Stages of the 30 Years War. x

The Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648 affected almost all European countries. This struggle for the hegemony of the Holy Roman Empire was the last European religious war.

Causes of the conflict

There were several reasons for the Thirty Years' War.

The first is the clashes between Catholics and Protestants in Germany, which eventually escalated into a larger conflict - the struggle against the hegemony of the Habsburgs.

Rice. 1. German Protestants.

The second is the desire of France to leave the Habsburg Empire fragmented in order to retain the right to part of its territories.

And the third is the struggle between England and France for naval dominance.

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Periodization of the Thirty Years' War

Traditionally, it is divided into four periods, which will be clearly presented in the table below.

years	Period
	Swedish
	Franco-Swedish

Outside of Germany, there were local wars: the Netherlands fought with Spain, the Poles fought with the Russians and Swedes.

Rice. 2. A group of Swedish soldiers during the Thirty Years' War.

Course of the Thirty Years' War

The beginning of the Thirty Years' War in Europe is associated with the Czech uprising against the Habsburgs, which, however, was defeated by 1620, and five years later, Denmark, a Protestant state, came out against the Habsburgs. France's attempts to draw a strong Sweden into the conflict were unsuccessful. In May 1629, Denmark was defeated and withdrawn from the war.

In parallel, the war with the Habsburg domination begins France, which in 1628 enters into a confrontation with them in northern Italy. But the fighting was sluggish and protracted - it ended only in 1631.

The year before, Sweden entered the war, which in two years went through all of Germany and eventually defeated the Habsburgs at the Battle of Lützen.

The Swedes in this battle lost about one and a half thousand people, and the Habsburgs - twice as much.

Russia also took part in this war, which opposed the Poles, but was defeated. After that, the Swedes moved to Poland, who were defeated by the Catholic coalition and in 1635 were forced to sign the Paris Peace Treaty.

However, over time, the superiority still turned out to be on the side of the opponents of Catholicism, and in 1648 the war was ended in their favor.

Results of the Thirty Years' War

This long religious war had a number of consequences. So, among the results of the war, one can name the conclusion of the Westphalian peace treaty, which was important for everyone, which took place in 1648, on October 24.

The terms of this agreement were as follows: South Alsace and part of the Lorraine lands departed France, Sweden received a significant indemnity and also actual power over Western Pomerania and the Duchy of Bregen, as well as the island of Rügen.

Rice. 3. Alsace.

The only ones that this military conflict did not affect in any way were Switzerland and Turkey.

Hegemony in international life ceased to belong to the Habsburgs - after the war, France took their place. However, the Habsburgs still remained a significant political force in Europe.

After this war, the influence of religious factors on the life of European states sharply weakened - interfaith differences ceased to be important. Geopolitical, economic and dynastic interests came to the fore.

What have we learned?

General information about the Thirty Years' War, starting with its causes and course, was also briefly learned about the results of the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. We learned which states were participants in this religious conflict and how it eventually ended for them. We received information about the name “Westphalian Peace Treaty” and its main conditions. We also considered the general information about the conflict available in the textbook for grade 7.

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One of the most important events of the 17th century was the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. Almost all European countries participated in it, it left behind millions of human victims. The decisive point in this war was put by an agreement called the Peace of Westphalia. Its results were of great importance for all subsequent European history. It was concluded on October 15 and 24, 1648, after lengthy negotiations that had dragged on since 1644 and could not satisfy the conditions of all participants.

1648

He united the Münster and Osnabrück peace treaties concluded that year in Westphalia. In the city of Munster, negotiations were held with representatives of Catholicism, and in Osnabrück - with the Protestant side. Sometimes the Peace of Westphalia also includes the treaty concluded on January 30 of the same year by Spain and the United Provinces of the Netherlands, which ended the Eighty Years' War, since researchers consider the struggle between these states to be part of the Thirty Years' War.

What were the combined treaties?

The Treaty of Osnabrück was an agreement between Sweden and its allies.

The Roman Empire signed Munster with France and those countries that supported it (these included Holland, Venice, Savoy, Hungary). It was these two states that took such an active part in the fate of a large part of Europe because in the third and most important, critical period of the Thirty Years' War, they contributed to the loosening of the Roman forces, which contributed to their fragmentation in the future. The Peace of Westphalia mainly denoted the provisions that determined the territorial changes, political structure and religious features in the Holy Roman Empire.

The results of the 30-year war

How did the confrontation between countries end? Under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Netherlands. Also, according to this document, the countries that won the Thirty Years' War - France and Sweden, were appointed guarantors of peace. These powerful powers controlled the operation of the signed treaty, and without their consent they could not change a single article in it. Thus, the whole of Europe was reliably protected from any global changes, which could lead to a threat to the security of many countries. And since, thanks to the German emperor, he was powerless, the rest of the strong powers could not be afraid of his influence. The Peace of Westphalia contributed to significant territorial reshaping, primarily in favor of the victorious powers of France and Sweden.

One such cardinal change on the map was that, under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Republic of the United Provinces. This state, having begun its liberation war against Catholic Spain as a rebellion, received international recognition in 1648.

What did the countries that won the war get?

According to the decision taken at the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, the empire paid an indemnity to Sweden, amounting to 5 million thalers. In addition, the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and part of Eastern Pomerania (together with Stettin), the city of Wismar, the Bishopric of Verden and the Archbishopric of Bremen departed (the city of Bremen itself was not included there).

Sweden also got the mouths of many navigable rivers in Northern Germany. Having received the German principalities at his disposal, the king of Sweden had the opportunity to send deputies to the imperial diet.

The signing of the Peace of Westphalia made it possible for France to obtain the possessions of the Habsburgs located in Alsace, however, without the city of Strasbourg, as well as sovereignty over several bishoprics in Lorraine. New possessions after the signing of the treaty and the increased influence of the country helped her to further take the position of hegemon in Europe.

The German principalities of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Braunschweig-Lüneburg and Brandenburg, which supported the victorious countries, also benefited - they were able to expand their possessions as a result of the annexation of secularized bishoprics and monasteries. As a result of this treaty, Lusatia was annexed to Saxony, and the Upper Palatinate became part of Bavaria. The Elector of Brandegburg also received vast lands in his possession, on which Prussia was later formed.

What did this peace bring to the Germans?

The conditions of the Peace of Westphalia were such that the German emperor lost a significant amount of his former rights. At the same time, the German princes became independent of the Roman ruler and were able to pursue an independent foreign and domestic policy. For example, they could participate in decision-making regarding the outbreak of war and the conclusion of peace, their department had the determination of the amount of taxes, and the adoption of laws in the Roman Empire largely depended on them.

The specific princes could also conclude treaties with other states. The only thing that was inaccessible to them was the conclusion of alliances with other powers against the ruler of the Roman Empire. Speaking in modern terms, after the signing of this treaty, the specific German princes became subjects of international law and could take an active part in the political life of Europe. The strengthening of their positions contributed to the formation of the federal structure of modern Germany.

Religious life after 1648

As for the religious sphere, as a result of the Peace of Westphalia in Germany, Catholics, Calvinists and Lutherans were equalized in rights, and also legalized, which was held in the 20s of the 17th century. From now on, the electors could not determine their religious affiliation for their subjects. In addition, under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of Holland. Recall that the liberation movement in this country began with a speech against Catholic Spain. In fact, this treaty legitimized the political fragmentation of Germany, ending the imperial history of this power.

Thus, the Peace of Westphalia significantly increased the power of France, ridding her of her main rival, Spain, who claimed the first role among all European states.

Another important function of this treaty, which historians talk about: it was the basis for all subsequent European agreements until the 18th century, when French Spain recognized the independence of the Northern Netherlands under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia. The Swiss Union also received international legal recognition.

Significance of the Peace of Westphalia

Thus, this treaty is called the event that marked the beginning of the modern world order, which provides for the existence of nation-states in the world and the operation of certain principles of international law. The principle of political equilibrium probably developed precisely as a result of the appearance of the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia. The tradition of solving complex territorial, legal, religious problems in relations between two or more states with the help of the intervention of other strong and influential European powers has appeared since then.

The Significance of the 30 Years' War for the Formation of the Current Legal System

The concept of "Westphalian system", which refers to the field of world law and appeared after 1648, means ensuring the sovereignty of any state in its legal territory. Until the 19th century, the norms of the treaty and the terms of the Peace of Westphalia largely determined the laws

After the appearance of the agreement, the rights of reformed Christianity with traditional Roman Catholic Christianity were especially strengthened, which is important from the point of view of cultural studies. True, many scholars find certain shortcomings in the provisions by which, after the signing of the treaty, the inhabitants of Germany were to live. So, they were forced to profess the religion chosen by the ruler, that is, in fact, there was no freedom of religion yet. But, despite all the shortcomings, the Peace of Westphalia was indeed the first (and successful) attempt to create a system of international law.

