Civil wars in Rome, Caesar's triumvirate briefly. First Triumvirate and Caesar's Gallic Wars

The first Roman triumvirate refers to the union of the three most influential politicians of the late Republican era: Julius Caesar, Mark Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey. Three people very different in character, vital interests and goals, each of whom could claim sole primacy in the state, at a certain moment realized that this primacy can be achieved only with mutual support. The significance of the senate and other institutions of power was steadily undermined by the combined actions of the all-powerful triumvirs.

It is believed that the first triumvirate was formed in 60 BC. e., during the election of consuls for the next (59th) year. One of the young leaders of the Democratic Party, Julius Caesar, was nominated for consulship. A relative of Mary managed to go through all the necessary official steps, and was a priest of Jupiter, and a military tribune, and a quaestor. Immediately before the elections, he returned from Spain, where, as viceroy, he managed to gain authority from the soldiers, honed his skills as an administrator and diplomat, and became rich. When Caesar first set off for the Iberian Peninsula, he was in debt, like in silks. He was helped by the most influential politician Mark Licinius Crassus.

Coming from a noble family, Mark Crassus began his career as a devoted companion of Sulla. He made a colossal fortune by buying up the property of the proscribed, then he took up Roman real estate (he owned almost all the apartment buildings in the capital), trade, industry (Crassus owned, for example, the richest silver mines), usury. At the same time, he actively participated in the political life of the country, skillfully maneuvering between various forces, and took up military expeditions. It is Crassus who owns the glory of the winner of Spartacus. Immediately after this, he, along with Pompey, was elected consul.

Crassus' constant competitor for a place on the political Olympus was Gnaeus Pompey. He also came to the fore in the time of Sulla, primarily as a military leader. In the 60s BC. e. he was already one of the most respected, if not the most respected, man in Rome. At the same time, political games were given to him, as a rule, with great difficulty. He often struck contemporaries with indecision, slowness in actions, while quite frankly demonstrating a desire to rise. The commander spent a significant part of his time in remote provinces, where he successfully acted against kings and princes. He significantly expanded the boundaries of the Roman state, for which he was honored with triumphs. More than once, Gnaeus Pompey received emergency powers - to "cleanse" the sea from pirates (which, I must say, he did brilliantly), to supply Rome with food. Several times he was on the verge of obtaining a dictatorship. Caesar, who, on the contrary, felt like a fish in water in the behind-the-scenes struggle, decided to move in the wake of this man's policy.

In 60 BC. e. to obtain support in the elections, Julius Caesar managed to reconcile Crassus and Pompey, to become an intermediary between them. The first triumvirate was formed. All members of the triumvirate were united by a negative attitude towards the Senate. Crassus expressed the interests of the equestrian class (who traditionally hated a government body closed to them and demanded the granting of various powers and rights to wealthy people), Pompey was offended by the Senate for refusing to accept his new agrarian reform project (aimed at satisfying his veterans) and not approved his orders issued during the campaign to the east. And Caesar has long been fighting against the aristocratic Senate majority from the standpoint of the popular. To increase the strengthening of the triumvirate and his position in it, Caesar, already being a consul, gave his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey.

Despite the opposition of the senate party, Caesar was elected consul. The union of the three - the triumvirate - was at first secret. But when the Senate continued to oppose all of Caesar's proposals - the distribution of bread, the founding of colonies, etc., he, together with Crassus and Pompey, went to the Forum and asked his friends to help deal with those who, with arms in their hands, prevent the passage of laws needed by the people. Shortly thereafter, Pompey occupied the Forum with armed men and thus secured the approval of the laws pleasing to him and Caesar. The orders that he made during the eastern campaign were approved, the veterans received the promised land. Caesar, in a change of the original decision, was assigned, after the consulate, the province of Gaul and the command of the 4 legions stationed there. For 58 BC. e. two men loyal to the triumvirs were appointed consuls, and at the same time the leaders of the aristocratic opposition, Cato and Cicero, were removed from Italy.

