main directions of humane pedagogy:

Amonashvili developed:

The laws of the teacher: to love and understand the child, take care of him;

Principles: respect the personality of the child, patience in the process of becoming a child and the humanization of the environment in which the child finds himself;

Commandments: to believe in the infinity of the child, in the connection of pedagogical abilities and in the power of a humane approach to the child;

Personal qualities: kindness, sincerity and devotion.

This technology of teaching children of 6 years of age, it contributes to the activity of the student, the inclusion of the child in the educational process and suggests the use of creative tasks.

One of the methods of teaching children in the classroom is the correction of typical mistakes that teach children to constantly think logically, independently analyze information, listen, perceive and check it.

Herbart I.F.

German philosopher and teacher, representative of authoritarian pedagogy. The purpose of his upbringing is the formation of a moral personality and a morally strong character.

The main features of the Herbart training system:

The main task of the school is the intellectual development of schoolchildren, and education is the business of the family;

To maintain order and discipline in the classroom, it is proposed to use prohibitions, restrictions and corporal punishment;

Education cannot be separated from learning, and the will and character develop simultaneously with the mind;

He introduces the concept of educational training (a close combination of training with discipline).

Herbart's main contribution to didactics is the allocation of 4 levels of learning: clarity, associations, system, method. Students in the classroom should strictly and carefully listen to the teacher and memorize ready-made knowledge. The teacher is given an active role, and the students are passive, there were no concessions. In the middle of the 19th century, Herbart's theory fell into decay and did not gain popularity.

P. Ya. Galperin (modern concept).

He studied the possibilities of mastering new meaningful concepts by students. His methodology was called "Theory of the gradual formation of mental actions." The theory is based on an algorithm - a strict sequence of actions leading to a given result. This training is widely used in elementary school and has the following stages:

1) preliminary acquaintance with the action, the condition for its implementation (oriented stage);

2) the formation of the action as externally verbal (pronunciation);

3) formation of actions in inner speech (consciousness);

4) the transition of external actions into internal ones (internalization) and the action becomes an act of thinking.

The assimilation of information should occur in the process of purposeful learning. In the beginning, learning theory favored the inductive method (learning from the particular to the general), and then the deductive method (from the general to the particular). The inductive method relies on the child's personal experience.

John Dewey.

The didactics of the American philosopher, psychologist and educator D. Dewey was developed with the aim of opposing the authoritarian pedagogy of the herbartis, which came into conflict with the progressive development of society and the school. In 1895, Dewey became convinced that education, built taking into account the interests of schoolchildren and related to their vital needs, gives much better results than “verbal” (verbal, book) education based on memorizing knowledge. Dewey's main contribution to learning theory is his concept of the "complete act of thinking". According to the philosophical and psychological views of the author, a person begins to think when he encounters difficulties, the overcoming of which is of great importance for him. The limitation of Dewey's didactics is that students do not participate in the process of consolidating knowledge, developing certain skills. Dewey's "progressive" didactics tried to solve precisely those issues where Herbart's "traditional" didactics proved powerless. As a result, "polar", opposite solutions to the same problems were well developed, which gave excellent results at certain moments of training. But extremes cannot be true, which was soon revealed when analyzing the achievements of both systems, which equally did not meet the requirements of a fast-moving life. The research that followed was aimed at preserving the best of the ancient, traditional and progressive systems, to find a new solution to topical issues. Didactics engaged in these searches was called new. The place of "book study" was taken by the principle of active learning, the key element of which is the student's own cognitive activity. The place of an active teacher was taken by an assistant teacher, who does not impose on students either the content or methods of work, but only helps to overcome difficulties.

It is customary to call traditional methods inherited by modern pedagogy from the researchers who stood at the origins of pedagogical science, and which are still used today. These methods include observation, study of experience, primary sources, analysis of school documentation, study of student creativity, conversations. Observation is the most accessible and common method for studying pedagogical policy. Its essence lies in the deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of psychological and pedagogical phenomena. Its main requirements are: the definition of tasks, the selection of the object of study, the development of an observation scheme; mandatory recording of results; processing of received data. (A distinction is made between direct observation, direct observation, and self-observation.) For example, a researcher is present at the lesson and notices that when the teacher presents the material in an interesting way, the children sit quietly and listen attentively. Further, he sees that some students behave actively, strive to answer the teacher's questions, raise questions themselves, while others are passive, inattentive, find it difficult to answer the teacher's questions. Observation of these phenomena allows the researcher to conclude that the attention of students largely depends on the content of uranium, that active listeners have higher knowledge. Thus, observation creates the ground for certain theoretical judgments and conclusions, which are subjected to deeper study and verification using other methods. Emphasizing the admissibility and dissemination of the observation method, it is necessary to take into account its shortcomings. Observation does not reveal the inner aspects of pedagogical phenomena. When using this method, it is impossible to ensure complete objectivity of information. Conversations, interviews. Conversation is a method of direct communication, which makes it possible to obtain from the interlocutor information that interests the teacher, with the help of preparatory questions. Conversation provides an opportunity to penetrate into the inner world of the interlocutor. identify the causes of certain actions, obtain information about the moral, ideological, political and other takeoffs of the subjects. But conversations are a very complex method that requires special spiritual sensitivity from the teacher, knowledge of psychology, and the ability to listen. Therefore, it is used more often as an additional method. A kind of conversation, its new modification is interviewing, transferred to pedagogy from sociology. It is rarely used and does not find wide support among researchers. Questions and answers are prepared in advance and the latter are not always truthful. The results of the interviews are usually supplemented with data obtained using other methods. 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN OF JUNIOR SCHOOL AGE

The boundaries of primary school age, coinciding with the period of study in primary school, are currently being established from 6-7 to 9-10 years. During this period, the further physical and psychophysiological development of the child takes place, providing the possibility of systematic education at school. The beginning of schooling leads to a radical change in the social situation of the child's development. He becomes a “public” subject and now has socially significant duties, the fulfillment of which receives public assessment. During primary school age, a new type of relationship with the surrounding people begins to take shape. The unconditional authority of an adult is gradually lost, and by the end of primary school age, peers begin to acquire more and more importance for the child, the role of the children's community increases. Educational activity becomes leading in primary school age. It determines the most important changes taking place in the development of the psyche of children at this age stage. Within the framework of educational activity, psychological neoplasms are formed that characterize the most significant achievements in the development of younger students and are the foundation that ensures development at the next age stage. Gradually, the motivation for learning activities, so strong in the first grade, begins to decline. This is due to a drop in interest in learning and the fact that the child already has a won social position, he has nothing to achieve. In order to prevent this from happening, learning activities need to be given a new personally significant motivation. The leading role of educational activity in the process of child development does not exclude the fact that the younger student is actively involved in other types of activities, in the course of which his new achievements are improved and consolidated. According to L.S. Vygotsky, with the beginning of schooling, thinking moves to the center of the child's conscious activity. The development of verbal-logical, reasoning thinking, which occurs in the course of the assimilation of scientific knowledge, restructures all other cognitive processes: "memory at this age becomes thinking, and perception becomes thinking." According to O.Yu. Ermolaev, during the primary school age, significant changes occur in the development of attention, there is an intensive development of all its properties: the volume of attention increases especially sharply (by 2.1 times), its stability increases, switching and distribution skills develop. By the age of 9-10, children become able to retain attention for a sufficiently long time and carry out an arbitrarily set program of actions. At primary school age, memory, like all other mental processes, undergoes significant changes. Their essence is that the child's memory gradually acquires the features of arbitrariness, becoming consciously regulated and mediated. The younger school age is sensitive for the formation of higher forms of voluntary memorization, therefore, purposeful developmental work on mastering mnemonic activity is the most effective during this period. V.D. Shadrikov and L.V. Cheremoshkin identified 13 mnemonic techniques, or ways of organizing memorized material: grouping, highlighting strong points, drawing up a plan, classification, structuring, schematization, establishing analogies, mnemonic techniques, recoding, completing the construction of memorized material, serial organization of association, repetition. The difficulty of identifying the main, essential is clearly manifested in one of the main types of educational activity of the student - in the retelling of the text. Psychologist A.I. Lipkina, who studied the characteristics of oral retelling among younger schoolchildren, noticed that a short retelling is much more difficult for children than a detailed one. Telling briefly means highlighting the main thing, separating it from the details, and this is precisely what children do not know how to do. The noted features of the mental activity of children are the reasons for the failure of a certain part of the students. The inability to overcome the difficulties in learning that arises in this case sometimes leads to the rejection of active mental work. Students begin to use various inadequate techniques and ways of performing educational tasks, which psychologists call "workarounds", including rote memorization of material without understanding it. Children reproduce the text almost by heart, verbatim, but at the same time they cannot answer questions on the text. Another workaround is to run the new job in the same way that some job was run before. In addition, students with deficiencies in the thought process use a hint when answering verbally, try to copy from their comrades, etc. At this age, another important neoplasm appears - voluntary behavior. The child becomes independent, he chooses how to act in certain situations. At the heart of this type of behavior are moral motives that are formed at this age. The child absorbs moral values, tries to follow certain rules and laws. Often this is due to selfish motives, and desires to be approved by an adult or to strengthen their personal position in a peer group. That is, their behavior in one way or another is connected with the main motive that dominates at this age - the motive for achieving success. Such new formations as planning the results of action and reflection are closely connected with the formation of voluntary behavior in younger schoolchildren. The child is able to evaluate his act in terms of its results and thereby change his behavior, plan it accordingly. A semantic and orienting basis appears in actions, this is closely connected with the differentiation of inner and outer life. The child is able to overcome his desires in himself if the result of their implementation does not meet certain standards or does not lead to the goal. An important aspect of the child's inner life becomes his semantic orientation in his actions. This is due to the child's feelings about the fear of changing relationships with others. He is afraid of losing his significance in their eyes. The child begins to actively think about his actions, to hide his experiences. Externally, the child is not the same as internally. It is these changes in the child's personality that often lead to outbursts of emotions on adults, desires to do what one wants, to whims. "The negative content of this age is manifested primarily in the violation of mental balance, in the instability of the will, mood, etc." The development of the personality of a younger student depends on school performance, the assessment of the child by adults. As I said, a child at this age is very susceptible to external influences. It is thanks to this that he absorbs knowledge, both intellectual and moral. "The teacher plays a significant role in establishing moral standards and developing children's interests, although the degree of their success in this will depend on the type of his relationship with students." Other adults also play an important role in a child's life. At primary school age, there is an increase in the desire of children to achieve. Therefore, the main motive for the activity of a child at this age is the motive for achieving success. Sometimes there is another kind of this motive - the motive of avoiding failure. Certain moral ideals, patterns of behavior are laid in the mind of the child. The child begins to understand their value and necessity. But in order for the formation of the child's personality to be most productive, the attention and assessment of an adult is important. "The emotional and evaluative attitude of an adult to the actions of a child determines the development of his moral feelings, an individual responsible attitude to the rules that he gets acquainted with in life." "The social space of the child has expanded - the child constantly communicates with the teacher and classmates according to the laws of clearly formulated rules." It is at this age that the child experiences his uniqueness, he realizes himself as a person, strives for perfection. This is reflected in all spheres of a child's life, including relationships with peers. Children find new group forms of activity, classes. At first, they try to behave as is customary in this group, obeying the laws and rules. Then the desire for leadership begins, for excellence among peers. At this age, friendships are more intense, but less durable. Children learn the ability to make friends and find a common language with different children. "Although it is assumed that the ability to form close friendships is to some extent determined by the emotional bonds established in the child during the first five years of his life." Children strive to improve the skills of those activities that are accepted and valued in an attractive company, in order to stand out in its environment, to succeed. At primary school age, the child develops a focus on other people, which is expressed in prosocial behavior taking into account their interests. Prosocial behavior is very important for a developed personality. The ability to empathize develops in the conditions of schooling because the child is involved in new business relationships, involuntarily he is forced to compare himself with other children - with their successes, achievements, behavior, and the child is simply forced to learn to develop his abilities and qualities. Thus, primary school age is the most important stage of school children.

7.Contradictions of adolescence.

Adolescents ... How many worries mothers and teachers experience when pronouncing this word! How many books have been written about the mysterious soul of a teenager.