At the turn of the 2nd centuries of the 16th and 17th centuries, this situation was unstable and carried the prerequisites for another all-European conflict. From 1494 to 1559 Europe experienced a conflict called the Italian Wars. In the era of modern times, conflicts are becoming more and more large-scale and acquire a pan-European character. What is the complexity of the international situation?

France, after the religious wars ended and Henri (Henry) 4 of Bourbon reigned, began to prepare to expand its territory, strengthen its borders and establish claims to hegemony in Europe. Those. the place of hegemon, which was occupied by Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburgs in the middle of the 16th century, did not remain vacant for a long time. In order for his hegemonic aspirations to have some grounds, Henry 4 resumes, or rather confirms, the agreement concluded in 1535-36 with Ottoman Turkey, aimed at inciting the Turks against the Venetian Republic and the Austrian Habsburgs.

In the 16th century, the French tried to solve the problem of the Habsburgs and eliminate, at least for a while, the pliers of the Habsburgs, Spanish and Austrian, who squeezed France from the east and west.

Now the French are preparing to start wars to expand their territory and finally overthrow the Habsburgs. This preparation was completed in 1610 in a completely unexpected event. The religious fanatic Revolier stabbed Henry 4 with a dagger. This attempt was caused not only by the internal religious and political events of French society, but also by the intrigues of the Austrian Habsburgs.

Therefore, the preparation of France for an active offensive foreign policy and territorial expansion was disrupted for at least 10 years, because an inter-power was established in France, the young Louis 13, his mother regent. In fact, another Fronde has been hit - disagreements between the nobility, Protestant and Catholic. In general, this nobility tried to weaken the power of royal power.

Therefore, from 1610 to 1620, France sharply weakens its position and activity in the European arena.

Louis then becomes an adult. Most recently, they showed a film about how he regained power. He kills his mother's favorite and regains power. And after Cardinal Richelieu came to power in 1624, who ruled the country together with the king, until 1642, France was gaining momentum to strengthen the absolute monarchy and strengthen state power.

This policy met with support from the third estate, from the growing population of cities, crafts, trade, the bourgeoisie and the untitled nobility. Richelieu managed to pacify the titled nobility at least for a while.

In foreign policy, expansionist sentiments are again intensifying, and France resumes preparations for the struggle for the establishment of French hegemony, at least in the continental part of Europe.

The opponents of the French are the Spaniards, Austria, to some extent England. But here qualitative changes begin in French politics, because both Henry 4 and Cardinal Richelieu preached an active foreign policy.

Henry 4 believed that there are territories where they speak French, there are territories where they speak Spanish, German, then Henry 4 believed that French-speaking territories should be part of his kingdom. Those lands where German dialects are spoken should go to the Holy Roman Empire, and Spanish - to the Spanish kingdom.

Under Richelieu, this moderate expansionism is replaced by an immoderate one. Richelieu believed that the purpose of my being in power was to revive Gaul and return to the Gauls the borders intended for them by nature itself.

Remember the period of antiquity. Gaul is a rather huge amorphous region, and the return of the boundaries intended for it meant that the French, at least in the east, should go to the Rhine and include the left bank of the Rhine together with the Netherlands in the new Gaul, and go to the Pyrenees in order to expand the territory in the west and south countries.

Thus, put France in the place of Gaul and, according to Richelieu's idea, form a new Gaul. This unbridled expansion was naturally presented in a shell, camouflaged in beautiful expressions: safe borders, natural frontiers, restoration of historical justice, and so on.

Beneath these sentiments lay certain economic, social, and demographic problems in France. The fact is that France was the most populated country. This is at least 15 million people. And of course, living space is required.

Since the 16th century, as a result of the VGO and other changes, France has entered a phase of rapid economic growth, and not just an economy, but the creation of a market economy, which requires and is the basis of expansion. On the one hand, a powerful economy allows for an active foreign policy and offensive policy, and on the other hand, this economy requires new markets. The construction of the French colonial empire begins in a new light, in India, etc.

Early 17th century France and the French are faced with the problem of a new rise of the Habsburgs. We know that in the 16th century the Habsburgs were weakened. Since the beginning of the 16th century, the memory of these defeats and the influence of the factors that led to the weakening of the Habsburgs have been weakening to some extent. These factors are 5:

1) The desire to create a universalist, unified monarchy in Europe. This aspiration suffers a crushing defeat in 1556. Charles 1 (Charles 5) goes to the monastery, his possessions are divided into the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs and the Spanish branch. Those. this state is falling apart. This is the first factor that led to the weakening of the Habsburgs in the middle-second half of the 16th century.

2) The fight against the rebellious Netherlands, the Dutch revolution. Dates are different. From the iconoclastic uprising to 1609, the conclusion of a 12-year truce. Or the end of the Anglo-Dutch wars by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. In fact, the revolution lasted about 80 years. 3 generations of Dutch revolutionaries fought for the ideals of the revolution. This factor weakened the power of the Habsburgs.

3) The struggle against the dominance of the Habsburgs within the Holy Roman Empire. Moreover, not only Protestant rulers fought, such as the Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, but also Catholic rulers such as the Duke of Bavaria, who believed that a weak emperor was better than a strong one.

4) Anglo-Spanish rivalry on the seas. The defeat of the Great Armada, the largest fleet in the history of the 16th century in 1588. These wars at sea in the 17th century, after the change of dynasty in England, the arrival of the Stuarts, are weakening, because the Stuarts are trying on the one hand to compete with Spain, and on the other hand to establish normal relations, to conclude a dynastic alliance in order to descend not only by war, but and dynastic diplomatic relations.

5) The rivalry between the two branches of the Habsburgs, Austrian and Spanish, for supremacy in the House of Habsburg on the one hand, and secondly for establishing their influence both in southern Germany and in the Italian lands, which mostly went to the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs.

These 5 factors that divided the Habsburgs and weakened in the 16th century, these factors cease to operate in the 17th century, or weaken.

And there is a desire to connect these 2 branches through a dynastic marriage and unite the broken state again into a single monarchy.

As you understand, these death plans are similar for many European countries. For the same France, the restoration of the power and unity of the Habsburgs means that the nightmare of the 16th century is reborn, these Habsburg pincers, from the east and from the west, which threatened to crush France, and France felt like between a rock and a hard place.

The strengthening of the Habsburgs is facilitated by a factor that is often underestimated in our literature: this is the weakening of the Ottoman threat by the end of the 16th century.

1573 - 4th Venetian-Turkish war.

1609 - the 6th Austro-Turkish war ends and also land wars for 10 years, the threat to Austria and Hungary weakens. This means that the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs have freed up a resource and can direct it to other areas of their foreign policy, i.e. send their forces against France and other European countries.

This is how the international situation changes in the early-first half of the 17th century.

The threat of the strengthening of the Habsburgs, and they are orthodox Catholics, no less than the Pope, and the threat of a revival of Catholic reaction, i.e. counter-reformation, the onset of the corresponding inquisition and the revision of the results of the Reformation in religious, social, political, property terms - it was a very serious threat at the beginning of the 17th century. And this threat was directed against a number of states.

First of all, for the German Protestant lands and cities of the Hansa, the victory and strengthening of the Habsburgs was like death. Why? Because then it was necessary to return to the Catholic Church everything that they had taken away from it during the years of the Reformation. But it would not be limited to this, but there would be an inquisition, bonfires, prisons, gallows, etc.

The same would have been true for the insurgent Netherlands, who, up to 1609, were conducting military operations against the Spaniards. Then both of them fizzled out, and in 1609 they concluded a 12-year truce or the Peace of Antwerp until 1621.

Even Protestant Denmark could not agree with the strengthening of the Habsburgs. Because the Danes considered themselves the heirs of the weakened Hansa, they believed that Denmark should regain control over the trade routes in the North and Baltic Seas. Accordingly, the increase in the territory of the Danish kingdom at the expense of the North German lands was always welcomed by the Danes.

Sweden - Sweden was ruled by a talented monarch, a reformer, Gustav 2 August. He constantly waged wars with his neighbors Russia, Poland. Its goal is to establish Sweden's dominance in the Baltic region, to take control of the coast, all major ports and estuaries of navigable rivers in the Baltic in order to control profitable trade in the North Sea, to turn the Baltic into an inland Swedish lake. To saddle (control) trade meant to impose trade with its duties, taxes, so that Sweden could live comfortably through the exploitation of this trade, increase its economic, political and military power. Therefore, for Sweden, the strengthening of the Habsburgs was dangerous and unprofitable.