The governorship of Julius Caesar in Gaul for this territory can probably be called epochal. The future Roman dictator managed to subdue almost the entire vast country, introducing the Gauls to the all-Roman policy. The glory of Caesar the commander was no longer inferior to the glory of the commander Pompey, his fortune increased several times, as did his authority in the state. But he did not refuse the support of his comrades-in-arms and, it can be assumed, was not going to do this in the future. At his request in 56 BC. e. Pompey and Crassus arrived at the border of Gaul in the city of Luca. With the triumvirs came their supporters. In total, more than 200 senators gathered "at the Congress of the Democratic Party" in Luqa. At the meeting, they decided to seek to elect Pompey and Crassus as consuls for the next year. After the consulate, Pompey was to receive control of Spain, and Crassus - Syria. To Caesar, future consuls were to extend for another 5 years the proconsulship in Gaul, which expired a year later (in 54 BC), and allocate funds to increase his army by another two legions. Having agreed with Caesar, Crassus and Pompey returned to Rome. The meeting made a stunning impression on the opponents of the triumvirs, who had clearly seen the fall in the authority of the democratic party and hoped for a break between Pompey and Caesar. Now the oppositionists, one after another, hastened to express their loyalty to the "three-headed monster." But the situation in the triumvirate has already changed. Now Crassus could be considered a "shock absorber" between Pompey and Caesar. The triumvirs continued to influence the decisions of almost all the magistrates of Rome, intervened in litigation, and supervised the elections.

The Syrian governorship for Mark Crassus turned out to be fatal. The winner of Spartacus showed an ardor that was not characteristic of him, he expected to acquire the glory of Alexander the Great in the East, having entered the war with the Parthians here, and to win back the richest Mesopotamia from them. Crassus departed for his province before the expiration of the powers of the consul. Unfortunately, his campaign against the Parthians was carried out mediocre, and in 53 BC. e. the triumvir was defeated and perished. Pompey, on the contrary, was in no hurry to leave Italy and ruled his province from Rome. He frankly approached the Senate majority and moved away from the Democrats. It was clear to everyone that an open conflict between Pompey and Caesar was a matter of time.

Julius Caesar was by birth an educated man and attracted the hearts of people.

But under his appearance was hidden ardent ambition. Most of all he wanted to be the first in some village. But it was very difficult to achieve this, and he launched various intrigues in order to be the first even in Rome. To do this, he entered into a triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus and, having retired to Gaul, began to win the favor of his soldiers.

Crassus soon died, and Pompey, tormented by envy, demanded the return of Caesar to Rome. Caesar, not wanting to part with the won disposition of the soldiers, led the latter with him. Having reached the Rubicon River, Julius squirmed for a long time (51-50 BC) in front of her, finally said: “The die is cast” - and climbed into the water.

Pompey did not expect this and quickly fell into insignificance.

Then Cato came out against Caesar, a descendant of the same Cato who was convicted of Greek grammar. He, like his ancestor, was very unlucky. It was their family. He retired to Utica, where he bled to death.

In order to somehow distinguish him from his ancestor, and at the same time to honor his memory, he was given the nickname Utsky. Small consolation for the family!

Dictatorship and death of Caesar

Caesar celebrated his victories and became dictator in Rome. He did a lot of good for the country. First of all, he reformed the Roman calendar, which had fallen into great confusion from inaccurate time, so that in another week there were four Mondays in a row, and all the Roman shoemakers were drunk to death; otherwise, two months on the twentieth day would suddenly disappear, and the officials, sitting without pay, fell into insignificance. The new calendar was called Julian and had 365 consecutive days.

The people were pleased. But a certain Junius Brutus, Caesar's hanger-on, who dreamed of having seven Fridays a week, plotted against Caesar.

Caesar's wife, who had an ominous dream, asked her husband not to go to the Senate, but his friends said that it was indecent to skimp on duties because of women's dreams. Caesar went. In the Senate, Cassius, Brutus, and a senator named simply Casca attacked him. Caesar wrapped himself in his cloak, but, alas, this precaution did not help either.

Then he exclaimed: "And you, Brutus!" According to the historian Plutarch, at the same time he thought: “I didn’t do enough good for you, you pig, that you are now climbing on me with a knife!”

Then he fell at the feet of the Pompeian statue and died in 44 BC.

Octavius ​​and the second triumvirate

At this time, Caesar's nephew and heir Octavius ​​returned to Rome. However, the ardent Anthony, Caesar's friend, managed to grab the inheritance, leaving one old vest to the rightful heir. Octavius ​​was, according to historians, a man of small stature, but nevertheless very cunning. He immediately used the waistcoat he received from the ardent Antony as gifts for Caesar's veterans, which attracted them to his side. A small fraction also fell to the aged Cicero, who began to smash Antony with the same speeches that he once smashed Catiline. Again went on stage "O tempora, o mores". The cunning Octavius ​​flattered the old man and said that he considered him a papa.