In adolescence, such profound changes are made in the spiritual life of a person that many of the facts of his knowledge, mental work, behavior, relationships with comrades, emotional, aesthetic and moral development seem incomprehensible and mysterious to the educator. Experienced teachers often complain that it is difficult to work with teenagers - something mysterious, incomprehensible happens to them. Feelings that excite the soul in childhood seem to be unable to master it at all over time. If before, it happened, the grief of a loved one or a stranger caused deep feelings in the child's heart, then a teenager can sometimes remain deaf to human misfortune.

A teenager, unlike a child, begins to generalize both good and evil. Yes, the years of adolescence differ from childhood in that a person at this age sees, feels, experiences differently than he saw, felt and experienced in childhood. A teenager sees something that a child does not yet see. He sees what often no longer sees, or rather, does not notice an adult. A teenager's vision of the world is the only one of its kind, a unique, inimitable state of a person, which we, adults, often do not understand at all. The difficulty of upbringing in adolescence lies in the fact that the child is little taught to see, understand, feel himself. Why is it so often heard that a schoolboy was good in his childhood, but in his adolescence he fell under the influence and became a bad person? What is a bad influence? Where does it come from? The basis, the main thing in educational work is not to protect teenagers from bad influence, but to make them immune to anything bad, immoral. How to do it? This is the skill and art of education.

“The more I analyzed the difficulties of upbringing during adolescence, the more I became convinced of the truth of a simple but important pattern: it is very difficult to educate teenagers where upbringing in childhood was too easy.” one

We are anxiously convinced that for many - even the best - teachers, a person (pupil) in childhood manifests himself one-sidedly. About whether a good or bad pupil is concluded only on the basis of how he fulfills the norms of behavior and the requirements of order. In adolescence, such a very poor identification of a person is not enough. Often the moral face of a teenager depends on how a person was brought up during childhood. By its nature, childhood cannot present the difficulties that adolescence presents.

“A teenager is a flower whose beauty depends on the care of the plant. You need to take care of the beauty of a flower long before it begins to bloom. Confusion, surprise at the “fatal”, “inevitable” phenomena are similar to the confusion and surprise of a gardener who threw a seed into the ground, not knowing for sure what kind of seed it is - a rose or a thistle, and then a few years later came to admire the flower. 2

Adolescence or it is also called adolescence is a stage in individual development, located between childhood and early adolescence. It covers the period from 10-11 to 13-14 years.

The main feature of the teenage period is sharp, qualitative changes affecting all aspects of development.

These changes occur at different times for different adolescents: some adolescents develop faster, some lag behind others in some ways, and ahead of others in some ways, etc. For example, girls develop faster than boys in many respects. In addition, the mental development of each is uneven: some aspects of the psyche develop faster, others more slowly.

The beginning of adolescence is characterized by the appearance of a number of specific features, the most important of which are desire to communicate with peers and the appearance in the behavior of signs that testify to the desire to assert their independence, independence, personal autonomy. All these traits appear in the preadolescent period of development (approximately 10-11 years), but develop most intensively during adolescence (approximately 11-14 years).

Adolescence is a time of rapid and fruitful development cognitive processes. The period from 11 to 15 years is characterized by the formation of selectivity, purposefulness of perception, the formation of stable, voluntary attention and logical memory. The most important in this regard is the period of 11-12 years - the time of transition from thinking based on operating with specific ideas to theoretical thinking, from direct memory to logical.

In the intellectual activity of schoolchildren during adolescence, individual differences increase, associated with the development of independent thinking, intellectual activity, and a creative approach to solving problems, which makes it possible to consider the age of 11-14 years as a sensitive period for the development of creative thinking.

The central and specific new formation in the personality of a teenager is the idea that he has of himself as no longer a child - "sense of maturity". A teenager rejects his belonging to children, but he still does not have in his feelings, a full-fledged true adulthood, although there is a need for the recognition of his adulthood by others. There is a formation of a new level of self-consciousness, I-concept , expressed in the desire to understand oneself, one's capabilities and characteristics, one's similarity with other people and one's difference - uniqueness and originality. Adolescence is characterized, first of all, by an increase in the importance of the self-concept, a system of ideas about oneself, the formation of a complex system of self-assessments based on the first attempts at self-analysis, comparing oneself with others. There is a transition from an orientation towards the assessment of others to an orientation towards self-esteem, an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bI-ideal is formed. It is from adolescence that the comparison of real and ideal ideas about oneself becomes the true basis of the student's self-concept.

One of the problems of adolescence is an unfavorable self-concept (weak self-confidence, fear of rejection, low self-esteem), having arisen, leads to behavioral disorders in the future. Indicate the following effects of an unfavorable self-concept.

1. Decreased self-esteem and often as a result - social degradation, aggressiveness and crime.

2. Stimulation of conformist reactions in difficult situations. Such young people are easily influenced by the group and drawn into criminal activities.

3. Profound change in perception. Thus, young people with negative self-esteem find it difficult to realize that they are doing good deeds, because they consider themselves incapable of doing them.

As they grow older, a more realistic assessment of their own personality appears and independence from the opinions of parents and teachers increases.

A new level of self-awareness, formed under the influence of the leading needs of the age - in self-affirmation and communication with peers, simultaneously determines them and influences their development.

To create the material used: Literature on the psychology of adolescence.

8. Education is an integral part of a holistic pedagogical process aimed at the formation of a harmoniously developed personality of the child. It is known that a child is born completely helpless, having the only ability - to learn everything over time. In the theory and practice of physical education, a significant difference

mania is given to learning movements. A child is not born with a ready set of movements. He masters them in the course of life. All voluntary movements arise in him as a result of learning. Movement training has its own specifics. It is expressed:

in the development in the child of a system of conditioned reflex connections aimed at mastering movements;

in the transfer of the universal (universal) and national motor experience accumulated by previous generations;

in the two-sidedness of the learning process.

The teacher plays an important role in this process. On the one hand, he uses a variety of teaching methods and techniques, searches for their optimization, on the other hand, each child individually masters the knowledge presented by the teacher. He develops skills and abilities, ways of conscious motor activity. Education has an impact on the development of cognitive abilities, volitional qualities, emotionality of the child, that is, on his inner world - feelings, thoughts, moral qualities. Motor actions performed by a child are beneficial for health and general physical development. Movement training contributes to the harmonious development of the personality, the improvement of both physical and mental, intellectual, spiritual and moral qualities. The content of the training is a variety of physical exercises, outdoor and sports games, selected in accordance with the age characteristics of the child. Learning to move, the child, taking into account age characteristics, acquires the knowledge necessary for his conscious motor activity; methods of activity and experience of its implementation; creative experience. The ability to think independently* contributes to the realization of the potential natural abilities of the child. Long-term studies of teachers (L.M. Korovina, E.Ya. Stepanenkova and others) showed the success of the development of creative activity in teaching a child physical exercises and outdoor games. Education is educative. The teacher educates the child's interest, love for physical culture. He is interested in the child with his personal passion for motor activity, personal example of performing movements, activity, and creativity. An important role in the pedagogical process is played by the adults' understanding of the child's psychophysiological characteristics. Based on his capabilities, the teacher sets new motor tasks for him, gradually increases the requirements for mastering motor skills, and controls the development of psychophysical qualities. Education requires significant physical and mental efforts from the child: concentration of attention, concreteness of representation, activity of thought. It develops different types of memory: emotional memory, if the child is interested in learning; figurative - when perceiving a visual pattern of the movements of the educator and performing exercises; verbal-logical - when comprehending the task and memorizing the sequence of all elements of the exercise, content and actions in an outdoor game; motor-motor - in connection with the practical implementation of exercises; arbitrary - without which it is impossible to consciously independently perform exercises. Teaching movements contributes to the formation of correct posture, as well as the child's awareness of himself as a person; develops in him the need to improve his own nature, creates the prerequisites for the realization of his individuality. Carrying out a variety of movements, the child gets the opportunity for self-improvement. It awakens the desire for movements that bring the child pleasure, pleasure, an unlimited possibility of their repetition and the implementation of various forms of activity. Psychologists say that it is at preschool age that aspirations can be born as self-valuable manifestations of activity. We have already said that learning to move contributes to the development of the child's personality. It develops his abilities, introduces him to the national culture, encourages self-improvement. The development of a child is largely determined by how he has mastered the traditional movements inherent in his people. So, we repeat once again that in the process of learning to move, a child develops physical and mental abilities, spiritual and moral qualities of a person, aesthetic feelings; bodily reflection, awareness, purposefulness and organization of motor actions, initiative and the desire for creativity are brought up; memory, imagination, fantasy develop; By cultivating the culture of the body in the child, the teacher simultaneously improves his spiritual culture.

9. New training system - class-lesson - developed in the 17th century. Czech scientist Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670). He also substantiated the principles of educational work, systematized many of the knowledge about education known in his time, developed them in accordance with the requirements of the time, and even significantly outstripped the time. Thus, he created a new independent science - pedagogy.

The fundamental novelty of the Comenius system was the division of students into groups of the same age, as well as the division of the educational process into time periods - lessons, in which students studied a strictly defined content of the subject. The main, universal method of teaching Comenius approved visual, and the principles of teaching - natural conformity, consciousness, systematicity and strength.

Education Comenius understood as consisting of teaching the sciences, moral and religious education. In teaching, he attached great importance to awakening students' interest in knowledge, for which he used the dramatization method in the classroom. For such classes, he wrote the book "School-Play" (1656), in which he included 8 plays specially composed by him. Playing them, the children received the necessary knowledge. Previously, this knowledge had simply to be memorized. Of particular importance were (and are now) the principles of teaching developed by Comenius - visibility, consciousness, systematicity, strength, etc. This, in fact, is a learning technology: a guide for teachers on how to teach children so that they learn everything they need. He considered visibility in learning to be the most important condition for effective learning and created the first illustrated textbook for children, The World of Sensual Things in Pictures. In it, each concept under consideration was illustrated by a drawing - an unprecedented phenomenon for that time.

10. The didactic and methodological requirements include: 1) a clear definition of the educational objectives of each specific lesson and its place in the overall system of lessons; 2) determining the optimal content of the lesson in accordance with the requirements of the curriculum, the objectives of the lesson and taking into account the preparation of students; 3) the choice of rational methods, techniques and means of stimulation and control, their optimal interaction at each stage of the lesson; 4) the choice of methods that provide cognitive activity; 5) a combination of various forms of collective work in the classroom with the independent activity of students. (As a variant of actions, this means, for example, compiling a basic outline, graphically depicting complex concepts on the board. When presenting material, influence vision and hearing in a balanced way, provide for commenting on “difficult” concepts).

Educational requirements for the lesson: 1) a clear statement of the educational tasks of the lesson, which ensure the formation of a scientific picture of the world, diligence, environmental culture, etc.; 2) the formation and development of students' cognitive interests, skills and abilities of independent possession of knowledge, creative initiative and activity; 3) observance by the teacher of pedagogical tact. Organizational requirements for the lesson: 1) the presence of a well-thought-out lesson plan based on thematic planning; 2) a clear organization of the lesson at all stages of its implementation; 3) preparation and rational use of various teaching aids, including TSS. The fulfillment of these requirements is a necessary condition for the effectiveness of the lesson. Thus, the lesson, as a didactic system, is characterized by integrity and consistency, i.e. the interconnection of goals, content, forms of organizing the interaction of students with each other and with the teacher, means, teaching methods and the result obtained in the lesson should be clearly traced.

Methodology for planning and conducting a combined lesson.

Individual, frontal forms of learning in the classroom are traditional, and collective (group, pair) forms of work require active, independent students who are able to solve the tasks assigned to them. Recently, the interest of students in learning has fallen sharply, which to a certain extent was facilitated by outdated forms of the lesson. The search for innovations in the forms of education has led to the emergence of so-called non-standard (creative) lessons. Depending on the didactic goals and links in the learning process implemented in the lesson, 9 types of lessons can currently be distinguished, but the combined lesson is considered the most common (traditional).

When considering the structure of a combined lesson, the following elements (stages) can be distinguished:

Organization of the beginning of the lesson (organizing moment);

Checking homework (knowledge test

students, i.e. interview);

Preparation for the main stage of the lesson, mastering new knowledge

(learning new material);

Consolidation of knowledge and methods of action;

Generalization and systematization of knowledge;

Summing up the lesson;

Information about homework, briefing on its implementation;

Assessment of knowledge.