England. The position of Protestant England was more complex, not so definite. On the one hand, for England, as a Protestant country, the threat of the restoration of Catholicism, the counter-reformation was unacceptable. In addition, England continued to be a potentially dangerous rival of the Catholic countries ... Therefore, the strengthening of the Habsburgs in the Mediterranean or the Atlantic was not included in the plans of the British. Therefore, the British tried to harm them wherever they could, and supported all the anti-Habsburg forces.

Riots in the Netherlands, unrest in the Holy Roman Empire, England gladly supported.

On the other hand, another factor acted on the British. The Dutch and French competed with the English crown in shipping. Therefore, there was no particular reason for the British to get involved in this conflict either. And they sought to pursue such a policy that the opposing pro-Habsburg forces and the Antti-Habsburg forces, without the active participation of England in hostilities, would exhaust each other, and the British would benefit from this. Therefore, England sometimes took an indecisive position and sought to minimize its participation in the European struggle during the 30 Years' War.

The main epicenter of the arena of the future all-European war, which we know as the 30-year war, 1618-1648, was Germany, the Holy Roman Empire. This is the main theater of war for the opposing sides. What are these sides?

In the early 1610s, 2 blocks were formed.

1 block Habsburg, which included the Catholic princes of Germany, Spain and Austria. Accordingly, this coalition was actively supported by the throne of St. Peter, this is the Pope, who at some moments also participated in this war, and the Commonwealth, which waged its wars, but dreamed of reuniting through the German lands ..., to get direct access to the Austrian lands, to receive the support of European catholic monarchs.

Anti-Habsburg bloc. If the Catholic forces supported the Habsburgs, accordingly, the Protestants were opponents of both the Catholic princes and the Habsburgs, Spanish and Austrian. Protestant princes of the Holy Roman Empire, primarily Germany, Sweden, Denmark and Catholic France. The anti-Hasburg bloc was also strongly supported by Russia, to a large extent by England (before the revolution), and Holland. Holland did not formally enter into any agreements on military alliances, but from 1609 and from 1621 there were wars between the Dutch and the Spaniards until 1648. And these wars became, as it were, an integral part of this 30-year war.

Germany became the main theater of operations, the focus of the pan-European crisis. Why? First of all, the geographical factor. The country is terribly fragmented: 300 medium, large principalities, 1.5 thousand small possessions, imperial cities. Everyone is fighting with each other like a cat and a dog. Accordingly, it is a pleasure for hired troops to walk, rob, and fight in this territory.

Secondly, the Holy Roman Empire is the patrimony of the Austrian Habsburgs, who tried to establish the triumph of the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church and consolidate their power on this territory.

Germany experienced during the 16th and early 17th centuries a period of economic, social, and political decline. The country was fragmented according to the religious peace of 1555. The Augsturg religious world played a huge role in weakening the German lands and expanding the rivalry of the German princes.

In addition, the unsuccessful attempt of the early bourgeois revolution led to the weakening of the forces that advocated the renewal of German society. This means the creation of a market economy, the development of market bourgeois-capitalist relations and the strengthening of the forces that were for the conservation of these relations, the preservation of the old order: feudalism, Catholicism.

The last factor is the WGO and the changes in the trade and economy of Europe to which they led, the displacement of the main trade routes. This led to the fact that the German states, which flourished in the 14th century and the beginning of the 16th century, lost their incentive to develop. Accordingly, the handicraft and manufacturing economy fell into decay, the urban economy fell into decay. And this means a reduction in the market for agricultural. products and the decline of the overall economy of the country. And in conditions of decline, tendencies towards conservatism triumph; not the development of agriculture along the market path, but the commutation of agriculture, a return to the old feudal rails.

The political and religious struggle within the Holy Roman Empire intensified by the beginning of the 17th century under Emperor Rudolf 2 of Habsburg (1576-1612). Under him, the prerequisites for a future pan-European conflict were outlined. First of all, the Catholic Church and the Jesuits under Rudolf 2 went on the offensive from the beginning of the 17th century in order to change the fragile balance of religious and political forces established by the Augsburg Religious Peace of 1555.

This threat forces the Protestant rulers to rally. And by 1608, create a Protestant or Evangelical union headed by the ruler (elector) of the Palatinate, Frederick 5 of the Palatinate.

In response to this, in 1609, the Catholic princes created the Catholic League, headed by the Duke of Bavaria, Elector Maximilian (Max) of Bavaria.

These 2 leagues start their own troops, their own treasury, their own coin, conduct completely independent foreign relations. The formation of both religious and political groups in Germany by 1608-1609 means that the struggle on the territory of the German lands is entering a decisive phase. But Elector Frederick of the Palatinate is guided by France in foreign policy, by Henry 4 of Bourbon, although he is a Catholic. With his support, he is trying to resist the pressure of Rudolf 2 of Habsburg, the pressure of the Spaniards and Austrians. At the same time, he is married to the daughter of James 1 Stuart, i.e. is his son-in-law, and is oriented to some extent to England.

Max of Bavaria relies on the Spaniards and the Austrian Habsburgs.

However, the conflict by 1610 nevertheless does not receive its development. The reasons:

The fact is that the main participants in the future conflict are not yet ready for war.

The Spaniards until 1609 are busy suppressing the revolution in the Netherlands. They are exhausted by this war and are not able to immediately enter into a new war. Although Philip 3 is in contact with the Austrian Habsburgs, supports Bavaria, the Catholic League, but cannot start a war.

1610 Armagnac kills Henri (Henry) 4 of Bourbon and therefore France leaves active world politics for decades, as civil strife and the weakening of royal power take place there.

England, which is in principle interested in a pan-European conflict that should destroy and weaken its competitors, also in the 1610s, James 1 Stuart pursues such a policy: on the one hand, he supports the anti-Habsburg Protestant forces in Europe, and on the other hand, he tries to agree on dynastic marriage with the Spanish Habsburgs. Therefore, he is also not entirely interested in this conflict.

Sweden, Russia are also busy with their own affairs in Poland and the Baltics. The Poles undertook an unsuccessful campaign against Moscow in 1617-18 (Smoot, False Dmitry).

Those. until 1618, all the countries of Europe are busy with their own affairs.

The first period of this 30-year war was called the Bohemian-Pfalian. 1618-1624. The main events took place on the territory of the Palatinate and the Czech Republic. Both sides, both the Habsburg and anti-Habsburg supporters, proved to be quite aggressive forces that sought to weaken each other, to wrest a fatter piece from each other.

The fact is that the Czech Republic was included in the Habsburg Empire in 1526. This is the active phase of the peasant war, the Reformation. Ferdinand of Habsburg, who became the Czech king, promised the Czechs, when the Czech Republic was included in the Habsburg Austrian Empire, the preservation of religious freedoms, the rejection of persecution of Protestants, and the preservation of liberty and self-government of both Czech cities and the Czech kingdom as a whole.

But promises are made by politicians in order not to fulfill them later, but to think about how to get around them. Subsequent development led to the fact that all these liberties were crushed and reduced. Therefore, claims from the growing cities of the Czech population grew. And the Czech Republic, the Czech cities were the most prosperous region of the Habsburg Austrian state.

By the beginning of the 17th century, the ruler of the Palatinate, Frederick 5, begins to flirt with the Czechs, begins to incite them to riots and promises to create an anti-Habsburg alliance consisting of the Palatinate, the Czech Republic, Holland, the Swiss cantons, the Venetian Republic, etc. Those. create an anti-Habsburg coalition that will help the Czechs free themselves from the influence of the power of the Catholic Habsburgs.

Under these conditions, Rudolph in 1611 was forced to confirm all existing liberties and concessions to the Czechs. And what's more, he received the Letter of Majesty. The essence of this charter was that since the Czechs had accumulated many claims against Austrian officials who did not fulfill their obligations, violated the rights of Czechs, the liberties of cities, then we establish a government consisting of 10 deputies, called lieutenants, who govern on behalf of the Austrian monarch Czech Republic. But the Czechs, for their part, elect their proxies - controllers, who must monitor both the observance of the civil rights of the Czechs and religious freedoms and the prevention of persecution of the Protestant Czech population. It looks like a dual power. On the one hand, the official authorities, on the other hand, the Czech controllers.

Dual power does not exist in any country for a long time, because some kind of scale begins to pull. These 10 lieutenants, deputies of the Austrian monarch, gradually begin to bribe controllers, to force cooperation. And the four most incorruptible were declared opposition and tried to expel.

As a result, on May 5, 1618, an uprising broke out in Prague, the territory, the Prague Castle, was seized, and two of the most irreconcilable lieutenants were thrown out of the windows. This uprising thus begins the era of the 30 Years' War.