Using the old man, Octavius ​​threw off his mask and entered into an alliance with Antony. Another Lepidus clung to them, and a new triumvirate was formed.

Ardent Antony soon fell into the net of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra and fell into a pampered lifestyle.

The cunning Octavius ​​took advantage of this and went to Egypt with countless hordes.

Cleopatra sailed on her ships and participated in the battle, looking at Antony with green, purple, purple, yellow eyes. But during the battle, the queen remembered that she had forgotten the keys to the pantry, and ordered the ships to turn their bows home.

Octavius ​​was triumphant and appointed a man with a flute to himself.

Cleopatra began to arrange her nets for him. She sent a maid to the ardent Anthony with the following words: "The lady ordered you to say that they had died." Antony fell on his sword in horror.

Cleopatra continued to spread her nets, but Octavius, despite his small stature, steadfastly rejected her tricks.

August

Octavius, who received the name of Augustus for all of the above, began to rule the state indefinitely. But he did not accept the royal title.

- For what? - he said. “Call me Emperor for short.

Augustus embellished the city with baths and sent the general Varus with three legions into the Teutoburg Forest, where he was defeated.

Augustus, in desperation, began to beat his head against the wall, singing: "Var, Var, give me back my legions."

The so-called "Barbarian gap" quickly formed in the wall (9 BC), and Augustus said:

“One more defeat like that and I'll be left without a head.

The Augustan dynasty indulged in pomp and quickly fell into insignificance.

Caligula, the son of Germanicus, surpassed his predecessors in idleness. He was too lazy even to chop off the heads of his subjects, and he dreamed that all mankind had one head, which he could hastily chop off.

This sloth, however, found time to torture animals. so, his best horse, on which he himself rode and carried water, he forced to sit in the Senate in the evenings.

After his death (through the mediation of a bodyguard), both people and horses breathed more freely.

Caligula's uncle Claudius, who inherited the throne, was distinguished by a weakness of character. Taking advantage of this, those close to Claudius wrested the death sentence for his wife - the depraved Messalina - and married him to the deeply corrupted Agrippina. From these wives Claudius had a son, Britannicus, but Nero, the son of the deeply corrupted Agrippina from his first marriage, succeeded to the throne.

Nero devoted his youth to the extermination of relatives. Then he gave himself up to art and a shameful way of life.

During the fire of Rome, he, like any true ancient Roman (Greek too), could not resist reciting the fire of Troy. For which he was suspected of arson.

In addition, he sang so out of tune that the most fake souls of the courtiers could not sometimes endure this insult to the eardrum. The shameless goat at the end of his life started to go on tour to Greece, but then even the accustomed legions were outraged, and Nero, with great displeasure, pierced himself with a sword. Dying from lack of self-criticism, the tyrant exclaimed: "What a great artist is dying."

After the death of Nero, troubles set in, and within two years three emperors changed in Rome: Galba, who was killed by a soldier for stinginess, Otto, who died from a depraved life, and Vitellius, who distinguished himself for his short but glorious kingdom by exorbitant gluttony.

This variety in the monarchy greatly interested the Roman soldiers. It was fun for them, getting up in the morning, to ask the platoon commander: “And who, uncle, reigns with us today?”

Subsequently, much confusion arose, since the kings changed too often, and it happened that a new king came to the throne when his predecessor had not yet had time to properly die.

Tsars were chosen by soldiers according to their own taste and fear. They were taken for their great growth, for physical strength, for the ability to express themselves strongly. Then they began to directly trade in thrones and sold it to the one who would give the most. In the "Roman Herald" ("Nuntius Romanus"), ads were printed all the time:

“A good throne is given away cheaply, sparsely maintained, for a reasonable price.”

Or: “I am looking for a throne here or in the province. I have a deposit. I agree to leave."

At the gates of Roman houses, tickets were full of:

“The throne is for rent for lonely. Ask Unter Mardaryan.

Rome rested somewhat during the reign of the meek and timid emperor, nicknamed Nerva, and again fell into despair when Chemodus climbed the throne.

Chest of drawers had great physical strength and decided to fight in the local Fars.

The "Roman Bourse" ("Bursiania Romana") published government-inspired articles about the exploits of Commodus.

"... And now the massive furniture rolls in a ball, intertwining with the Illyrian lizard and rewarding the latter with sparkling pasta and double nelsons."