The main criterion for the quality of a combined lesson is not only its special organization of work, but the personal achievements of students, their experience, the degree of their independence and awareness of the learning process.

Leading or traditional teaching methods are:

1) a story with elements of a conversation;

2) a conversation accompanied by a demonstration of visual aids;

3) work with diagrams, drawings, tables;

4) search conversation in order to solve a problematic task;

5) independent observations, experiments;

6) independent work with a textbook, workbooks, maps;

7) laboratory work and practical exercises;

8) video films.

A combined lesson is distinguished by an optimal change in the types of educational work, which corresponds to the physical and mental capabilities of students.

Combined or mixed lesson.Type of lesson:

Workshop,

Conference,

Seminar,

Test,

Didactics as a theory of learning .

The history of pedagogy shows that for a long time, along with the term “pedagogy”, the term “didactics” was used in the same meaning. For the first time, the term “didactics” was introduced into scientific use by a German teacher W. Rathke(1571-1635) who called his course "A Short Report from Didactics".

Subject didactics is a general theory of teaching in all subjects. The Czech educator J.A. Komensky defined didactics as « universal art to teach everyone everything”.At the beginning19th century German educator I.F. Herbart gave didactics the status of a theory of nurturing education.

At present, DIDACTICS is considered as a part of pedagogy that studies the problems of teaching and education, their patterns, principles, goals, content, means, organization, results achieved.

Didactics functions:

1- theoretical
2 - practical.

The main categories of didactics :

Teaching, training, education, knowledge, skills, as well as the purpose, content, organization, types, forms, methods, means, results (products) of training.
(hence the short definition: didactics - the science of teaching and education, their goals, content, methods, means, organization, results achieved.)

teaching- the ordered activity of the teacher to achieve the goal of learning (educational tasks), providing information, education, awareness and practical application of knowledge.

Doctrine- a process (more precisely, a co-process), during which, on the basis of cognition, exercises and acquired experience, the student has new forms of behavior and activity, and previously acquired ones change.

Education- Orderly interaction of the teacher with the students, aimed at achieving the goal. This is a two-way process of their joint activity. Education is a specially organized cognitive activity of students, in the course of which scientific knowledge, the necessary methods of activity, an emotional-valuable and creative attitude to the surrounding reality are formed. Education is the development of the child. The main structural elements of learning as a system are: 1) goals, 2) content, 3) methods, 4) organizational forms, 5) results.

Education- a system of knowledge, skills, and ways of thinking acquired in the process of learning.

Knowledge- a set of ideas that embody the theoretical mastery of the subject. Reflection in the student's mind of the reality surrounding him in the form of concepts, schemes, specific images.

Skills- mastering the methods (techniques, actions) of applying the acquired knowledge in practice.

Skills- skills brought to automatism, a high degree of perfection.

Target(educational, educational) - what education strives for, the future towards which its efforts are directed.

Organization- streamlining the didactic process according to certain criteria, giving it the necessary form for the best implementation of the goal.

The form- a way of existence of the educational process, a shell for its inner essence, logic and content. The form of education is related to the number of students in the class, the time and place of education, the order of its implementation, etc.

Method- the way to achieve (realize) the goals and objectives of training.

Means– subject support of the educational process. The means are the voice (speech) of the teacher, his skills, textbooks, classroom equipment, etc.

results- what learning comes to, a consequence of the educational process, the degree of realization of the intended goal.

The subject and tasks of didactics:

The term didactics comes from the Greek. “didactikos” - teaching.

In the modern sense, didactics is the most important branch of scientific knowledge that studies and investigates the problems of education and training.

Didactics is a theoretical and at the same time normative-applied science.

Didactics- a branch of pedagogy that studies the theory of education and training.

Education- a purposeful process of interaction between the teacher and students, during which the assimilation of new knowledge, skills and abilities takes place, the education and development of students is carried out.

Education- that side of education, which includes a system of cultural and scientific values ​​accumulated by mankind.

Didactics answers the questions:

- what to teach

- how to teach

- where to study

- in what organizational forms

Basic concepts of didactics:

Studying proccess

Learning principles

Teaching methods

Forms of organization of educational work, etc.

Thoughts on learning have long been expressed by prominent scientists and philosophers of the past (Socrates, Democritus, Plato, Aristotle)

For the first time in the history of pedagogical thought, the theory of learning as a system of scientific knowledge, as a pedagogical science, was developed by JAN AMOS KOMENSKY. On the basis of philosophical reflections, a theoretical analysis of the experience of the schools of that time, he wrote his famous work "Great Didactics" (1657).

A major contribution to the development of the theory of learning was made by the pedagogical and psychological works of P.P. Blonsky, S.T. Shatsky, L.S. Vygotsky.

The psychological and pedagogical researches of V.Davydov, D.B. Elkonin significantly enriched the theory of primary education - = about the age-related possibilities of mastering knowledge, L.V. Zankov = about the ways of forming the general level of development of younger students, P.Ya. abilities.

A certain contribution was also made by Romanian didacts - Chergit, Rada, Nikola, Bantas, and others.

Practitioners have enriched modern didactics -

Shalva Amonashvili
S.N. Lysenkova
M. Shatalov
N. Ilyin
S.Potapova and others.

Tasks of didactics at the present stage .

1. The educational influence of education on the formation of moral and volitional qualities of a person

2. Formation of cognitive activity and independence

3. Activation of the general level of development of younger students

4. Development and formation of mental abilities

5. The problematic nature of the presentation of educational material

6. Individualization and differentiation of learning

7. Democratization and humanization of learning

8. Interdisciplinary communication, reliance on the life experience of students

9. Programming and computerization of education

10. Working with gifted children

11. Formation of personal relationships, high culture of communication

Special didactics - private methods .

Each academic discipline has its own characteristics, its own patterns, requires its own special methods and organizational forms of education. These issues are dealt with by private didactics or teaching methods.

All private methods are pedagogical disciplines based on the same fundamental principles that are revealed in general didactics.

Thus, general didactics is the theoretical basis for all particular methods.

Private methods and general didactics develop in close unity. A big role belongs to self-education.

SELF-EDUCATION is a systematic cognitive activity aimed at satisfying the need for knowledge that has arisen in a person.

Stages of formation of didactics .

Stage I - traditional didactics (XVII - XIX centuries) emphasis on teaching, the main source of knowledge: perception, authoritarian leadership of learning.

Stage II - contemporary didactics (end of the 19th - first half of the 20th century) emphasis on teaching-learning activities - the main source of knowledge, personal approach, psychological management

Stage III - postmodern - Curriculum (second half of the 20th century), emphasis on the activities of teaching - learning - assessment of knowledge - the main source of knowledge - activity is psychologically - socially conditioned. It is based on the pedagogy of cooperation, taking into account the requirements of the time, personal development and creativity.

Romantsova M. G., Ledvanova M. Yu., Sologub T. V.,

Section 1. Fundamentals of Pedagogy and Didactics

Let us characterize the most common definitions of pedagogy.

Pedagogy a science that studies the essence, patterns, tendencies of managing the process of development of individuality and personality.

Pedagogy - a set of theoretical, applied sciences that study upbringing, education, training.

Pedagogy - the science of educational relations that arise in the process of the relationship of upbringing, education and training with self-education, self-education, self-training and aimed at human development.

Pedagogy - a training course that is taught in educational institutions for major programs.

Pedagogy general - the basic discipline that studies and forms the principles, forms and methods of training and education, which are common to all age groups and educational institutions.

Pedagogical process - specially organized, purposeful interaction of teachers and pupils, aimed at solving developmental and educational problems.

Pedagogical process - a holistic educational process in the unity and interconnection of education and training, characterized by joint activities, cooperation and co-creation of its subjects, contributing to the most complete development and self-realization of the personality of the pupil. The process that realizes the goals of education in the context of pedagogical systems in which educational, educational, professional and educational institutions interact in an organized manner.

O.S. Grebenyuk (2003) believes that pedagogy is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process, and the pedagogical process is a dynamic system, a backbone factor, which is the pedagogical goal, and the common quality is the interaction between the teacher and the student.

Pedagogical excellence , according to O.S. Grebenyuk, should be supplemented by the organization of collective and individual activities, the skill of persuasion, the skill of transferring knowledge and the formation of experience in activity, mastery of pedagogical technique (2003).

Functions of Pedagogy

theoretical function Pedagogy is implemented at three levels:

• Study of pedagogical experience and diagnostics of the state and results of pedagogical processes;
• Identification of stable connections and patterns in pedagogical phenomena;
• Prognostic study of pedagogical activity.

Technological function also has three levels of implementation:

• Development of methodological materials;
• Implementation of the achievements of pedagogical science in pedagogical practice;
• Evaluation of the impact of the results of scientific research on the practice of education and upbringing and the corresponding correction of the interaction between theory and practice.

under education , according to O.S. Grebenyuk (2003), it is necessary to understand the process and result of the assimilation of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities and, on this basis, ensure an appropriate level of personality development. According to V. B. Uspensky (2004), education is the process and result of mastering the system of scientific knowledge, cognitive skills and abilities, the development of the creative forces and abilities of the individual.

Knowledge and its types

In order to understand the nature of knowledge, it is necessary to clarify the content of the term "knowledge ". In the pedagogical literature, the term is used widely. The content of the term "knowledge" refers to the number of eternal problems, the solution of which requires further efforts.

Let us characterize a number of statements related to the content of the term "knowledge".

Knowledge - a necessary element and prerequisite for practical human activity.

Knowledge is a set of ideas of a person, in which the theoretical mastery of the subject is expressed. (Ideas are the measures from which a person creates new ones from existing ideas).

Knowledge - the form of activity of the subject, which reflects the things and processes of objective reality.

The problem of over subject skills is connected with the content of curricula of traditional disciplines. This connection is determined by the understanding of the term " knowledge". According to P.V. Kopnin, knowledge as a necessary element and a prerequisite for a person's practical relationship to the world is the process of creating ideas that purposefully reflect objective reality in the forms of his activity and exist in the form of a specific language system. When comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that there is no component that emphasizes the role of knowledge as a necessary element and a prerequisite for a person’s practical attitude to the world, which separates the concepts of “sign system” and “activities for practical use”. The proof of this is the classification of academic disciplines (Kraevsky V.V.,
Lerner I.Ya.), according to which all subjects are divided into 6 types, and the leading ones are the following:

• Subjects in which the leading component is subject scientific knowledge;
• Subjects in which the leading component is the methods of activity;
• Subjects in which the leading component is the so-called. "vision of the world";
• Subjects, the leading component of which is a symbiosis of knowledge and methods of activity.

Didactic systems and their development

In modern works on didactics, it is noted that learning is an integral function of society for all peoples and for all time. Education becomes mass and requires the creation of a permanent institution, there is a need for a scientific substantiation of this activity and the materials and means involved in its implementation. So it appears diadactics.

Didactics - the science of learning and education, including goals, content, methods, means, learning outcomes that are achieved in the process of obtaining education.

Didactics - The theory of education and training is a branch of pedagogy. Didactic principles include the main provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with its general goals and patterns.

According to N.V. Bordovsky (2003), didactics is a branch of pedagogy aimed at studying and revealing the theoretical foundations of the organization of the learning process (patterns, principles, teaching methods), as well as the search and development of new principles, strategies, methods, technologies and learning systems.

The subject of didactics - definition and formulation of the laws of the learning process, as well as the design of a more efficient than existing learning process (I.I. Logvinov).

Didactics - theoretical and normative-applied science. Its scientific function is to study real learning processes, to establish facts and regular connections between various aspects of learning, to reveal their essence, to identify trends and development prospects. Developing the problems of selecting the content of education, establishing the principles of education, standards for the application of methods and means of education, didactics performs a normative-applied, constructive-technical function. The constructive function of didactics corresponds to its principles.

The volume of didactic knowledge (I.I. Logvinov, 2007) is structured around "points of attraction" (learning process, principles of didactics, learning content, organizational forms of learning). The modern content of didactic knowledge differs from the knowledge of the 19th century by separating the principles of teaching into a separate section. Its main content corresponds to the following structural components:

• The essence of the learning process;
• Principles of learning;
• The content of education;
• Teaching methods;
• Teacher;
• Organization of the learning process.

Principles of didactics

Didactic principles are decisive in the selection of the content of education, in the choice of methods and forms of education.

All the principles of didactics in their unity objectively reflect the most important laws of the learning process.