The Czechs are quickly creating their own government, which is building up its own armed forces, its own treasury. They begin to call for rebellion other Slavic lands, these are Moravia, upper and lower Lusatia, and Silesia in order to form their own association within the Austrian Empire, which would then break out of the orbit of the Habsburgs' attraction and create an independent state.

This is unacceptable, although the Czechs are counting on the help of the German princes, the same Palatinate. This leads to the final split in Europe. The Austrian Habsburgs quickly find common ground, agreements with the Spaniards, and hire Spanish troops. The Bavarian ruler Max sends his troops under the command of the talented commander Baron Tilly.

Habsburg is deprived of the Czech throne, and Frederick 5 of the Palatinate is proclaimed Czech king. This leads to the beginning of serious hostilities on the territory of the Czech Republic, Moravia. Catholic troops, Spanish troops, Austrian Habsburg troops invade, and the 30 Years' War begins.

The preponderance of forces is on the side of the Habsburg coalition. But in the end, the German Protestant princes enter into an agreement with the Catholic princes of Germany, according to which the status quo is maintained in the German lands, and the Catholic troops get a free hand to operate in the Slavic lands (the Germans do not feel sorry for the Slavs).

As a result, on November 8, 1620, the Czech army was defeated in the battle of Belaya Gora. The failed Czech king, ruler of the Palatinate, flees to Brandenburg. By 1624, Catholic troops, these are Spanish mercenaries, the troops of the Catholic League under the leadership of Max of Bavaria and the troops of Emperor Wallenstein themselves, capture all the rebellious Slavic lands.

As a result, a regime of terror is established on the territory of the Czech Republic and Moravia. All opponents of the Habsburgs are exterminated. Their property is being seized. Protestant worship and churches are prohibited. A fully Catholic reaction is established.

From that moment to this day, the Czech Republic is a Catholic country.

The Spaniards invade the Palatinate and also capture and ravage it.

In 1625-29, the second stage of the 30-year war begins. It is called the Danish period.

The essence of this period is that the position of the Protestant camp in the German lands becomes simply desperately difficult. All of central Germany is occupied, northern Germany is next.

All this leads to the fact that Denmark, which itself is striving for territorial expansion in northern Germany, and is trying to take both the North Sea and the Baltic under its control, cannot come to terms with the triumph of the Catholic Spaniards and the Austrian Habsburgs. She receives subsidies from England and France. France is not yet ready for war. And Denmark enters the war. Therefore, the second period is called the Danish period.

The Austrian army under Wallenstein is largely mercenary, operating thanks to the Wallenstein system. The essence of this system was that the 30-year war is basically, with the exception of the Swedish armies, these are mercenary troops. If you have money, then you have hired troops. If there is no money...

Denmark enters the war. On the one hand, it is supported by Wallenstein, on the other hand, Baron Tilly, who commands the troops of the Catholic League. The Austrians are creating a powerful mercenary army that operates according to the Wallenstein system. The essence of this system was that the troops had to be paid, as a rule, there was not enough money in the treasury. Wallenstein's system lies in the fact that the troops where they lodge, at the expense of this territory, live. Either they rob the local population, or they feed in a civilized way through withdrawals, indemnities, taxes. This army of Wallenstein, like locusts, passes through all of southern and central Germany, enters northern, defeats the Danish troops. As a result, by the spring of 1629, both the Protestant princes and Denmark are on the verge of final defeat.

On March 6, 1629, all this forces the Protestant princes and Denmark to conclude a difficult peace for them. According to this peace, Denmark refuses to participate in any German and withdraws its troops outside the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire. All the ambitions of the Danes are unfulfilled. Wallenstein is given as a gift the Duchy of Mecklenburg in northern Germany, which is a springboard for further Austrian aggression both against Denmark and against the north German territories.

On March 6, 1629, the Protestant princes were forced to agree to the introduction of a restorative edict. Restitution means restoration, return of some position. The essence of this edict of March 6, 1629 is that all the rights of the Catholic Church, its lands, its property, which it lost as a result of the Reformation, are returned back to the old owners, monasteries, the Catholic Church. Plus, all the bishops, archbishops of the Catholic Church are restoring their not only ecclesiastical, but also secular power within the Holy Roman Empire.

This biggest success of the Habsburg coalition by the spring of 1629 to some extent plays a cruel joke on these forces, because the rulers always look at their commanders as possible competitors. So the Habsburgs looked at this Wallenstein, one of the greatest generals, with suspicion. Therefore, in 1630 he was retired.

In 1630, the next, Swedish stage of this war begins. 1630-1635 years.

The point is that the Peace of Lübeck and the Edict of Restoration opened up opportunities for the realization of the political plans of the Habsburgs to create a universalist monarchy in Europe and establish the political hegemony of the Habsburgs in Europe. Therefore, the states that opposed the Habsburgs faced a real threat that had to be confronted.

In 1628, Richelieu takes La Rochelle, turns the head of the Huguenots (Protestants) in France. But France does not yet want to enter the war. Therefore, Richelieu decided to use as a weapon of war the young energetic monarch King Gustavus Adolf - indeed one of the most talented monarchs of the 17th century, a reformer and a major military commander. France provides financial assistance. With this money, Gustav Adolf is reforming his army. Its essence is as follows: before Gustavus Adolf, Catholic troops fought in huge regiments. Before Gustavus Adolphus, there were mercenary troops who fought when they were paid. Therefore, the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus introduces a regular army, based on national armies. Not mercenaries, but a recruiting kit. They have a higher degree of consciousness.

Further, he is reforming the Swedish army, which consists in the introduction of linear progressive tactics. In this army, the main emphasis is on firearms. Swedish troops are being equipped with more powerful artillery, including field artillery for the first time. Shelves line up...

As a result, in 1630, Swedish troops landed in the north of Germany, quickly captured it, entered Central Germany, into Saxony. They conclude allied relations with the Saxon duke, and inflict 2 most powerful defeats on the troops of the Habsburg coalition.

September 7, 1631 Battle of Breitenfeld. The army commanded by Baron Tilly is defeated.

However, the battle of Lutzen turned out to be fatal for Gustav 2 Adolf. He died. Historians debate how this happened. The Austrians fled, the Swedes began to pursue them. The king, at the head of a small detachment, rode in the hope of capturing one of the prominent military leaders. Either he ran into a more powerful detachment, or he was slaughtered by his own military, who were bribed.

After this tragic victory, the affairs of the Swedes are upset, discipline is falling. The Swedish army was already defeated in September 1634 in the battle of Nervingen, and the Swedes were losing their positions in Germany. They retreat to the North Sea and the Polish border.

In 1635 the Swedish stage ends.

The last stage from 1635 to 1648 was called the Franco-Swedish.

France concludes the Treaty of Saint-Germain with Sweden, which is gradually joined by other states: Holland, Mantua, Savoy, Venice. The preponderance of the forces of the anti-Habsburg coalition is gradually formed, which begins to affect the course of hostilities.

On May 19, 1643, in the battle of Rokur, Prince Condé actually destroys, leads the army of the Habsburgs and German princes to flight.

And the Swedes on November 2, 1645, in the battle of Jankov, also defeat the Austrian army.

As a result, in 1846, the Swedish and French armies unite and hostilities are transferred to the territory of the Czech Republic and Austria. In fact, the winners of the Swedes and the French can divide the territory of the Holy Roman Empire among themselves. They threaten to storm Vienna. All this forces the Austrians and the German Catholic princes to enter into peace negotiations in order to end the war.

France is also interested in ending the war. All this leads to the fact that at the negotiations in the two cities of Osnabrück and Münster on October 24, 1648, 2 peace treaties are concluded, which we know under the general name as the Westphalian Peace Treaty.

Sweden concludes a treaty in Osnabrück between Sweden, Holy Roman Emperor, i.e. Austria, and Protestant and Catholic princes. And the treaty in Munster is between France and Holland and their opponents. The Spaniards do not sign the treaty in Munster, they continue this war for many more years.

The main significance of the Treaty of Westphalia is that:

Sweden receives the northern coast of Germany, control over all major ports and estuaries of navigable rivers. As a result of the 30-year war, Sweden began to dominate the Baltic and became part of the Holy Roman Empire.

France receives territorial increments: upper and lower Alsace, recognition of its rights to the previously captured bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, which were captured back in 1552. This is a powerful springboard for further advancement to the east.

Under the Treaty of Münster, Spain and the whole world in 1648 finally de facto and de jure recognize the independence of the Netherlands.

The Peace of Westphalia ends the 10th anniversary of the Spanish-Dutch Wars started in 1572 to 1648.