Close people hurried to get rid of the uncomfortable chest of drawers. He was suffocated.

Finally, the emperor Diocletian reigned, having meekly burned Christians for twenty years in a row. This was his only shortcoming.

Diocletian was from Dalmatia and the son of a freedman. One soothsayer predicted to him that he would take the throne when he killed the boar.

These words sunk into the soul of the future emperor, and for many years he did nothing but chase pigs. Once, having heard from someone that Prefect Apr was a real pig, he immediately slaughtered the prefect and immediately sat on the throne.

Thus, the meek emperor was famously remembered only by pigs. But these troubles so tired the aged monarch that he reigned for only twenty years, then renounced the throne and went to his homeland in Dalmatia to plant radishes, enticing his co-ruler Maximian to this useful occupation. But he soon again asked for the throne. Diocletian remained firm.

“Friend,” he said. - If you could see what a turnip has been born today! Well, turnip! One word - turnip! Am I up to the kingdom now? A man cannot keep up with the garden, and you climb with nothing.

And indeed, he grew an outstanding turnip (305 A.D.).

Roman life and culture

Population classes

The population of the Roman state mainly consisted of three classes:

1) noble citizens (nobelas);

2) humble citizens (suspicious person) and

Noble citizens had a lot of major advantages over other citizens. First, they had the right to pay taxes. The main advantage was the right to exhibit wax images of ancestors at home. In addition, they had the right to organize public celebrations and festivities at their own expense.

Ignorant citizens lived poorly. They did not have the right to pay any taxes, did not have the right to serve as soldiers, and sadly grew rich in trade and industry.

Slaves cultivated the fields peacefully and staged uprisings.

In addition, there were also senators and horsemen in Rome. They differed from each other in that the senators sat in the Senate, and the riders were on horseback.

Senate

The Senate was the place where the senators and the royal horses sat.

Consuls

Consuls were required to be over forty years of age. This was their main quality. The consuls were accompanied everywhere by a retinue of twelve people with rods in their hands as an emergency, if the consul wanted to flog someone away from the wooded area.

praetors

The praetors disposed of the rod allowance for only six persons.

Military art

The magnificent organization of the Roman army contributed a lot to military victories.

The main part of the legions were the so-called principles - experienced veterans. Therefore, the Roman soldiers were convinced from the first steps how harmful it is to compromise their principles.

Legions generally consisted of brave warriors who were confused only at the sight of the enemy.

religious institutions

Among the Roman institutions, the first place was occupied by religious institutions.

The head priest was called pontifex maximus, which did not prevent him from time to time from fooling his flock with various tricks based on dexterity and agility of hands.

Then followed the augur priests, who differed in that, when they met, they could not look at each other without smiling. Seeing their cheerful faces, the rest of the priests snorted into their sleeves. The parishioners, who saw through something in Greek tricks, died with laughter, looking at this whole company.

The pontifex maximus himself, glancing at one of his subordinates, only waved his hand helplessly and shook with flabby old laughter.

At the same time, the Vestal Virgins also giggled.

It goes without saying that because of this eternal cackling, the Roman religion quickly weakened and fell into decay. No nerves could withstand such a tickling.

Vestals were priestesses of the goddess Vesta. They were chosen from the girls of a good family and served at the temple, observing chastity until the age of seventy-five. After this period, they were allowed to marry.

But the Roman youths respected such tried and tested chastity so much that few of them dared to encroach on it, even flavored with a double Solonov dowry (six dresses and two modesty).

If the vestal violated her vow ahead of time, then she was buried alive, and her children, recorded on different Mars, were raised by she-wolves. Knowing the brilliant past of Romulus and Remus, the Roman vestals greatly appreciated the pedagogical abilities of the she-wolves and considered them to be something like our learned chapels.

But the hopes of the Vestals were in vain. Their children no longer founded Rome. As a reward for chastity, the Vestal Virgins received honor and back marks in theaters.

Gladiatorial battles were originally considered a religious rite and were held at burial places "to reconcile the body of the deceased." That is why our fighters, when they perform in the parade, always have such funeral faces: atavism is clearly manifested here.

While worshiping their gods, the Romans did not forget the foreign gods. Out of a habit of grabbing where something is bad, the Romans often grabbed other people's gods for themselves.