• The principle of visibility. It expresses the need for the formation of ideas and concepts based on sensory perceptions of objects and phenomena.
• The principle of consciousness and activity. In the process of learning, only knowledge is transferred, and each person develops his own beliefs independently, i.e. consciously. In the learning process, it is necessary to take into account the general signs of conscious assimilation of knowledge. Knowledge should be put into the correct verbal form, consciousness is expressed in a positive attitude towards the material being studied, in interest. A sign of conscious assimilation of the material is the degree of independence, the higher it is, the more consciously the knowledge is assimilated. Students should be interested in the learning process itself. “You can’t buy beliefs in a shop, they are formed in the process of cognitive activity” (D.I. Pisarev).
• The principle of accessibility lies in the need to match the content of the material, methods and forms of training with the level of development of students. Accessibility is determined by many factors: adherence to the principles of didactics, careful selection of the content of the material, the use of the most effective system for studying it, more rational methods of work, the skill of the teacher, etc.
• The principle of science. The main purpose of the principle is that students understand that everything is subject to laws and that knowledge of them is necessary for everyone living in modern society. The proposed educational material should correspond to modern achievements of science. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly acquaint students with the latest achievements of scientific thought in the relevant section of the curriculum.
• The principle of individual approach. Implementing an individual approach, it is necessary to take into account the susceptibility of trainees to learning, i.e. learnability. The signs of learning include: a stock of knowledge and skills, the ability to comprehend educational material, independently apply it in solving various problems, be able to generalize, highlight the essential features of new material, etc.
• The principle of systematic and consistent. The presentation of the educational material is brought by the teacher to the level of consistency in the minds of the students, knowledge is given in a certain sequence and they must be interconnected. The implementation of the principle of systematicity and consistency implies continuity in the learning process, i.e. logical sequence and connection between the studied subjects, the new material should be based on the previously learned.
• The principle of strength in mastering knowledge, skills and abilities. This principle is that strength is not only deep memorization, but also the ability to use what the memory has.
• The principle of connection between theory and practice. Practice is the basis of knowledge. Theoretical research is carried out not for the sake of science itself, but to improve practical activities. Education is always educative. Training and education is a holistic process. The process of learning is the process of transferring knowledge, and the process of education is the process of influencing the system of relations of the student to the reality around him.

Professional education - the formation of skills and abilities in handling the appropriate means of labor, the study of the characteristics of specific types of human labor activity and the formation of skills and abilities for their implementation. The subject of didactics are learning systems or didactic systems.

Didactic system - an ordered set of goals, content, forms, methods and means of education. The basis of the learning process as a didactic system is educational activity. Educational activity is carried out by a person throughout his life. This is the second profession of every person. Any didactic system includes the following elements: the purpose and objectives of learning (teaching); content of training; methods and means of training; forms of organization of training; learning outcomes.

Didactic theories and concepts

Learning, teaching, learning are the main categories of didactics.

In the pedagogical literature, there are many definitions of the category of learning. This category is defined in terms of result and process. Education as a process aimed at the formation of certain knowledge, skills, social experience, personal qualities. Education as an interaction between teacher and student. Education is a way of organizing the educational process. It is the most reliable way to obtain systematic education. At the heart of any kind or type of education is a system - "teaching and learning". teaching - this is the activity of the teacher in transferring information, organizing educational and cognitive activities, providing assistance with difficulties in the learning process, stimulating interest, independence and creativity of students, evaluating educational achievements. Doctrine - this is the activity of the student in mastering, consolidating and applying knowledge, skills, abilities; stimulation to search, solve educational problems, self-assessment of educational achievements; awareness of the personal meaning and social significance of cultural values ​​and human experience, processes and phenomena of the surrounding reality.

Learning process bilateral, includes the process of learning and the process of teaching (O.S. Grebenyuk, 2003). under training , I. N. Logvinov (2005) understands the professional activity of a teacher, which is aimed at transferring knowledge, skills and abilities in the learning process. The activity is carried out in two versions - reproductive (reproducing) and productive (creative).

Didactic theories or concepts are based on understanding the essence of the learning process.

The concept of didactic encyclopedism. (J. A. Comenius, J. Milton, I. V. Basedov).

The main goal of education is to transfer to students an extremely large amount of scientific knowledge. To fully master the content, it is necessary to search for intensive methods on the part of the teacher and a lot of independent work of students.

The concept of didactic formalism. (E. Schmidt, A. Nemeyer, I. Pestalozzi, A. Dobrovolsky). Education as a means of developing the abilities and cognitive interests of students. “Much knowledge does not teach the mind” (Heraclitus) is the main principle of the supporters of didactic formalism. The main goal of training is to emphasize the correctness and thinking of students “to teach to think”, and the rest will come to them in the process of growth.”

The concept of didactic pragmatism. (J. Dewin, G. Kershensteiner). Learning is interpreted as a process of "reconstruction of experience" of the student. With this approach, the dialectical relationship between cognition and practical activity as the basis for the harmonious development of a person in the learning process is violated.

The concept of functional materialism . At the heart of the concept (V.Okun) lies the provision on the integral connection of cognition with activity. As the main criterion for the construction of academic disciplines, "leading ideas" of worldview significance are proposed (for example, the ideas of evolution in biology, class struggle in history, etc.).

Paradigm (paradigm - sample) concept of learning . Its essence (G.Scheyerl) consists in the fact that the educational material should be presented "focally" (without observing the historical, logical sequence, focusing on typical facts and events, "instanceistically" presenting the content instead of a continuous presentation of the entire educational material.) This concept violates the principle of systematic presentation of educational material.

Cybernetic learning concept. (S.I. Arkhangelsky, E.I. Mashbits) Learning is a process of processing and transferring information. The methodological basis of this direction is the theory of information and systems, as well as cybernetic patterns of information transmission.

Associative learning theory. This theory (J. Locke, Ya.A.Komensky) is based on the principles: all learning is based on sensory knowledge: visual images are important, because ensure the promotion of consciousness to generalizations; The main teaching method is exercises. The weakness of this theory is in the absence of the formation of creative activity, the ability to independently search for new knowledge is not laid.

The theory of the gradual formation of mental actions in the learning process. (P.Ya.Galperin, N.F.Talyzina). The ability to manage the learning process is significantly increased if students are led through interrelated stages: preliminary familiarization with the action and the conditions for its implementation; formation of an action with the deployment of all the operations included in it; formation of action on inner speech.

Management model of training (V.A. Yakunin). Learning is considered in terms of management. Revealing the learning process, the stages of its organization as a management process are distinguished: the formation of goals; formation of the information basis of training; forecasting; decision-making; organization of execution; communication; monitoring and evaluation of results; correction.

Well-known didactic theories have accumulated a rich practical experience of teaching and reveal patterns, principles and methods of its organization up to the description of educational technologies and the nature of the interaction between the teacher and the student. The main didactic relationship "teaching-learning" is studied from the standpoint of different methodological foundations, with the formation of diverse didactic theories, concepts and models.

Table 1.1.

The structure of a productive variant of educational activity
(quoted by I.I. Logvinov)

1. Perception or independent formulation of the conditions of the problem	indicative stage
2. Analysis of the condition of the problem 3. Reproduction of knowledge necessary for solving
4. Forecasting the search process and its results, formulating a hypothesis
5. Drawing up a plan, (project, program) solution
6. Solving the problem based on known methods	Executive stage
7. Redesigning the solution plan, finding a new way
8. Solving the problem in new ways
9. Verification of the solution. Evaluation of the rationality and effectiveness of the chosen solution
10. Introduction of the obtained analysis (method) into the system of knowledge, ideas, available to the student	Control and systematizing stage
11. Exit to new problems

Learning process - an objective process, colored by the subjective characteristics of its participants. Learning requires purposeful interaction between the teaching, the learner and the object being studied.

Education occurs only when students are active. The educational process is carried out only if the goals of the student correspond to the goals of the teacher.

Concepts can be learned if cognitive activity is organized. Skills can be formed under the condition of organizing the reproduction of operations and actions that underlie the skill. The strength of assimilation of the content of educational material is the greater, the more systematically organized the repetition of the content, and its introduction into the system of the content learned early. Any units of information and methods of activity become knowledge and skills, depending on the degree of reliance on the level of knowledge and skills already achieved at the time the new content is presented. The presentation of variable tasks forms the readiness to transfer the acquired knowledge and related actions to a new situation.

Teaching methods

From a didactic point of view, it is advisable to single out:

reproductive method - application of what has been learned on the basis of a pattern or rule. The activity of trainees is algorithmic in nature, i.e. execution of instructions.

Explanatory-illustrative method - students gain knowledge by listening to a lecture, getting acquainted with educational and methodical literature. Perceiving and comprehending the facts, assessments and conclusions, they remain within the framework of reproductive thinking.

Problem-Based Learning Method . Using various sources and means of information, the teacher, before presenting the material, poses a problem, formulates a cognitive task, shows a way to solve the task.

Partial search method. It consists in organizing an active search for a solution to the cognitive tasks put forward by the teacher. The process of thinking becomes productive.

research method. Listeners (students) independently study literature. Initiative, independence, creative search are most fully manifested in the research plane.

Patterns of the learning process

According to Yu.K. Babansky, "the learning process is naturally connected with the process of education, upbringing and development, which are part of an integral pedagogical process." The first pattern is the educative nature of learning. The second is that the learning process is developmental in nature.

N.V. Bordovskaya (2003) identifies external and internal patterns of learning. The former include the dependence of education on social processes and conditions (socio-economic, political situation, level of culture, the needs of society and the state in a certain type and level of education); to the second - the links between the components of the learning process (between the goals, the content of education, methods, means and forms of education, the meaning of the educational material).

Let us characterize the features and characteristics of the lecture-practical system of education.

Lecture - this is the main form of transferring a large amount of systematized information as an indicative basis for students' independent work (90 minutes).

Practical lesson - this is a form of organization of detailing, analysis, expansion, deepening, consolidation, control of the received educational information under the guidance of a university teacher.

GRAPH OF THE LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATIONAL DISCIPLINE

The teacher should be able to develop a graph of the logical structure of the entire academic discipline and individual topics, as well as select the content of the topic.

The content of the discipline is information from a certain section of science or practical human activity used in the educational process to achieve the goals of studying the discipline. Today, each educational institution independently draws up a working program for studying the discipline. A work program can be drawn up rationally if you first draw a GRAPH OF THE LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE DISCIPLINE.

Graph of the logical structure of the discipline - a generalized scheme of the key concepts of the discipline and their relationships, realizing the goals of its study.

When constructing a graph, only those that need to be relied upon when performing activities determined for the purpose of studying the discipline are selected from the information of the discipline. A graph is built from 2 points - at the top, the discipline is built as a science, and at the bottom, activity is set - the goal of studying the discipline. In the process of compiling the graph, these two sections are “joined”. Each science has a subject of study, an object of study and specific methods of study.

Table 1.2.

Generalized graph of the logical structure of disciplines

	Discipline (science)	Discipline (section of human practical activity)
	Object of study, subject of study, methods of study
	Key Concepts	Key Concepts
		Relationships of Key Concepts
	Activity (objectives of studying the discipline)	Activity (objectives of studying the discipline)

There can be several options for presenting the content of training in the form of a graph of a logical structure, the graph reflects the author's vision of the discipline. In the pedagogical literature, the term "topic logical structure graph" - a model of educational content, presented in the form of a graph - a set of points on a plane that display the educational elements of a given topic, and lines connecting them, which are didactic links. As an example, we give the graph of the logical structure of the disciplines "Human Anatomy" and "Pedagogy with teaching methods" (diagrams). The graph of the logical structure of the discipline is its most generalized image, concretizing the general provisions of the graph, you can easily create a work program for the discipline. It is necessary to structure the work program by discipline into the following sections.

The goals of studying the discipline , formulated in the form of skills and knowledge that must be achieved upon completion of the study of the discipline;

Thematic plans for lectures, seminars and practical classes with brief annotations and methodological recommendations for their implementation;

List of references (main and additional);

Samples of training and control tasks (examples and answers).

Based on the work programs, the educational process is planned for a specific academic year and teaching aids (textbooks, teaching aids, information support for the educational process) are created that contain detailed information, in contrast to the generalized information of the program.