Holland also receives some territorial increments.

Their allies, Brandenburg, also receive territorial increments and compensations in Germany.

The Franco-Spanish War continues until 1659, i.e. 11 more years, and ends with the signing of the Peace of the Pyrenees, according to which France expands its southern border to the Pyrenees, and in the east it receives important counties: part of Flanders, and Artois.

The Peace of Westphalia and the 30 Years' War are of great importance for the countries of Europe. First of all, during the 30 years of the war, the population of Germany decreased from 16 to 10 million people. This is a demographic disaster. This population was restored only by the middle of the 18th century. In some territories, such as Bavaria, Thuringia, Brandenburg, population losses amounted to 50%. In other principalities, 60-70% of the population was destroyed or died as a result of famine and epidemics.

1618. The Margraviate of Brandenburg seizes the Duchy of Prussia and becomes the Brandenburg-Prussian state, which further builds up its muscles.

The results of the 30-year war: the demographic blow to Germany. Economic decline and ruin of cities and agriculture.

Under these conditions, conservative tendencies to return to feudal property and strengthen feudal rather than early bourgeois exploitation of both the urban and rural peasant population triumph. Most importantly, the fragmentation of Germany remained until the middle of the 19th century. The disunity of the German nation.

As a result of the 30-year war and the Peace of Westphalia, 2 states triumph: Sweden, which is turning into the largest power in the Baltic and subordinating the Baltic region to its influence. And France is getting stronger too. From the middle of the 18th century, it began to claim the role of hegemon in European politics.

2 new states appear: the Netherlands or the United Provinces and Switzerland, the Swiss cantons. These 2 states leave the Holy Roman Empire and become independent independent states.

Russia's participation in the 30 Years' War lies in the fact that Russia did not directly participate in the 30-year war, although the wars that were fought between Poland and Russia took away strength from the Catholic bloc.

Besides. Russia indirectly participated in this war, helping countries that were part of the anti-Habsburg coalition. Until 1625, Russia sold strategic goods to them at low prices: bread and saltpeter. Until 1625, the main flow of bread and saltpeter went to England and Holland. From 1625 to 1629, Denmark was supported in the same way. Since 1630 - Sweden.

Dates:

30 year war. 1618-1648

Stage 1. Czech-Palatinate. 1618-1624.

Stage 2. Danish. 1625-1629. Ended with the Peace of Lübeck, Restorative Edict March 6, 1629. Defeat of Denmark, Protestant princes.

Stage 3. Swedish. 1630-1635. 2 battles: at Breitenfeld on September 7, 1631. The defeat of the troops of the Catholic League under the command of Baron Tilly. Battle of Lützen (Saxony, near Leipzig) November 16, 1632. The death of Gustav 2 Adolf.

Stage 4. French-Swedish. 1635-1648. The battle of Rokua, the troops of the Prince of Condé won on May 19, 1643. The victory of the Swedes in the battle of Jankov on November 2, 1645.

The French frontier was advancing towards the Pyrenees. This treaty contained the seeds of future wars that Louis 14 waged.



THIRTY YEARS WAR

The strengthening of foreign policy contradictions in Europe at the beginning of the 17th century. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was caused, on the one hand, by the aggravation of intra-German contradictions, and, on the other hand, by the confrontation between the European powers. Starting as an intra-imperial conflict, it turned into the first European war in history.

The most acute foreign policy contradiction in the West at that time was the confrontation between France and the Habsburg monarchies. France, which by the beginning of the 17th century had become into the strongest absolutist state in Western Europe, sought to establish its hegemony in the system of states surrounding it. On its way stood the Habsburg monarchies - Austrian and Spanish, which usually acted in concert against France, although there were known contradictions between them, in particular because of Northern Italy.

France sought by all means to maintain the balance established in Germany after the Peace of Augsburg in order to prevent the strengthening of the position of the Habsburgs. She provided patronage to the Protestant princes and tried to break up the coalition of Catholic forces, to win over to her side one of the strongest Catholic princes - the Duke of Bavaria. In addition, France had territorial claims to the empire, she intended to annex Alsace and the Lorraine regions. With Spain, France had a conflict over the Southern Netherlands and Northern Italy. Joint Spanish-Austrian actions on the Rhine at the beginning of the war significantly exacerbated the contradictions between France and Spain.

England joined the anti-Habsburg coalition. But her position was controversial. On the one hand, she fought against the penetration of the Habsburgs into the Lower Rhine and the northern sea routes, and on the other hand, she did not want to allow the strengthening of the positions in this area and the opponents of the Habsburgs - Holland, Denmark and Sweden. England also sought to prevent the complete victory of the supporters of the anti-Habsburg coalition on the continent. She feuded with France over influence in the Middle East. Thus, England maneuvered between the two coalitions, equally afraid of the victory of both sides - Catholics and Protestants.

At first, Denmark, which owned the German regions - Schleswig and Holstein (Holstein), acted on the side of the Protestant forces; the Danish king was the prince of the "Holy Roman Empire". Denmark considered itself the successor to the Hansa in the North and Baltic Seas and sought to prevent the Habsburgs from strengthening their positions in this area. But her interests clashed here with Swedish aggression.

Sweden, which by that time had become the strongest militarily state in Northern Europe, fought to turn the Baltic Sea into its "inland lake". She subjugated Finland, seized Livonia from Poland, and, taking advantage of the weakening of Russia at the beginning of the 17th century, achieved the annexation of the Ladoga region and the mouths of the Narva and Neva rivers by the Peace of Stolbov in 1617. The implementation of Sweden's plans was hampered by the protracted war with Poland, an ally of the Habsburgs. The Habsburgs tried in every possible way to prevent the conclusion of peace between Sweden and Poland in order to prevent Sweden from entering the Thirty Years' War that had begun.

Holland, recently freed from the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs, in 1621 again entered the war with Spain. She was an active ally of German Protestants and Denmark in the Thirty Years' War. The aim of Holland was to push Spain into the Spanish Netherlands, weaken the Habsburgs and ensure the dominance of their merchant fleet on the old Hanseatic routes.

Turkey directly or indirectly participated in the military conflict between European states. Although the Turkish danger threatened many European countries, it was most directed against Austria. Naturally, the opponents of the Habsburgs sought an alliance with the Ottoman Empire. Turkey sought to use the outbreak of the war to strengthen its positions in the Balkans. She was ready to contribute in every possible way to the defeat of the Habsburgs.

Russia did not directly participate in the outbreak of a military conflict, but both warring camps had to reckon with its position. For Russia, the main task of foreign policy was the fight against Polish aggression. Therefore, quite naturally, she was interested in the defeat of Poland's ally - the Habsburg monarchy. Contradictions with Sweden in this situation receded into the background.

Thus, the vast majority of European states directly or indirectly opposed the Austrian Habsburgs. Only the Spanish Habsburgs remained their reliable allies. This ultimately sealed the inevitable defeat of the Habsburg Empire.

The uprising in the Czech Republic and the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. After the creation of two military-political groups - the Protestant Union and the Catholic League (1608-1609) - the preparation for war in Germany entered a decisive phase. However, deep contradictions were revealed in both camps, which did not give them the opportunity to immediately enter into a military conflict. In the Catholic camp, enmity was manifested between the head of the league - Maximilian of Bavaria and Emperor Ferdinand of Habsburg. The Bavarian duke himself claimed the imperial crown no. He did not want to help strengthen his rival. No less sharp contradictions were found in the Protestant camp, where the interests of the Lutheran and Calvinist princes clashed and conflicts arose over separate possessions. The intra-German contradictions were skillfully used by the European powers, recruiting supporters in both camps.

The beginning of the war was an uprising in the Czech Republic against the power of the Habsburgs. Since 1526, the Czech Republic was part of the Habsburg state. The Czech nobles were promised to preserve the old liberties: the national diet, which enjoyed the formal right to elect a king, regional estate meetings, the inviolability of the Hussite religion, self-government of cities, etc. But these promises were already violated in the second half of the 16th century. Under Rudolf II, who patronized the Catholic reaction, an attack began on the rights of Czech Protestants. This activated the noble opposition in the Czech Republic, which began to merge with the Protestant camp in the empire. In order to prevent this, Rudolf II made concessions and confirmed the “Letter of Majesty”, which granted freedom to the Hussite religion and allowed him to be elected to protect his defensors (defenders). Taking advantage of this, the Czech nobles began to create their own armed forces under the command of Count Thurn.