The Roman emperors, taking advantage of this love of God of their people and deciding that you can’t spoil porridge with butter, introduced the adoration of their own person. After the death of each emperor, the senate ranked him among the gods. Then they reasoned that it was much more convenient to do this during the life of the emperor: the latter could thus build a temple for himself according to his taste, while the ancient gods had to be content with anything.

In addition, no one could so zealously follow the festivities and religious ceremonies established in his name, as God himself, who was personally present. This was very encouraging for the congregation.

Philosophical schools

Not only philosophers were engaged in philosophy in Rome: every father of the family had the right to philosophize at home.

In addition, everyone could attribute himself to some philosophical school. One considered himself a Pythagorean because he ate beans, the other an Epicurean because he drank, ate and made merry. Every shameless person assured that he was doing nasty things only because he belonged to the cynical school. Among the important Romans there were many Stoics, who had a repulsive habit of calling guests and immediately opening their veins during the cake. This unscrupulous reception was considered the height of hospitality.

The Catalina conspiracy revealed the weakness of the senatorial republican government and accelerated the advance of autocracy in Rome. Roman autocracy went through several stages of development, the first of which was the triumvirate of 60 - an agreement between three influential Roman magnates: Pompey, Crassus and Caesar. This agreement took place on the basis of their common hostility to the Senate. The triumvirs, having support in various social strata, primarily acted in their personal interests and in the interests of their numerous clientele. Krase relied on the horsemen, Caesar was friends with the populace, Pompeii had support in some layers of the nobility, and all together - in the legions that each of them commanded. The idea of ​​the triumvirate came from Julius Caesar, whose personality we will first of all get acquainted with.

Guy Julius Caesar (100 - 44 years) came from the ancient Roman family of Julius, the ancestor of which was considered Yul, the son of Aeneas.

It is said that during his travels, in order not to lose time, Caesar dictated letters, composed memoirs, and pondered plans for military and political campaigns. He could dictate, write and talk at the same time.
Caesar lived in an era when political activity was the privilege of a few magnates and their clients. In order to win over the electors, the public figures of ancient Rome had to organize festivities, games and spectacles at their own expense, erect buildings, give gifts and simply bribe the townsfolk. All this required a lot of money, but Caesar's own funds for such extensive expenses were not enough, and he had to borrow large sums from his wealthy friends and patrons. Especially great was the dependence of Caesar on Crassus, who, for his part, used Caesar in his personal interests.

No matter how generous were the friends and patrons of Caesar, yet he could not live on loans alone. Hence the desire of Caesar at all costs to obtain a profitable position in any province.

In 62, Caesar, with the support of Crassus, received the praetorship, and the following year he became propraetor in Spain. Here he won several victories over the Spanish tribes (Lusitans), settled the issue of taxes and debts, and at the same time improved his condition.

The suspicious attitude of the Senate and the optimates towards Caesar, who was considered a Marian and a democrat, brought him closer to Pompey, who, in turn, was offended by the Senate, who denied him a triumph in 62.

Caesar's initial idea was to form a moderate government close to Cicero's ideal. However, the sharp opposition of Cato, the leader of the optimates, against the "three-headed monster", as the optimates called the triumvirate, forced Caesar to embark on the path of closer rapprochement with Pompey and Crassus. With their help, in 59, he received the consulate, which he had long coveted.

The main goal of the triumvirs was achieved: Caesar received a consulate, Pompey's ambition was satisfied with the recognition of all his orders in Asia by the comitia, Crassus was promised the province of Syria.

As a consul, Caesar introduced a number of laws: firstly, in the interests of the horsemen, he passed through the comitia a law on the addition of one-third of the taxpayers from the publicans (during the wars with Mithridates, the Roman tax-farmers suffered significant losses and, on this basis, asked for a reduction in the taxpayer). Then, in the interests of veterans and the lower strata of the city, an agrarian law was passed, basically repeating the law of Gaius Servilius Rullus: about 20 thousand veterans and poor residents of the city received land plots. In addition, Caesar promised a reduction in debts, the settlement of rents and a reduction in the interest rate.

One of the main assistants of Caesar in these years was Publius Clodius Pulchr, who came from the ancient patrician family of Clodius, or Claudius. As Caesar's attorney, Clodius passed a series of democratic laws in 58 with the aim of drawing the masses of the city to Caesar's side. These included: 1) the Corn Law, which introduced free distribution of bread to citizens, 2) a law to allow meetings and meetings on holidays when the working mass of the population was free, and 3) a law to renew the old colleges closed by the Senate during the Catiline conspiracy, and about the opening of new boards, consisting of the lower classes of the city plebs.