The independent activity of the student acts as the basis of education at the university. The general structural cascade of any lecture is the formulation of the topic, the communication of its plan and recommended literature for independent work. The following are put forward as the main requirements for lecturing: a high scientific level of the information presented, which has an ideological significance. A large volume of clearly and tightly systematized and methodically processed modern scientific information. Evidence and argumentation of the stated judgments. Clarity of presentation of thoughts and activation of the thinking of listeners, setting questions for independent work on the issues under discussion. Analysis of different points of view on the solution of the problems. Derivation of the main provisions and formulation of conclusions. Explanation of introduced terms and names. Allowing students to listen, comprehend and record information. Establishment of pedagogical contact with the audience, the use of didactic materials and technical means.

Graph of the logical structure of the discipline section
"Pedagogy with teaching methods"

Section of discipline			Methods of teaching special disciplines of the state educational standard for higher professional education in medical specialties
Key Concepts	Higher professional medical education of the Russian Federation VPO management; Normative - legal documents; educational institutions; profession, qualification, specialization	Pedagogical technologies pedagogical goals, basis of activity teaching methods, educational process planning, means of education, control methods		Fundamentals of pedagogical technologies Knowledge Skill Skills Personal qualities Level of preparedness (learning) Technology efficiency Pedagogical experiment
Relationship of key concepts			Components of pedagogical technology
Target activity			Designing, organizing, conducting and evaluating the effectiveness of a practical (seminar) class in a medical discipline

Types of lectures

Introductory Lecture gives the first holistic view of the subject and orients the student to the system of work on this course. At the lecture, considerations are expressed on the methodological and organizational features of the work within the framework of the course, and an analysis of the educational and methodological literature recommended for students is given, the terms and forms of reporting are announced.

Lecture-information. It is focused on the presentation and explanation of scientific information to students to be comprehended and memorized. This is the most traditional type of lectures in the practice of higher education.

overview lecture - It is a systematization of scientific knowledge at a high level, the material is presented with the disclosure of intra-subject and inter-subject communications, detailing and concretization are excluded. The core of the stated theoretical provisions is the scientific-conceptual and conceptual basis of the entire course or its major sections.

Problem lecture. In this lecture, new knowledge is introduced through the problematic nature of a question, task or situation. At the same time, the process of cognition of students in cooperation and dialogue with the teacher is approaching research activity. The content of the problem is revealed by organizing the search for its solution or summarizing and analyzing traditional and modern points of view. .

Visualization Lecture is a visual form of presentation of lecture material by means of TCO or audio-video equipment. Reading such a lecture is reduced to a detailed or brief commentary on the viewed visual materials.

Binary Lecture - is a kind of lecturing in the form of a dialogue between two teachers (either representatives of various scientific schools, or a scientist and a practitioner, or a teacher and a student).

Lecture with pre-planned mistakes. The lecture is designed to encourage students to constantly monitor the information offered (search for errors). At the end of the lecture, students are diagnosed and the mistakes made are analyzed.

Lecture-conference. It is conducted as a scientific and practical lesson with a pre-set problem and a system of reports, lasting up to 10 minutes. The totality of the submitted texts (reports) will allow highlighting the problem within the framework of the proposed program. At the end of the lecture, the teacher summarizes and formulates conclusions.

Lecture-consultation. This version of the lecture can be carried out according to several scenarios. The first option is carried out according to the type of "questions and answers". The second option is of the "question-answer-discussion" type.

Fundamentals of practical pedagogy

Pedagogical activity - professional activity aimed at creating in the pedagogical process optimal conditions for training, education, development and self-development of the student's personality and the choice of opportunities for free and creative self-expression. Competent pedagogical activity involves the possession of skills:

1. set and solve pedagogical tasks;

2. organize the pedagogical process as cooperation and interaction;

3. organize educational material as a system of cognitive tasks, carry out interdisciplinary connections, form general educational and special skills;

4. focus on the personality and its individual characteristics;

Possess methodological and self-educational skills and abilities.

Learning process - a set of consistent and interrelated actions of the teacher and students aimed at the conscious and lasting assimilation of a system of knowledge, skills, skills, the formation of the ability to apply them in life, the development of independent thinking, observation and other cognitive abilities of students, mastering the elements of the culture of mental work and the formation of the foundations of the worldview and worldview. A feature of the learning process is the predominance of the logical, cognitive (cognitive) component, with the assimilation of knowledge, the acquisition of skills, and methods of cognitive activity.

Table 1.3.

Characteristics of the learning process

Kind of activity
Planning	Thematic calendar plans
Organization of your activities
Organization of students' activities and formation of motivation	Setting the goals of educational work and the definition of educational tasks; formation of positive motivation for the adoption of a learning task; organization of cooperation and interaction
Stimulation of activity	Attracting to the topic, arousing curiosity and interest, using active learning technology, including students in ongoing activities
Control and regulation	Observation, control questions, individual interview, written, oral surveys
Analysis of results	Identification of the level of knowledge, establishment of the level of formation of skills and abilities, identification and correction of shortcomings, summing up the overall result of the work

Methods of pedagogical research

Methods of pedagogical research can be divided into three groups:

1. Methods for studying pedagogical experience.

2. Theoretical analysis.

3. Mathematical and statistical methods.

Methods for studying pedagogical experience are aimed at studying the actual experience of organizing the educational process. When studying pedagogical experience, methods such as observation, conversation, interviews, questionnaires, and the study of pedagogical documentation are used.

Observation - purposeful perception of a phenomenon, during which the researcher receives specific factual material. Observation is carried out according to a predetermined plan with the allocation of specific objects. Observations are being made. The stages of observation include: defining goals and objectives; choice of object, subject and situation; choosing the method of observation that best provides the collection of the necessary information; choice of ways to register the observed, processing and interpretation of data.

Poll methods: conversation, interview, survey . The conversation is used to obtain the necessary information or clarify what was not clear enough during the observation. Issues requiring clarification are highlighted.

A type of conversation is an interview. Here the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions asked in a certain sequence. Answers are recorded openly. Questioning is the collection of material using a questionnaire in which written answers are given to the proposed questions. Valuable material can be obtained by studying the products of the students' activities: written, graphic, and tests. These works can give information about the achieved level of skills, skills of students in a particular area.

Experiment - plays a special role in pedagogical research. This is a specially organized test of the acceptance of work, a method for identifying its pedagogical effectiveness.

There are the following types of experiment:

1. Theoretical (statement of the problem, definition of the goal, object and subject of research, its tasks and hypotheses).

2. Methodical - development of a research methodology, its plan, program, methods for processing the results obtained.

3. The actual experiment - a series of experiments.

4. Analytical-quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation of the obtained results, formation of conclusions and recommendations. The object of study and generalization of pedagogical experience is "mass" experience - to identify leading trends. "Negative" experience - to identify characteristic shortcomings and errors. "Best" experience for identifying and summarizing the innovative search for teachers. The criteria for excellence are: novelty, effectiveness and efficiency, compliance with the requirements of pedagogy, methods and psychology. Stability and repeatability of results over a long period of application of this method.

Theoretical analysis - selection and consideration of individual aspects, features, features, properties of pedagogical phenomena. Analysis is accompanied by synthesis and helps to penetrate into the essence of the studied pedagogical phenomena. Theoretical methods are needed to identify problems, formulate hypotheses, and evaluate the collected facts. They are connected with the study of literature, general and special works on pedagogy, historical and pedagogical documents, periodical pedagogical press, reference pedagogical literature, teaching aids on pedagogy and related disciplines.

Working with literature involves the use of such methods as compiling a bibliography, summarizing, taking notes, citing.

Mathematical and statistical methods in pedagogy, they are used to process the data obtained by the methods of survey and experiment, as well as to establish quantitative dependencies between the studied phenomena. Well-known statistical methods are widely used - arithmetic mean, median, variance, coefficient of variation and others.

Evaluation by the teacher of the degree of his compliance with professional requirements

In the pedagogical process, the skills that characterize the structure of pedagogical activity are most clearly manifested, covering the functional groups of technological skills: operational-methodical, psychological-pedagogical, diagnostic, evaluative, expert and research. Each of them is presented as a set of specific professional skills.

Complex of operational and methodological skills

Determining the effectiveness of learning technologies and developing adequate methods in accordance with the goals and conditions that ensure the highest performance in solving the tasks;

Adaptation of general didactic provisions to a specific subject of study;

Information modeling of the educational process in connection with the goals and specific objectives of training, the composition and structure of scientific knowledge;

Technological development of information structures in the form of a monologue presentation, in task execution, drawing up logical and structural diagrams, transformation of educational information, its analysis, generalization, methods and means of introducing educational information into the learning process;

The use of stimulating methods of pedagogical influence;

Control of educational activities (current, final, written, oral, selective, frontal, reproductive, creative)

Planning the educational process in one training session and in the system.

Complex of psychological and pedagogical skills

1. Formation of cognitive needs among students;

2. Creation of conditions that stimulate the cognitive activity of students;

3. Implementation of communicative methods in the learning process;

4. The use of pedagogical techniques for the formation of cognitive activity;

5. Development and application of individualized technologies, teaching methods and techniques;

6. Creation of a favorable psychological climate for the implementation of the educational process.

Complex of diagnostic skills

1. Compilation of diagnostic programs in the form of tasks, tests that act as teaching aids.

2. The use of diagnostic methods in the educational and pedagogical process in the following characteristics: complementarity of pedagogical and educational activities, the effectiveness of specific learning technologies.

3. Application of methods aimed at identifying the effectiveness of the educational and pedagogical process.

4. Application of methods to identify the level of formation of skills and abilities of cognitive activity.

5. Introduction into the practice of teaching the methods of introspection and self-control.

6. The use of classical methods for testing intellectual operations, creativity and motivation.

A set of skills based on the performance of expert assessments

1. The use of diagnostic techniques that reveal the usefulness and effectiveness of different training systems.

2. Analysis of the functioning learning process.

3. Provision of methodological assistance related to the assessment and correction of the pedagogical process.

4. Analysis of new information and communication structures in the learning process, taking into account personal factors that affect the style of communication and learning outcomes.

5. Intensification of the learning process by deepening the educational work and accelerating the pace of passing the educational material on the program.

6. Individualization of the learning process, the orientation of information technology to the individual characteristics of students.

7. Development of an additional system of teaching methods focused on the activation of students in the educational process, the development of initiative, competitiveness and other personality traits.

A set of skills for pedagogical research work

1. Development of new teaching technologies, as well as individual subject teaching methods.

2. Intensification of teaching methods.

3. Drawing up new curricula.

4. Analysis of the main trends in the development of the education system.

5. Identification of priority areas in the development of pedagogical technologies.

6. Analysis of the experience of colleagues, its generalization and application.

This list of skills reflects the general areas of professional tasks that a teacher of higher education has to solve.

Criteria for pedagogical innovation

Innovation - innovation, innovation. The main indicator is a progressive beginning in the development of an educational institution in comparison with established traditions and mass practice.

The main criterion for innovation is novelty, which has an equal ratio of advanced pedagogical experience. For a teacher who wants to get involved in the innovation process, it is important to determine what the essence of the proposed new is, what is and what is the level of novelty. For one it may be really new, for another it is not.

Optimality. This criterion for the effectiveness of pedagogical innovations means the expenditure of effort and resources of the teacher and students to achieve results. The introduction of pedagogical innovation into the educational process and the achievement of high results at the lowest physical, mental and time costs testify to its optimality.

Efficiency as a criterion of innovation means a certain stability of positive results in the activities of the teacher.

The possibility of creative application of innovation in mass experience is considered as a criterion for pedagogical innovation.

Communicative behavior of the teacher

The speech of the teacher is a determining factor in the communicative behavior of the teacher. Communicative behavior is not only the process of speaking, transmitting information, but also such an organization of speech and the corresponding speech behavior of the teacher, which affect the creation of an emotional and psychological atmosphere, communication between the teacher and the student, the nature of the relationship between them, the style of their work.

Conditions for the effectiveness of the teacher's speech

1. Compliance with the law of rhetoric, the quality of speech is determined by the quality and quantity of thoughts in it per unit of space and time occupied.

2. Awareness of the pedagogical task and purpose of speech communication.

4. Emotional coloring of the situation.

5. Conviction and reasoning.

6. Novelty of ideas and thoughts.

7. Expressiveness - figurativeness, brightness, emotionality.

8. General speech culture - the normative use of words and speech turns, the normative construction of speech and its phonetic reproduction.