Matthew, who succeeded Rudolf II on the throne, relied on the Germans and pursued a policy hostile to the Czech nobility. He declared his heir Ferdinand of Styria, a friend of the Jesuits and an ardent opponent of the Protestants, who openly declared that he would never recognize the "Charter of Majesty". This caused widespread unrest. An armed crowd of Praguers occupied the town hall and demanded reprisals against the Habsburg henchmen. According to the old Czech custom, a defenestration was arranged: two of the Habsburg "deputies" were thrown out of the windows of the town hall (May 1618). This was the beginning of open warfare.

The Czech Sejm elected a government of 30 directors who took over power in Bohemia and Moravia. The government strengthened the national troops and expelled the Jesuits from the country. It was announced that Ferdinand was deprived of power over the Czech Republic. Military operations began. Czech troops under the command of Count Turnn inflicted several defeats on the Habsburg army and reached the outskirts of Vienna. But it was a temporary success. The Habsburgs had military allies in the form of the Catholic League, while the Czechs were essentially alone. The leaders of the Czech uprising did not call the masses to arms, hoping for military assistance from the German Protestants. The Czech Sejm, hoping to get the support of the Protestant Union, elected Frederick of the Palatinate as king. But this did nothing to improve the situation. Frederick of the Palatinate did not have sufficient military forces, and he entered into negotiations with the leaders of the Catholic League, in fact agreeing with the impending massacre of the Czech Republic.

Under such conditions, on November 8, 1620, the decisive battle took place at Bela Hora (near Prague), in which the Czech army was defeated. Bohemia, Moravia and other areas of the former Czech kingdom were occupied by the troops of Ferdinand II (1619-1637). Mass repressions began against all participants in the uprising. The property of those executed and those who fled from the Czech Republic passed to the Catholics, in large part to the Germans. The Hussite religion was forbidden.

The defeat of the Czech Republic was followed by rampant Catholic reaction throughout Germany. Frederick of the Palatinate, nicknamed the "winter king" of Bohemia (he held the royal title for only a few winter months), was subjected to imperial disgrace. The Palatinate was occupied by Spanish troops, the title of elector, taken from Frederick, was transferred to Maximilian of Bavaria. Military operations in Germany continued. Catholic troops advanced to the northwest. In the Czech Republic and Austria, mass demonstrations of peasants began, directed against military robberies and rampant feudal reaction.

Danish war period (1625-1629). The offensive of the Catholic troops to the north caused alarm in Denmark, Holland and England. At the end of 1625, with the assistance of France, Denmark, Holland and England entered into a military alliance against the Habsburgs. The Danish king Christian IV received subsidies from England and Holland and undertook to start a war against the Catholic camp in Germany. The Danish intervention, carried out under the guise of military assistance to fellow believers - Protestants, pursued predatory goals - the rejection of the northern regions from Germany.

The Danish offensive, supported by Protestant forces in Germany, was at first successful, aided by discord in the Catholic camp. The emperor was afraid of the excessive strengthening of the league and did not provide material assistance to its troops. The discord among the Catholic forces was facilitated by French diplomacy, which pursued the goal of splitting Bavaria from Austria. In this environment, Ferdinand II decided to create his own army, independent of the Catholic League. He accepted the plan proposed by Albrecht Wallenstein.

A. Wallenstein (1583-1634) was a Czech nobleman who became extremely rich by buying confiscated lands of Czech rebels. An outstanding condottiere commander, he was able to create a large army of mercenaries in the shortest possible time. His principle was: "War feeds war." The troops were kept at the expense of the robbery of the population and military indemnities. The officers received high salaries, and therefore there was always plenty of various adventurers from the nobles and declassed elements to replenish this bandit army. Having received from the emperor several districts in Bohemia and Swabia for standing troops, Wallenstein quickly completed and prepared an army of sixty thousand and, together with Tilly, began military operations against German Protestants and Danes. During 1627-1628. Wallenstein and Tilly defeated their opponents everywhere. Wallenstein laid siege to Stralsund, but could not take it, running into the staunch resistance of the Danish and Swedish troops who came to their aid.

Wallenstein's army occupied all of Northern Germany and was ready to invade the Jutland Peninsula. But this was prevented by the position of the European states, and especially France, which declared a strong protest against the emperor. In the Catholic League itself, contradictions also escalated: the Catholic princes expressed obvious dissatisfaction with the actions of the power-hungry imperial commander.

Defeated Denmark was forced to make peace on the terms of restoring the status quo and refusing to interfere in the affairs of Germany (Peace of Lübeck 1629). But this peace did not bring peace to Germany. Wallenstein and Tilly's mercenaries continued to rob the population of Protestant principalities and cities. Wallenstein benefited the most from the war. He received from the Emperor the Duchy of Mecklenburg and the title of "Admiral of the Baltic and Oceanic Seas." all harbors in Pomerania and prepared the fleet for the beginning of military operations on the seas.All these activities were directed against Sweden and her plans in the Baltic Sea.

The victory over Denmark seemed to open up an opportunity for the Habsburgs to assert their influence in the north and restore the dominance of the Catholic faith everywhere. But these plans were doomed to inevitable failure. In Germany, dissatisfaction with the policy of the emperor and his commander, who spoke openly about the dangers of princely pluralism and called for an end to it, was ripening.

Most of all, the interests of the Protestant princes were hurt. According to the Restorative (restorative) edict issued in 1629, the secularized possessions were taken away from the Protestants. To enforce this edict, Wallenstein used mercenary troops, occupying with their help the possessions of former monasteries abolished by the Reformation. The Catholic princes were also in opposition to Wallenstein. Ferdinand II was forced to agree to the resignation of Wallenstein (1630).

Swedish period of the war (1630-1635). Peace with Denmark was in fact only a pause in the European war that had begun in Germany. Neighboring states were waiting for an opportunity to enter the war and realize their aggressive plans for the empire. The policy of the Habsburgs fueled contradictions and gave rise to the unleashing of a European war.

Sweden, having achieved a truce with Poland, began to vigorously prepare for the invasion of Germany. An agreement was concluded between Sweden and France: the Swedish king undertook to send his army to Germany. France was to provide financial assistance. To deprive the Habsburgs of support from the papal curia, Richelieu promised to help the pope in the capture of the Duchy of Urbino in Italy.

The Swedish king, acting as a savior of the Protestant princes who suffered from restitution, in the summer of 1630 landed his army in Pomerania, relatively few in number, but possessing high fighting qualities. It consisted of free Swedish peasants, was well trained and armed with the most advanced weapons for that time, in particular artillery. King Gustavus Adolphus was an outstanding commander, skillfully applied the tactics of maneuvering combat and won battles against a numerically superior enemy.

The offensive actions of the Swedish troops were delayed for a whole year due to the position of the Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony hostile to the Swedes. Only after the commander of the Catholic troops, Tilly, captured and destroyed the Protestant city of Magdeburg, and the Swedish army began to prepare for the shelling of Berlin, an agreement was reached with the Elector of Brandenburg to let the Swedish troops through. The Swedish army began active offensive operations. In September 1631, the Swedes defeated Tilly's troops at the Battle of Breitenfeld (near Leipzig) and, continuing to move deeper into Germany, reached Frankfurt am Main at the end of the year. The success of the Swedish troops was facilitated by peasant and urban uprisings in a number of regions of Germany. Gustav Adolf, who declared himself the defender of the peasants, tried to speculate on this. But later the peasants turned their weapons against the atrocities of the Swedish troops.

The offensive of the Swedes did not develop at all as Richelieu expected. Gustav Adolf strove for a decisive victory and did not stop at the violation of the neutrality of the Catholic principalities allied with France, in particular Bavaria. On the territory of the latter, on the outskirts of Austria, battles unfolded. In the battles on Lech, the commander of the Catholic army, Tilly, was killed. The position of the Habsburgs became critical. Ferdinand II had no choice but to turn again to Wallenstein, who now demanded complete independence in command of the army and the conduct of the war. The emperor was forced to sign a humiliating treaty and in fact transfer the highest military power into the hands of the power-hungry "generalissimo". Wallenstein insisted on the submission of the head of the Catholic League, Maximilian of Bavaria, otherwise refusing to liberate Bavaria from the Swedish troops. In April 1632, Wallenstein, taking over the supreme command, quickly created an army of mercenaries, which included his former adventurer soldiers. France had no intention of hindering Wallenstein's progress; now she was most afraid of the implementation of the military-political plans of Gustavus Adolphus.

Preferring not to engage in a general battle with the Swedes, which Gustav Adolf was so eager for, Wallenstein exhausted the enemy in skirmishes, capturing communications and creating difficulties for supplying his troops. He moved his army into Saxony, which forced the Swedes to withdraw from southern Germany in order to protect their northern communications. On November 16, 1632, the Swedes imposed a decisive battle at Lutsen, in which they gained an advantage, but lost their commander-in-chief. The death of Gustavus Adolf did not allow the Swedish army to realize the victory. Wallenstein withdrew his troops to the Czech Republic.

The Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna, who led the policy of Sweden after the death of the king, created an alliance of Protestant princes (1633), thereby abandoning the previous projects of establishing a Swedish protectorate over Germany .. This led to an improvement in relations between Sweden and France and in the future to even more their close union.

Meanwhile, Wallenstein, who had a hundred thousandth army, began to show more and more independence. He negotiated with the Lutheran princes, the Swedes and the French, not always accurately informing the emperor about their content. Ferdinand II suspected him of treason. In February 1634, Wallenstein was removed from his post as commander and killed by bribed officers. His mercenary army was placed under the command of the Austrian Archduke.

Subsequently, hostilities unfolded in the territory between the Main and the Danube. In September 1634, Imperial-Spanish troops inflicted a heavy defeat on the Swedish army at the Battle of Nördlingen and devastated the Protestant areas in Central Germany. Protestant princes went to reconciliation with the emperor. The elector of Saxony concluded a peace treaty with Ferdinand in Prague, achieving the annexation of a number of territories to his possessions (1635). His example was followed by the Duke of Mecklenburg, the Elector of Brandenburg and a number of other Lutheran princes. The war finally turned from intra-imperial to European.

Franco-Swedish war period (1635-1648). In an effort to prevent the strengthening of the position of the Habsburgs and the loss of its influence in Germany, France renewed its alliance with Sweden and began open hostilities. French troops simultaneously launched an offensive in Germany, the Netherlands, Italy and the Pyrenees. Soon Holland, Mantua, Savoy and Venice also intervened in the war. During this period, France played a leading role in the anti-Habsburg coalition.

Despite the fact that the largest Protestant princes of Germany went over to the side of the emperor, the opponents of the Habsburgs had a preponderance of forces. Under the control of France, the 180,000-strong army of Berenhard of Weimar, hired with French money, fought in Germany. The enemy troops did not enter into decisive battles, but tried to wear each other out, making deep raids into the enemy's rear. The war took on a protracted, exhausting character, the civilian population suffered the most from it, subjected to constant violence by the riotous soldiery. One of the participants in the war describes the atrocities of the landsknechts as follows: “We ... flew into the village, took and stole everything we could, tortured and robbed the peasants. If the poor fellows did not like it and they dared to protest ... they were killed or their houses were set on fire. The peasants went into the forests, created detachments and entered into battle with the robbers - foreign and German mercenaries.

The Habsburg troops suffered one defeat after another. In the autumn of 1642, in the battle near Leipzig, the Swedes defeated the imperial troops. In the spring of 1643, the French defeated the Spaniards at Rocroix. The largest victory was won by the Swedes in the spring of 1645 at Janko-vice (Czech Republic), where the imperial army lost only 7 thousand people killed. But the Habsburgs resisted until the victories of the French and Swedish troops created an immediate threat to Vienna.

Peace of Westphalia 1648 Consequences of the war. A peace treaty was signed in two cities in the Westphalia region: in Osnabrück - between the emperor, Sweden and the Protestant princes - and in Münster - between the emperor and France. The Peace of Westphalia led to significant territorial changes both in the German Empire itself as a whole and in individual principalities.

Sweden received Western Pomerania and part of Eastern Pomerania with the city of Stettin, as well as the island of Rügen and, as an "imperial fief", the city of Wismar, the Archbishopric of Bremen and the Bishopric of Verden. Thus, under the control of Sweden were the mouths of three large rivers - the Oder, Elbe, Weser, as well as the Baltic coast. The Swedish king acquired the rank of imperial prince and could send his representative to the Reichstag, which gave him the opportunity to interfere in the internal affairs of the empire.

France secured for itself the rights to the bishoprics and the cities of Metz, Toul and Verdun, acquired in the world. in Cateau-Cambrais, and annexed Alsace without Strasbourg and several other points that remained formally part of the empire. In addition, 10 imperial cities came under the care of the French king. Holland and Switzerland were finally recognized as independent states. Significantly increased their territories some large German principalities. The Bavarian Duke received the title of Elector and the Upper Palatinate. The eighth Electorship was established in favor of the Count Palatine of the Rhine.

The Peace of Westphalia finally consolidated the fragmentation of Germany. The German princes achieved the recognition of their sovereign rights: to conclude alliances and enter into contractual relations with foreign states. They could pursue an independent foreign policy, but the treaty contained a proviso that their actions were not to harm the empire. The formula of the Augsburg religious world "whose country, that is the faith" was now extended to the Calvinist princes. Divided into many large and small principalities, Germany remained a hotbed of internal and international complications.

The Peace of Westphalia brought significant changes to international relations. The leading role has passed to the large national states - France, England, Sweden, and in Eastern Europe - Russia. The multinational Austrian monarchy was in decline.

The Thirty Years' War brought Germany and the countries that were part of the Habsburg monarchy unprecedented ruin. The decline in population in many areas of Northeast and Southwest Germany has reached 50 percent or more. The Czech Republic was subjected to the greatest devastation, where out of 2.5 million people, no more than 700 thousand people survived. An irreparable blow was dealt to the productive forces of the country. The Swedes burned and destroyed almost all ironworks, foundries and ore mines in Germany.

“When peace came, Germany was defeated - helpless, trampled, torn to pieces, bleeding;

and the peasant was again in the most distressed situation.'” Serfdom intensified throughout Germany. It existed in the most severe forms in the eastern regions beyond the Elbe.

Reference table for thirty years war contains the main periods, events, dates, battles, participating countries and the results of this war. The table will be useful to schoolchildren and students in preparing for tests, exams and the exam in history.

Bohemian period of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1625)

	Events of the Thirty Years' War	Results of the Thirty Years' War
	The oppositional nobles, led by Count Thurn, were thrown out of the windows of the Czech Chancellery into the ditch of the royal governors (“Prague Defenestration”).	Beginning of the Thirty Years' War.
	The Czech directory formed an army led by Count Thurn, the Evangelical Union sent 2 thousand soldiers under the command of Mansfeld.
	The siege and capture of the city of Pilsen by the Protestant army of Count Mansfeld.
	The Protestant army of Count Thurn approached Vienna, but met with stubborn resistance.	The 15,000-strong imperial army, led by Count Buqua and Dampier, entered the Czech Republic.
	Battle of Sablat.	Near České Budějovice, the imperials of Count Buqua defeated the Protestants of Mansfeld, and Count Thurn lifted the siege of Vienna.
	Battle of Vesternica.	Czech victory over Dampier's imperials.
	The Transylvanian prince Gabor Bethlen moved against Vienna, but was stopped by the Hungarian magnate Druget Gomonai.	On the territory of the Czech Republic, protracted battles were fought with varying success.
October 1619	Emperor Ferdinand II concluded an agreement with the head of the Catholic League, Maximilian of Bavaria.	For this, the Elector of Saxony was promised Silesia and Lusatia, and the Duke of Bavaria was promised the possessions of the Elector of the Palatinate and his electoral rank. In 1620, Spain sent a 25,000-strong army under the command of Ambrosio Spinola to help the emperor.
	Emperor Ferdinand II concluded an agreement with the Elector of Saxony Johann-Georg.
	Battle on White Mountain.	The Protestant army of Frederick V suffers a crushing defeat from the imperial troops and the army of the Catholic League under the command of Field Marshal Count Tilly near Prague.
	The collapse of the Evangelical Union and the loss of all possessions and title by Frederick V.	Bavaria received the Upper Palatinate, Spain - the Lower. Margrave George-Friedrich of Baden-Durlach remained an ally of Frederick V.
	The Transylvanian prince Gabor Bethlen signed peace at Nikolsburg with the emperor, gaining territories in eastern Hungary.
	Mansfeld defeated the imperial army of Count Tilly at the battle of Wiesloch (Wishloch) and joined with the Margrave of Baden.	Tilly was forced to retreat, having lost 3,000 men killed and wounded, as well as all his guns, and headed to join Cordoba.
	The troops of the German Protestants, led by Margrave George-Friedrich, are defeated in the battles of Wimpfen by the Tilly imperials and the Spanish troops that came from the Netherlands, led by Gonzales de Cordoba.
	The victory of the 33,000th imperial army of Tilly in the battle of Hoechst over the 20,000th army of Christian of Brunswick.
	At the Battle of Fleurus, Tilly defeated Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick and drove them into Holland.
	Battle of Stadtlon.	Imperial forces under Count Tilly thwarted Christian of Brunswick's invasion of northern Germany by defeating his 15,000-strong Protestant army.
	Frederick V concluded a peace treaty with Emperor Ferdinand II.	The first period of the war ended with a convincing victory for the Habsburgs, but this led to a closer unity of the anti-Habsburg coalition.
	France and Holland signed the Treaty of Compiègne, later joined by England, Sweden and Denmark, Savoy and Venice.