9. The tone of speech, the nature of facial expressions, gestures, accompanying speech.

Components of speech abilities

1. Good verbal memory.

2. Rich vocabulary.

3. Correct selection of language means.

4. Logical construction and presentation of the statement.

5. The ability to focus speech on the interlocutor.

6. High level of anticipation (influence of speech on the listener).

7. Ability to listen.

Listener Attention Management

2. Good organization of speech.

3. Intonation underlining of individual moments of speech.

4. Repetition of the most important thoughts.

5. Dynamic speech.

6. Bright argumentation.

7. The ability to put yourself in the place of the audience.

8. Having eye contact.

9. Working out the text in free speech design.

10. Restoring and / or strengthening the attention of the audience with the help of voice techniques, pauses, gestures, movements, questions, dialogue elements, discussions, visual aids, humor.

VP Kopnin Logical foundations of science. - Kyiv. - 1968. - S. 15-26.

Babansky Yu.K. Intensification of the educational process. - M., 1987.; Okon V.V. Introduction to general didactics., M., 1990.

Bordovskaya N.V., Rean A.A. Pedagogy. - Peter, 2003. -p.86.

Bordovskaya N.V., Rean A.A. Pedagogy. - Peter. - 2003.

Meshcheryakova M.A. Methods of teaching special disciplines. - M., - 2006. -
pp. 56-64.

Kodzhaspirova G.M. Pedagogy in schemes, tables, reference notes. - M., 2008. - 253 p.

Sedova N.E. Fundamentals of practical pedagogy. - M., 2008. - S. 174.

We bring to your attention the journals published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural History"

from the Greek didaktikos - teaching, relating to learning), theory of education and learning, a branch of pedagogy. The subject of D. is training as a means of educating and educating a person, i.e. the interaction of teaching and learning in their unity, which ensures the assimilation of the content of education organized by the teacher by students.

Fatherland D. studies various forms of manifestation of the interaction of learning components and, on the basis of the identified patterns, develops certain systems of learning influences. These systems find their concrete expression in the content of education, disclosed in curricula, curricula and textbooks; implemented by appropriate methods and means of training in certain organizations. forms.

D. - theoretical. and at the same time normative-applied science. Scientific-theoretical. D.'s function is to study real learning processes, to establish facts and regular relationships between decomp. aspects of learning, in revealing their essence, identifying trends and development prospects. The received theoretical knowledge allows you to direct the practice of learning, improve it in accordance with the changing goals that society puts in front of the nar system. education. Developing the problems of selecting the content of education, establishing the principles of instruction, standards for the application of methods and means of instruction, D. performs normative-applied, constructive-technological. function. In the unity of these functions, D. - understanding the essence of the learning process, the implementation of its education., educate. and developing functions.

Formation and development of D. Societies. the need to ensure the assimilation of the accumulated social experience by the younger generation is a necessary condition for the reproduction and development of society. The existing contradiction between the growing volume of the content of education and its unsatisfactory assimilation led to the emergence of mathematics as a branch of knowledge and science. The term "D." appeared to him. teacher W. Rathke, who called his course of lectures "didactics" or "the art of teaching." D. as a scientific system. knowledge was first developed by Ya. A. Kamensky, giving a follow-up. exposition of the principles and rules of teaching children. In The Great Didactics (1657), Komensky considered the most important issues in the theory of education: the content of education, didactic. the principles of visibility, the sequence of training, etc., the organization of the class-lesson training system. Comenius' theory of learning is built in accordance with the principle of the nature-conformity of education; he tried to identify patterns (“the principles of nature”), to-rye, being universal, are also manifested in the process of education and training of a person (see the principle of natural conformity). Comenius contrasted the Middle Ages. cramming a new account system. work corresponding to age and psychol. characteristics of children. Didactic Comenius' ideas were further developed in the works of educators of the 18th and 19th centuries. In the Age of Enlightenment, when the humanistic beginning in philosophy, J. J. Rousseau influenced D.'s recognition of the needs of the child, his requests, and current interests. J. G. Pestalozzi increased attention to such a goal of education as the development of all the forces and abilities of a person, the education of diligence, condemning all forms of one-sided education.

To con. 18 - beg. 19th centuries in the classic Pedagogy defined two theories of schools. education. Representatives of the theory of formal education (I.F. Herbart and his followers) ch. the task of education was considered the mental development of students. This direction in the works of Herbart was further developed. Considering it especially important psychol.-didactic. analysis of the process of assimilation of knowledge by children, taking place under the guidance of a teacher, he singled out two main. act of mental activity - deepening and comprehension (reflection), consisting in the identification and connection of otd. parts. Education, according to Herbart, should be permeated with the interest of students, to-ry is a means of education and its purpose. Considering the problems of the relationship between education and upbringing, Herbart introduced the term "educational education".

Proponents of the theory of material education osn. the goal of learning was seen in arming students with knowledge useful for life, which ensure the development of cognition. abilities. The struggle for dominance in school. the formation of real knowledge was of progressive importance. However, some representatives of the theory of material education (G. Spencer) promoted narrow utilitarianism in education, neglected the theoretical. knowledge, thereby downplaying the importance of developmental learning. The problem of the correlation of material and formal education became relevant in the 2nd half. 20th century, especially in connection with the task of forming the intellectual potential of society. Its solution is possible only in the dialectic. the unity of two interrelated aspects of a holistic learning process.

All R. 19th century F. Diesterweg expressed an idea, innovative for his time, that a person can achieve development only in activity. Based on previous experience, Diesterweg laid the didactic. the foundations of developmental learning, formulated in 33 laws and rules: "from close to far", "from simple to complex", etc. He paid much attention to visibility, accessibility, strength of learning, culture of speech, mental activity of students in learning.

In Russia, the problems of education were considered in the works of educators and democratic writers A. N. Radishchev, V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, who played Means. role in bringing Russian. pedagogy to progressive didactic. ideas con. 18th-19th centuries They cared about the true scientific nature of education, saw in science a means of liberating man from blind submission to the forces of nature and an instrument of struggle for the improvement of living conditions; Great importance was attached to the development of students' interest in science. activities and independence of thought.

In the 2nd floor. 19th century holistic didactic the system was created by K. D. Ushinsky. Based on educational philosophy. ideas, psychology and physiology, he showed the one-sidedness of formal and material education, revealed the similarities and differences between cognition and learning, developed a number of issues of perception, assimilation and consolidation of knowledge, the development of thinking in the learning process, the formation of motives for encouraging schoolchildren to learn, the problem of combining teaching and independent . schoolchildren's activities.

Followers of Ushinsky N. A. Korf, V. P. Vakhterov and others developed a system of initial. training based on knowledge and consideration of age and psychol. characteristics of students, on respect for the personality of the child. P. F. Kapterev Ch. I saw the purpose of training in the development of activity and amateur performance of the student. The driving forces of process considered self-development and self-improvement, spoke out against the overload uch. programs, advocated the introduction of elective courses for students aged 11-14 and furcation at the senior level of education.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. with the advent of exact methods of experiments. psychology, the connection of D. with other related sciences has become more definite (V. A. Lai gave D. a specifically experimental character), but in modern. Anglo-Amer. pedagogy (unlike the pedagogy of Germany) the term "D." is not applied, and the learning theory is developed and presented in Ch. arr. in the works per week. psychology.

For app. Pedagogy 1st floor. 20th century characteristic pedocentric. didactics of J. Dewey (USA), which developed within the framework of pragmatic pedagogy. Ch. its principle is learning from the child's personal experience. According to Dewey, the child learns the life around him in the process of practice and work, just like a scientist-researcher. The task of the school is to help him learn "by doing" on his own. practical experience. In the practice of the pragmatic school. didactics Dewey leads to the fact that uch. plans do not provide enough depth and systematic. assimilation by students of theoretical. knowledge. In the owls D. emphasized the dependence of education on the nature of specific societies. relationships, but the real nature of this dependence has often been distorted. Great importance was attached to the principle of linking learning with practical. the life of society (N. K. Krupskaya, A. V. Lunacharsky, A. S. Makarenko). The concept of learning as an essential source of continuous mental development of students in the process of consciousness was developed. mastering the basics of science, social experience in general and their practical. application under the guidance of a teacher (S. T. Shatsky, P. P. Blonsky, P. N. Gruzdev, M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov, L. V. Zankov, etc.). Along with knowledge and skills, the content of education included (70s) new components that ensure the strengthening of the developing and educating functions of education - the experience of creative activity and an emotional and value attitude to the world and to each other (V. V. Kraevsky, I. Ya. Lercher, M. H. Skatkin and others). Content research. carried out on the problem of school. textbook (E. I. Perovsky, F. P. Korovkii, D. D. Zuev, Ya. A. Mikk, A. S. So-khor, V. P. Bespalko, V. G. Beylipson, etc. ).

The requirement for active assimilation of knowledge by students, put forward by the didacts of the past, received a new justification and acquired the character of a necessary condition for the development of students' independence in their cognition. activities (Sh. I. Ganelin, E. Ya. Golant, Danilov, Esipov, Skatkin, L. Ya. Zorina, T. I. Shamova, G. I. Shchukina, etc.). The development of the concept of problem-based learning by didacticians and psychologists (T. V. Kudryavtsev, Lerner, A. M. Matyushkin, M. I. Makhmutov, and others) is connected with this direction. The problem of the formation of cognition in students is investigated. interest, the need for knowledge (V. S. Ilyin, Yu. V. Sharov, Shchukina), the formation of the need, skills and abilities of self-education (A. K. Gromtseva, B. F. Raisky, A. Ya. Aizenberg).

Conducted research. on the problem of teaching methods (A. N. Aleksyuk, Yu. K. Babansky, Golant, Lerner, Skatkin, Makhmutov, V. A. Tetyurev, etc.), decomp. organizational forms of education (X. Liymets, V. K. Dyachenko), the possibilities of modern. lesson in solving the problem of the versatile development of students (S. V. Ivanov, Danilov, I. N. Kazansky, Makhmutov, I. T. Ogorodnikov, V. O. Onischuk, etc.). The problem of monitoring the results of training (Perovsky, S. I. Runovsky, V. M. Polonsky, etc.), questions of accounting. equipment and teaching aids (S. G. Shapovalenko, N. M. Shakhmaev and others). The principles of optimization of the uch.-educate. process (Yu. K. Ba-bansky). The construction on didactic was carried out. the basis of the concept of uch.-educate. process (Lerner, Shakhmaev, Skatkin, etc.).

Special attention since the 50s. attract problems of methodology and didactic methods. studies (Babansky, Bespalko, G. V. Vorobyov, V. S. Gershu, V. I. Zhuravlev, V. I. Zagvyazinsky, Zankov, Kraevsky, etc.). The development of the problem of ped. diagnostics (K. M. Gurevich and others). Conducted research. in the history of Denmark (R. B. Vendrovskaya, Sh. A. Ganelin, S. F. Egorov, Z. I. Ravkin, L. A. Stepashko, and others). Works of psychologists (N. A. Menchinskaya, P. Ya. Galperin, D. B. Elkonin, E. V. Davydov), which revealed psychol. prerequisites for the organization of assimilation and construction of the content of education. A certain role is played by the generalization of advanced, including innovative, experience (Sh. A. Amonagivili, I. P. Volkov, V. F. Shatalov, and others).

D.'s problems have been developed and are being developed by educators in other countries. Polish teachers (V. Okon, Ch. Kupisevich) are the initiators of an in-depth study of issues of problem-based learning and its implementation in schools. practice. The works of L. Klingberg (Germany) are devoted to methodological. and theoretical problems D. The substantiation of the principles of teaching is given in the works of B. Navrochinskiy, K. Sosnitskiy (Poland). Diff. approaches to the problem of teaching methods are reflected in the works of S. Nagy (Hungary), M. Cipro (Czech Republic), G. Vekka, E. Furman (Germany) and others.

D.'s connection with other sciences. D.'s research and solutions to its problems require an interdisciplinary approach. The theory of cognition, which, thanks to the generality of the laws of cognition, indirectly determines the laws of uch. activities in the direction of its management. Thus, D. is associated with philosophy, which is one of the sources of concrete content of the content of education and itself, to a certain extent, serves as an object of assimilation. At the same time, education serves as an object of analysis for philosophy as one of the societies. phenomena as an area of ​​manifestation of societies. laws.

D. uses the data and methods of sociology to determine the influence of schools. environment on the personality, the role of psychol. climate in the team of teachers and in the classroom, the relationship between the activities of the school and industries, the sociocultural environment, as well as the influence of general social factors on the evolution of the school and the requirements for it, etc.

Using the data of cybernetics, D. develops a theory of leadership account. process (see Cybernetics and Pedagogy). Human physiology, in particular the physiology of higher nervous activity, as well as school. hygiene provide material for substantiating the methods and means of proper organization of uch. activities of students, definitions uch. student load.

D. is especially closely associated with educational psychology, which explores the issues of personality development in the learning process, psychol. the basics of training and education at different levels of education, reveals the features of the development of psychol. processes, the mechanism of formation of interests, motives, etc., reveals and studies the patterns of assimilation by students of the content of education, ped. communication, teaching. At the same time, the development of ped. psychology is conditioned by consciousness. taking into account D.'s data on the goals of education, the content of education, and teaching methods.

D.'s ratio with a private technique is important. Initially, the teaching methodology, as a normative part of D., contained specific instructions for teaching a particular account. subject. Then she stood out in a relatively independent. ped. discipline, which included both theoretical and applied parts. D.'s task is to ensure unity in the approach to students and in the choice of content, ways and means of teaching. work. This is the methodological D.'s function in relation to private methods. At the same time, the teaching methodology, studying the specific patterns of learning uch. objects, serves as one of the sources of ped. facts for D. The development of D. and teaching methods in modern. stage is interdependent.

D. is closely connected with the theory of education, edges pedagogically interprets the requirements of society for the qualities of the individual, the system of its values. Bring up. tasks are laid down in the content of education. Based on the provisions of the theory of education, the place and functions of the account are determined. activities of the student in the general system of organizing their life, developed methods and organizational. forms of education in unity with the methods and organization of education.

Didactic rules. The learning process is influenced by many factors, both extra-pedagogical (for example, social conditions) and intra-pedagogical (for example, the composition of the class, the originality of the teaching material), which determines the predominance of statistical. laws, i.e. such, to-rye suggest one or another degree of probability of predicted changes in the learning process under given conditions. Part of the laws of dynamic refers to dynamic, for which the initial state of the object uniquely determines its subsequent changes. Didactic specifics. regularities characterizes the relationship between teaching, learning and the content of education. Didactic regularities do not depend on the content of otd. uch. items. In ped. lit-re are such didactic. regularities, as the dependence of learning on the social order and societies. conditions, the socially-formative and educative nature of learning, the dependence of the effectiveness of learning on the activity of students and on the purposeful formation of their attitude to learning, etc. Other groups of patterns are also distinguished: structural, for example, the dependence of teaching methods on the method of mastering decomp. types of educational content), systemic (for example, the unity of teaching, learning and educational content), evolutionary (for example, changing the structure of the learning process depending on the age and level of training of students), functional (for example, preparing students to preserve, reproduce and development of social experience), historical. The objective nature of the identified patterns of learning determines the function of D. as a science. Holistic hierarchical. didactic system. regularities have not yet been built, which is explained by the insufficient development of scientific-theoretical. functions D.

Types and methods of didactic research. In D., as in pedagogy in general, a distinction is made between fundamental and applied, quantity and quality, functional and complex, and other studies (see Research). To fundamental research. include such, the purpose of which is to identify patterns and trends in the development of D., ways of its connection with the practice of teaching. Among them, the study of methodological problems: the subject of D., ways to create a theory of learning focused on practice, the relationship of D. with other sciences; composition, functions and structure of scientific. rationale for training; problems of the composition and levels of consideration of the content of education, the relationship of training and development, teaching methods, etc. Such research. make up the theoretical the basis for applied developments that address issues directly related to the practice of teaching. Often, applied and fundamental research is carried out in combination.

To the methods of didactic. research are both general and specific. Historically the most early research method. is purposeful, selective observation of learning practice. It is always preceded by a theoretical a concept, in some cases hypothetical, that determines the choice of the object of observation. The conclusions obtained as a result of observation are limited in scope, degree of generality and accuracy. They can be partly supplemented and clarified when questioning in its decomp. forms (interviews, questionnaires addressed to the whole class or group of students, etc.). Polls are also used. teachers, collection of competent opinions (rating), generalization of advanced ped. experience, experimental verification of programs, textbooks, modeling, experiment, etc. The conditions for an effective solution to the problems of D. are a systematic approach, the use of methods of related sciences (psychology, sociology, etc.), mat. statistics and logic, a comprehensive study of various aspects of learning (see Research Methods).

D.'s conceptual system includes philosophical, general scientific, and particular scientific concepts. Of paramount importance for D. are such philosophies. categories such as "general and singular", "essence and phenomenon", - "contradiction", "connection", etc. Among the general scientific. concepts used by D.: “system”, “structure”, “function”, “element”, etc. D. as ped. discipline operates with the general concepts of pedagogy: "upbringing", "education", "ped. activity”, “ped. consciousness”, etc. To specific. didactic concepts include: "training", "teaching", "teaching", "learning process", "ac. subject,” “content of education,” “method of instruction,” and others. D. also uses concepts borrowed from related sciences: psychology (“perception,” “assimilation,” “skill,” “development,” and others), and cybernetics. (“control”, “feedback”), etc. Conceptual-terminological-logical. D.'s system is continuously updated and replenished.

The main content of D. Each ist. The era has its own system of education, which specifically answers the questions - why, whom, what and how to teach. Societies have transmitted and are transmitting to the younger generation the content of the social experience accumulated by mankind selectively, i.e. dec. social groups of youth receive decomp. volume and diff. aspects of social culture. Modern society is interested in transferring to the entire younger generation the entire content of social experience, and to each individual the foundations of all its generally significant elements. The purpose of education aimed at the versatile development of the individual is to provide all students with optimal - taking into account their capabilities - intellectual development, consciousness. and a solid assimilation of knowledge of the fundamentals of science, mastering the ability to use this knowledge in practice, creatively apply it to solve new problems, and ensure self-realization as a person. This goal is in unity with the goals of education, aimed at shaping the personality of the student as a whole, introducing students to self-education and self-education.

The goals of education determine its content. There are numerous theory of selection of the content of education. In modern school it includes a system of knowledge about nature, society, technology, man; a system of methods of activity, embodied as a result of their assimilation into skills and abilities; experience of creative activity that ensures the development of students' creative abilities; a system of norms of attitude to the world and to each other, in the aggregate providing the versatile qualities of the individual, its orientation, morality, aesthetics, emo-shun culture, its values ​​and ideals.

These goals of education are achievable subject to the basic. principles developed on the basis of permanent and changing learning goals, the laws of the learning process.

Main the contradiction that determines the post, the existence of education as a social institution, is a mismatch between the developing need of society for the younger generation to learn the basics of social experience and the actual. the level of preparation of young people for the performance of social functions. This contradiction leads others (see Learning Process). The training of an individual or a group of students takes place in the conditions of a contradiction between the requirements of the assigned teacher. task (in the presence of motives for learning), and the level of training of trainees.

Ch. the system-forming factor in the learning process is the content of education. The acquisition of knowledge requires conscious perception of information and its memorization; the development of skills and abilities (experience in the implementation of already known methods of activity) involves repeated direct and variable reproduction of actions; mastering the experience of creative activity is impossible without solving problems and problematic tasks; the formation of an individual's attitude to social values ​​that are important for society involves taking into account the needs and motives of the student, the significance of the learned text. material and providing emotional experiences associated with learning. The methods of assimilation determine learning as the activity of students in organizing and implementing the assimilation of the content of education. The patterns of teaching determine teaching as an activity of an individual or collective teacher (textbook, television, etc.) to organize the assimilation of students by the account. material.

The interconnected activity of the teacher and students is realized in teaching methods. An attempt was made to apply a systematic approach to research. problems of teaching methods in general didactic. level (1971-81). In accordance with the specifics of the methods of assimilation decomp. types of content, a trace was revealed, methods: explanatory-illustrative, reproductive, research, problem presentation, heuristic (see Problem-based learning), correlations of ped. acts with the needs and motives of students. These teaching methods in the teacher-educate. process act in different ways. forms - a story (see Teacher's Presentation), conversation, laboratory work, etc. The word, image and practice are used as teaching aids. The abundance of forms and means of teaching causes an unlimited number of teaching methods covered and explained by these teaching methods.

The relationship of the elements of the content of education and the resulting relationship of teaching methods when taking into account needs and motivations. spheres of students ensure the unity of teaching, developing and educating functions.

Single account. the process has its own fundamental logic: students necessarily go through three levels of mastering knowledge and skills - conscious perception and memorization, embodied in the reproduction of knowledge, the application of knowledge in a situation similar to the model or slightly changed, their application in a new situation that requires a creative approach. During all stages of mastering the content of the account. material formed the attitude of students to the objects uch. activity and learning process. The logic of the learning process can change as students gain experience in each of the elements of the content of education. For example, new information may not be presented to students in a ready-made form, but based on existing knowledge and skills, obtained by students independently. In real account. In the process, these levels of assimilation alternate variably.

The learning process consists of certain links, which are all the more clearly and clearly implemented, the younger the students or the less their experience: the setting by the teacher is cognitive. tasks, organized perception of new information, its comprehension by students, consolidation of knowledge in decomp. forms and instilling skills and abilities through their application in situations of different levels of complexity; control over learning. material, generalization and systematization of the studied. All links of the learning process are interconnected, but they do not necessarily follow each other in a certain, once and for all given sequence. Depending on the purpose of the lesson, its place in the account. process, the actual course of learning, etc., they can be implemented in the course of one lesson or (most often) their system in various ways. sequence, obeying the logic account. subject.

The conditions for organizing the successful assimilation of the content of education is the use of all cognitions. means of students (memory, thinking, imagination, practical activities), put. motives of teaching, the whole variety of forms of material and practical. means and methods of teaching, decomp. sources of information and means of organizing assimilation (verbal, visual, practical), ways of organizing cognition. and practical students' activities (reproducing and creative). Main a form of organization of education is the frontal education of a permanent group of students in the lesson. Along with it, group and individual classes, laboratory classes and workshops, excursions, seminars, debates, lectures, conferences, etc. are used. forms of education, without changing the laws of education, its methods, bring additions to the content of education, form the experience of individual or collective activity in students.

In D. pl. countries have developed criteria for assessing the quality and degree of success of the learning process. A systematic approach to learning involves assessing not only the result, but also the means of implementing the learning process. Criteria for the quality of the learning process: the completeness of the designed elements of the content of education and teaching methods, individualization and differentiation of learning, the use of various organizations. forms; implementation will educate. learning functions. Criteria for the effectiveness of training: accuracy and structure (consistency) of the acquired knowledge, the formation of scientific. worldview of students, value systems, morals., labor, aesthetic. education of schoolchildren, the level of creative application of knowledge and skills.

Before D. are still numerous. unresolved tasks. These include: methodo-logical. problems of increasing the effectiveness of didactic. research, conceptual and terminological. system D., didactic problems. forecasting, further development and deepening of the theory of the content of education, criteria for selecting the content of basic education, methods and new organizations. forms of education, identifying ways to differentiate learning, finding effective ways to improve education., educate. and developing the functions of teaching, substantiating the role of the media in education, developing objective criteria and methods available to the teacher for assessing the process and results of learning, lifelong education, etc.

Research in the field of D. are carried out in Ros. Federations in N. - and. RAO institutions, in ped. Research institutes of the republics, in the departments of pedagogy ped. universities and universities. D.'s problems are covered in the journal. "Pedagogy", "People's education", as well as in local ped. publications.