Danish period of the Thirty Years' War (1625-1629)

	Events of the Thirty Years' War	Results of the Thirty Years' War
	Christian IV, King of Denmark, came to the aid of the Protestants with an army of 20,000.	Denmark enters the war on the side of the Protestants.
	The Catholic army under the command of the Czech Catholic Count Albrecht von Wallenstein defeats the Protestants of Mansfeld at Dessau.
	Count Tilly's imperial troops defeated the Danes at the Battle of Lütter an der Barenberg.
	The troops of Count Wallenstein occupy Mecklenburg, Pomerania and the mainland possessions of Denmark: Holstein, Schleswig, Jutland.
	The siege of the port of Stralsund in Pomerania by Wallenstein's imperial troops.	The Catholic armies of Count Tilly and Count Wallenstein conquer much of Protestant Germany.
	Restitution Edict.	Return to the Catholic Churches of the lands taken by the Protestants after 1555.
	Treaty of Lübeck between Emperor Ferdinand II and Danish King Christian IV.	Danish possessions returned in exchange for an obligation not to interfere in German affairs.

Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War (1630-1635)

	Events of the Thirty Years' War	Results of the Thirty Years' War
	Sweden sent 6 thousand soldiers under the command of Alexander Leslie to help Stralsund.
	Leslie captured Ryugen Island.	Established control over the Straits of Stralsund.
	The Swedish king Gustav II Adolf lands at the mouth of the Oder and occupies Mecklenburg and Pomerania.	The Swedish king Gustav II Adolf enters the war against Ferdinand II.
	Wallenstein was removed from the post of commander-in-chief of the imperial army, field marshal Count Johann von Tilly was appointed instead.
	Franco-Swedish treaty at Berwald.	France pledged to pay the Swedes an annual subsidy of 1 million francs.
	Gustav II Adolf took Frankfurt an der Oder.
	Defeat by the troops of the Catholic League of Magdeburg.	The Elector of Brandenburg Georg-Wilhelm joined the Swedes.
	Count Tilly, having an army of 25,000 under his command, attacked the fortified camp of the Swedish troops, commanded by King Gustav II Adolf, near Verbena.	Was forced to retreat.
	Battle of Breitenfeld.	The Swedish troops of Gustav II Adolf and the Saxon troops defeat the imperial troops of Count Tilly. The first major victory of the Protestants in clashes with the Catholics. All of northern Germany was in the hands of Gustavus Adolf, and he moved his actions to the south of Germany.
December 1631	Gustav II Adolf took Halle, Erfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Mainz.
	Saxon troops, allies of the Swedes, entered Prague.
	The Swedes invaded Bavaria.	Gustav II Adolf defeated the imperial troops of Tilly (mortally wounded, died April 30, 1632) while crossing the Lech River and entered Munich.
April 1632	Albrecht Wallenstein led the imperial army.
	The Saxons are expelled from Prague by Wallenstein.
August 1632	Near Nuremberg, in the Battle of Burgstall, when attacking the Wallenstein camp, the Swedish army of Gustav II Adolf was defeated.
	Battle of Lützen.	The Swedish army wins the battle over Wallenstein's army, but King Gustav II Adolf is killed during the battle (Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar took command).
	Sweden and the German Protestant principalities form the Heilbronn League.	All military and political power in Germany passed to an elected council headed by the Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna.
	Battle of Nördlingen.	The Swedes under the command of Gustav Horn and the Saxons under the command of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar are defeated by imperial troops under the command of Prince Ferdinand (King of Bohemia and Hungary, son of Ferdinand II) and Matthias Gallas and the Spaniards under the command of the Infanta Cardinal Ferdinand (son of King Philip III of Spain). Gustav Horn was taken prisoner, the Swedish army was actually destroyed.
	On suspicion of treason, Wallenstein was removed from command, a decree was issued on the confiscation of all his estates.	Wallenstein was killed by soldiers of his own guard at Eger Castle.
	Prague world.	Ferdinand II makes peace with Saxony. The Treaty of Prague is accepted by the majority of Protestant princes. Its conditions: annulment of the "Edict of Restitution" and the return of possessions to the terms of the Peace of Augsburg; unification of the armies of the emperor and the German states; legalization of Calvinism; a ban on the formation of coalitions between the princes of the empire. In fact, the Peace of Prague ended the civil and religious war within the Holy Roman Empire, after which the Thirty Years' War continued as a struggle against Habsburg dominance in Europe.

Franco-Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War (1635-1648)

	Events of the Thirty Years' War	Results of the Thirty Years' War
	France declared war on Spain.	France involved in the conflict its allies in Italy - the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Mantua and the Venetian Republic.
	The Spanish-Bavarian army under the command of the Spanish prince Ferdinand entered Compiègne, the imperial troops of Matthias Galas invaded Burgundy.
	Battle of Wittstock.	The German troops were defeated by the Swedes under the command of Baner.
	The Protestant army of Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar won the Battle of Rheinfelden.
	Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar took the Breisach fortress.
	The Imperial Army is victorious at Wolfenbüttel.
	The Swedish troops of L. Torstenson defeated the imperial troops of Archduke Leopold and O. Piccolomini at Breitenfeld.	The Swedes occupy Saxony.
	Battle of Rocroix.	The victory of the French army under the command of Louis II de Bourbon, Duke of Anghien (from 1646 Prince of Condé). The French finally stopped the Spanish invasion.
	Battle of Tuttlingen.	The Bavarian army of Baron Franz von Mercy defeats the French under the command of Marshal Rantzau, who was captured.
	Swedish troops under the command of Field Marshal Lennart Torstensson invaded Holstein, Jutland.
August 1644	Louis II of Bourbon at the Battle of Freiburg defeats the Bavarians under the command of Baron Mercy.
	Battle of Jankov.	The imperial army was defeated by the Swedes under the command of Marshal Lennart Torstensson near Prague.
	Battle of Nördlingen.	Louis II of Bourbon and Marshal Turenne defeat the Bavarians, the Catholic commander, Baron Franz von Mercy, died in battle.
	The Swedish army invades Bavaria
	Bavaria, Cologne, France and Sweden sign a peace treaty in Ulm.	Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria, in the fall of 1647 broke the treaty.
	The Swedes under the command of Koenigsmark capture part of Prague.
	At the Battle of Zusmarhausen near Augsburg, the Swedes under Marshal Carl Gustav Wrangel and the French under Turenne and Condé defeat the Imperial and Bavarian forces.	Only the imperial territories and Austria proper remained in the hands of the Habsburgs.
	At the Battle of Lans (near Arras), the French troops of the Prince of Condé defeat the Spaniards under the command of Leopold Wilhelm.
	Westphalian peace.	Under the terms of the peace, France received Southern Alsace and the Lorraine bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, Sweden - the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and the Duchy of Bremen, plus an indemnity of 5 million thalers. Saxony - Lusatia, Brandenburg - Eastern Pomerania, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Minden. Bavaria - Upper Palatinate, Bavarian Duke became Elector. All princes are legally recognized the right to enter into foreign policy alliances. Consolidation of the fragmentation of Germany. End of the Thirty Years' War.

The results of the war: Thirty Years' War was the first war that affected all segments of the population. In Western history, it has remained one of the most difficult European conflicts among the predecessors of the World Wars of the 20th century. The greatest damage was done to Germany, where, according to some estimates, 5 million people died. Many regions of the country were devastated and remained deserted for a long time. A crushing blow was dealt to the productive forces of Germany. In the armies of both opposing sides, epidemics broke out, constant companions of wars. The influx of soldiers from abroad, the constant deployment of troops from one front to another, as well as the flight of the civilian population, spread the plague farther and farther from the centers of disease. The plague became a significant factor in the war. The immediate result of the war was that over 300 small German states received full sovereignty with nominal membership in the Holy Roman Empire. This situation continued until the end of the first empire in 1806. The war did not lead to the automatic collapse of the Habsburgs, but changed the balance of power in Europe. Hegemony passed to France. The decline of Spain became evident. In addition, Sweden became a great power, significantly strengthening its position in the Baltic. Adherents of all religions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism) gained equal rights in the empire. The main result of the Thirty Years' War was a sharp weakening of the influence of religious factors on the life of European states. Their foreign policy began to be based on economic, dynastic and geopolitical interests. It is customary to count the modern era in international relations from the Peace of Westphalia.