Lit .: Comenius Ya. A., Izbr. ped. op. in 2 vols. v. 1, M., 1982; Vilman Odidactics as a theory of education in its relationship to the sociology and history of education, trans. from German, vol. 1 - 2, M. 1904 - 08; Ushinsky K. D., Izbr. ped. op. in 2 vols., v. 2. M., 1974; Lunacharsky A. V., On upbringing and education, M., 1976; Kapterev P.F. Selected. ped. soch., M., 1982; Danilov M. A., E with and and about in B. P., Didaktika, M., 1957; Didactics, ed. Edited by B. P. Esipova. Moscow, 1967. Danilov M. A., The process of learning in the Soviet. school, M., 1960; Fundamentals of didactics, ed. B. P. Esipova, M. 1967; Zankov L. V., On the subject and methods of didactic. research, Mi962; his own, Didactics and Life, [M., 1968]; Problems of Pedagogy Methodology and Research Methods, ed. M. A. Danilova, N. I. Boldyreva, M., 1971; Sorokini. A., Didaktika, M., 1974; Zagvyazinsky V.I., Contradictions of the learning process, Tyumen, 1971; him, Methodology and methodology didactic. research, M., 1982; Training and Development, ed. Edited by L. V. Zankova. Moscow, 1975. Didactics cf. schools, ed. M. A. Danilova and M. N. Skatkina. Moscow, 1975. Bespalko V. P., Fundamentals of the theory of ped. systems, Voronezh, 1977; KraevskyV. V., Problems of science. substantiation of training (methodological aspect), M., 1977; G with p III at n-sky B. C., PruhaYa., Didaktich. prognosis, K., 1979; Lerner I. Ya., Didaktich. Fundamentals of teaching methods, M., 1981; Didactics cf. schools, ed. M. N. Skatkina. Moscow, 1982. B a b a n-s k i i Yu. K., Problems of increasing the efficiency of ped. research (didactic aspect), M., 1982; Vendrovskaya R. B., Essays on the history of owls. didactics, M., 1982; Ilyina T. A., Subject and basic. categories of owls. didactics, in the book: Pedagogy, ed. Yu. K. Babansky, M., 1983, ch. 5; Skatkin M.N., Problems of Sov. didactics, M., 1984; his, Improvement of the learning process, M., 1971; Theoretical the basics of the content of the general cf. education, ed. V. V. Kraevsky, I. Ya. Lerner, M., 1983; Klingberg L., Problems of learning theory, trans. from German., M., 1984; Kupisevich Ch., Fundamentals of General Didactics, Jer. from Polish., M., 1986; Didactics cf. schools, ed. V. A. Onishchuk, K., 1987; Marev I., Metodol. fundamentals of didactics, trans. from Bulgarian, Mi987; Theoretical the basics of the learning process in eov. school, ed. V. V. Kraevsky, I. Ya. Lerner, M., 1989; In l o o m B. S., All our chil-dren learning, N. Y., 1981; B ru n e r J. S., Toward a theory of instruction, Camb. (Mass.), 1966; Eble K. E., The craft of teaching, S. F., 1976; G a l R., Ou en est la pedagogie, P., 1961; Geissler E. E., Allgemeine Didaktik, Stuttg. , 1981; Joyce B., Weil M., Models of teaching, Englewood Cliffs (No. J.), 1986 3; Patt er s o n C. H., Foundations for a theory of instruction and educatio-nal psychology, N. Y., 1977; S a k a m ​​o t o T., The role of educational thechnology in curriculum development, P., 1974; S k i n-n er B., The technology of teaching, N. Y., 1968. I. Ya. Lerner, M. H. Skatkin.

Problems of modern foreign D. Sovrem. D. in industrialized countries is significantly psychologized. In some cases didactic approaches are built as a direct projection of psychol. concepts on the account. process [e.g., “psychol. didactics” by X. Ebli (France) as the construction of learning based on the theory of J. Piaget; B. Skinner's behavioral theory of learning as an application to learning the principles of "operant conditioning"]. In a more indirect form, the impact of psychology on D. occurs through the inclusion of scientific. apparatus of psychology in the study and design of learning; for example, the influence of behavioral methodology on the development of programmed learning and pedagogical technology, the development of a taxonomy of ped. goals, approaches to the problem of goal-setting" (B. Bloom, R. Meijer, N. Gronlund, USA); the influence of cognitive psychology on the concept of core ideas in the content of education (J. Bruner, X. Taba, J. Schwab, USA); psychological interaction. ideas about abilities and their development (J. Carroll, B. Bloom, USA) to develop the concept of complete assimilation. Analytical apparatus of psychology is widely used in the study of empirical. didactic searches [eg, studying the experience of open learning in different countries of the world; characterization of teaching styles (N. Bennett et al., UK)]; synthesis of "learning models" as a general didactic. strategies for selecting techniques and teaching methods (B. Joyce, M. Weil, USA). A systematic approach to the design of education (from goal-setting to the evaluation of achieved results) had a noticeable impact on D., which manifested itself in general didactic. the course of ped. technology.

Zarub. D. of recent years has been developing in the context of a large-scale revision of the account. programs, content updates and school strategies. education, social-ped. orientation towards mass, secondary and post-secondary education. Means. place in didactic problems were occupied by the development of the content of education and the design of the account. programs (curriculum research and development, Curriculum-Forschung). This area of ​​research includes; the staging is formed. and uch. goals; selection of training content; organization of educational process (selection of organizational forms and teaching methods); development of criteria and tools for evaluating the implementation of specific uch. programs. Zarub. theory

training along with organizational forms and methods of teaching studies a number of parameters uch. process: socio-psychological (emotional climate, cooperation - rivalry, etc.), structural-logical (types of content of the study material, its logical characteristics: abstractness - concreteness, etc., types of logical operations in the course of learning, character distribution of study time), cognitive (in terms of the processes of transmission and perception of information), characteristics of interaction in the classroom (teaching and managerial actions of the teacher, the role of students, etc.), as well as "contextual" parameters, such as, for example, uch. environment (equipment, learning space), characteristics of students (cognitive, gender and age, social, ethnic), teacher (including his socio-professional status, professional attitudes). The subject of a number of studies are didactic. searches, experience of non-traditional accounting systems. work (for example, open learning in elementary school, the use of complete learning systems in secondary and higher schools, the inclusion of didactic games in the learning process, etc.). Noticeable attention in zarub. didactics of the 80s - early. 90s is given to the problems of general education. a minimum in a mass school (allocation of the "core" of the content of general education), as well as an in-depth study of new trends in the construction of an account. process, for example, such as the organization of joint. uch. activities, accounting cognizant. styles, the orientation of learning to the criterion-based assessment of results (see. Full assimilation system), the use of new information. technologies in teaching, equipping the teacher with a flexible repertoire of "learning models", etc.

During the 60-80s. in the United States, research data on learning have been summarized in compendiums prepared by Amer. association of ped. research (1965, 1973, 1986). The first experience of creating between Nar. A collection of studies on learning problems is presented in The international encyclopedia of teaching and teacher education, ed. by M. Dunkin (The International Encyclopedia of Teacher Education and Training, Oxford, 1987).

LitBruner J., The learning process, trans. from English, M., 1962; Aebli H. De-dactique psychologique, R.; In l a n-kertz H., Teorien und Modelle der Didaktik, Munch., 1977; Lewy A., Planning the school curriculum, P., 1977; R o b i n-sohn S. B. Bildungsreform als Revision des Curriculum, B.; Romiszowski A. J., Designing instructiona Systems. L1981; A Systems appreach to teaching and learning procedures, R.; Tab a H., Curriculum development. Theory and practice, N. Y., 1962; T an n er D. T an n er L., Curriculum development. Theory into practice, N. Y.; Theories of learning and instruction, ed. by E. R. Hilgard, Chi., 1964.

Handbook of research on teaching, ed. by N. L. Gage, Chi., 1965; The second Handbook of research on teaching, ed. by R. M. W. Travers, Chi., 1973; Handbook of research on teaching, ed. by M. C. Wittrock, N. Y.-L. 1986J. M. V. Klarin.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Didactics(didaktos - teaching, didasko - study (from Greek)) - a part of pedagogy that studies the problems of learning and education (learning theory).

For the first time the word didactics was introduced by the German teacher Wolfgang Rathke. Ya. A. Komensky interpreted didactics as a universal art of teaching everyone everything. At the beginning of the 19th century, the German educator I. Herbart introduced the theory of educational teaching into didactics.

Didactics- the science of training and education, their goals and content, methods, means and results achieved.

1) teaching - the ordered activity of the teacher in the transfer of ZUNs, their awareness and practical application;

2) teaching - a process during which new forms of behavior and activity arise on the basis of ZUNs, exercises and social experience;

3) training - a systematic, purposeful, specially organized process of interaction between teachers and students, aimed at the transfer of knowledge and skills and the development of creative abilities;

4) education - the result of learning, the system of the volume of knowledge gained in the learning process;

5) knowledge - understanding, preservation in memory and the ability to reproduce the basic facts of science and the theoretical generalizations arising from them;

6) skills - mastering the ways of applying knowledge in practice, which is manifested in activities;

7) skill - automatic ability to accurately and quickly perform actions based on existing knowledge (as a result of repeated performance of a certain action);

8) academic subject - the field of scientific knowledge;

9) educational material - the content of an educational subject, which is determined by GOST;

10) the purpose of training - what the training strives for and what its efforts are aimed at;

12) teaching method - a way to achieve the goal;

13) teaching aids - subject support of the educational process (teacher's voice, classroom equipment, TCO);

14) learning outcomes - what learning comes to, the specific implementation of the intended goals.

Subject, tasks and contradictions of didactics:

Didactics covers the entire system of education in all subjects.

Didactics is:

• General- the concept of teaching, learning; factors influencing the learning process; conditions in which training is carried out and results
• Private- methods of teaching subjects, a subject that has its own specifics of teaching

The main tasks of didactics:

1) development of problems - what to teach, how to teach, whom to teach;

2) to study the patterns of educational and cognitive activity of students and ways to activate it in the learning process;

3) organization of cognitive activity to master scientific knowledge and skills;

4) to develop cognitive mental processes and creative abilities in students;

5) develop more advanced organization of the learning process, introduce new learning technologies in learning;

Didactics performs the following functions:

1) educational- transmission of the ZUN system at each age stage of personality development;

2) developing- the formation and development of the mental qualities of the individual, their change;

3) educational- the connection between knowledge and attitudes to the world around, to oneself and other people.

The driving forces of learning are contradictions - opposing opinions clashing in conflict:

a) contradictions between the interest of students and the subject;

b) the contradiction between teaching and learning;

c) the contradiction between the level of previous knowledge and new knowledge;

contradictions between the required and achieved level of students' attitudes towards learning, i.e. motive for learning and practically learned knowledge.

Didactic concepts (J. A. Comenius, I. F. Herbart, J. Dewey, P. P. Galperin, Sh. A. Amonashvili):

In didactics, there are 3 main concepts of learning:

a) traditional- the main role in it is played by teaching and the activities of the teacher (J.A. Komensky, I.F. Herbart, A. Disterverg and I.G. Pestalozzi);

b) pragmatic- the main role is given to the teachings and activities of students (D. Dewey, L. Tolstoy, V. Lai);

in) contemporary- the main role of the interaction of teaching and learning, the activities of the teacher and students (Zankov, Davydov, Elkonin, Ilyin).

The concept of didactics first appeared in his work The Great Didactics. He said that children in school should be treated equally by all: noble and plebeian, rich and poor. He introduced the principle of visibility, which he called the "golden rule of didactics." A great merit is the introduction of the class-lesson system of school education. The concept of “lesson” and “change” appeared, divided the year into quarters and singled out vacations. The class consists of a permanent group of children.

In the "Great Didactics" highlighted 4 six-year stages of development, including years of training and education of a young person:

Maternal school (from birth to 6 years);

Mother tongue school (from 6 to 12 years old);

School of Latin Language (from 12 to 18 years old);

Academy and travel (from 18 to 24 years old).

Training programs have been developed for all these levels. Ya. A. Comenius paid more attention to 3 features of a person: mind (connection with thinking), hand (connection with activity), language (connection with speech). Thanks to these features, a person is capable of self-development.

Sh. Amonashvili "Technology of humane pedagogy".

He studied the possibilities of mastering new meaningful concepts by students. His methodology was called "Theory of the gradual formation of mental actions." The theory is based on an algorithm - a strict sequence of actions leading to a given result.

This teaching is widely used in elementary school and has the following steps:

1) preliminary acquaintance with the action, the condition for its implementation (oriented stage);

2) the formation of the action as externally verbal (pronunciation);

3) formation of actions in inner speech (consciousness);

4) the transition of external actions into internal ones (internalization) and the action becomes an act of thinking.

The assimilation of information should occur in the process of purposeful learning. In the beginning, learning theory favored the inductive method (learning from the particular to the general), and then the deductive method (from the general to the particular).