Through the colleges, Clodius managed to organize the masses of the city and provide
read their support for Caesar's policies. With the help of colleges, Clodius soon expelled from Rome the most dangerous leaders of the optimates - Cicero and Cato.

With their removal, Caesar achieved his main goal of gaining provinces. At the end of the year 59, the tribune of the people Publius Vatinius, bribed by Caesar, passed through the comitia, in addition to the Senate resolution, a law on granting Caesar the administration of Cis-Alpine Gaul and Illyria for five years. To this was soon added Transalpine Gaul. The initiative for the last decision came from the Senate, which harbored the hope that a dangerous war would keep Caesar in Gaul for a long time and distract him from Rome.

The Gallic campaign lasted about seven years (57 - 51). Already in the first two years, Caesar conquered many Gallic tribes and subjugated a vast territory to the power of Rome up to the left bank of the Rhine.

In addition, as a result of Caesar's victories, the Romans got huge booty: a lot of cattle, precious metals and 35 thousand slaves.

Gaul was declared a Roman province. On this occasion, great festivities and public prayers were held in Rome, which lasted for 15 whole days.

The conquest of Gaul was not long in affecting the internal state of Italy and the position of Caesar. The influx of booty and slaves revived the Italian economy, increased the purchasing power of the population, and lifted the spirits of Caesar's political friends.

Under the direct impression of the Gallic victories, in 56, at the initiative of Caesar in the city of Luca (in Etruria), where he came with the troops to winter quarters, a new meeting of the triumvirs took place with the aim of continuing the agreement, which expired in 55.

The triumvirate was continued for the next five years, until the end of the year 50. Caesar - the initiator of the "riding" - was affirmed in the rights of the proconsul of Gaul until the year 49 with the right to bring his

an army of up to 10 legions, and entrust their maintenance to the state treasury. Pompeii and Krase received a secondary consulate for the year 55 and, in addition, governorships: Pompey in Spain and Africa, Krase in Syria. The Senate and the optimates, reluctantly, had to come to terms with the decisions of the "Luk government" and sanction them.

After the meeting in Luka Kras, he went to the East, to the war with the Parthians, which he had long conceived .. This war seemed an attractive and easy enterprise, promising military glory, rich booty and slaves. With such a mood, without serious preliminary preparation, Krasse invaded Mesopotamia in 54 with a 40,000-strong army.

The first steps of the Crassus expedition were marked by success. The Romans occupied the Greek cities of Syria and Mesopotamia, but after that an unexpected turning point occurred: in the battle of Carrhae, the army of Crassus was completely defeated (53 years). The remnants of the defeated Roman army retreated from

heavy losses, leaving the Roman banners (silver eagles) as a trophy to the enemy.

Krase soon died, and as a result, the triumvirate itself turned into the duumvirate of Caesar and Pompey.

Meanwhile, Caesar from Luke hastily left for Gaul, from where alarming news came. During his absence in Gaul, in the region of the Veneti (Brittany), an uprising arose; many Gallic tribes were ready to break away from Rome. Taking advantage of the fragmentation and disorganization of these tribes, Caesar struck one tribe after another and crushed this uprising.

However, the ferment spread throughout Gaul, evoking sympathy in the neighboring Germanic regions and among the Celtic settlers of the British Isles. Out of fear of the unification of the Gauls and Germans on the basis of a common hostility to Rome, Caesar in 55 undertook a campaign against the North Germanic tribes and crossed the Rhine. The crossing of the Rhine was made near the city of Bonn on a pile bridge specially built for this purpose, the device of which is described with subtle knowledge of the matter by Caesar in his sketches (comments) on the Gallic War. The crossing of the Rhine was driven as much by political as by strategic considerations. Caesar had to impress Rome all the time with his extraordinary undertakings.

The impression made by the crossing to Germany had not yet faded when Roman society was struck by a new adventure - Caesar's expedition to Britain - a country then almost completely unknown. The outcome of the British expedition was not successful. The vigorous resistance of the British tribes, united by Cassivelavn, on the one hand, and a new uprising in Gaul, on the other, forced Caesar to clear the island and take up Gallic affairs. Although the strategically British expedition ended in failure, the external effect of the Roman fleet crossing the Channel and landing in an unknown country was very great. Under the pressure of public opinion, the Senate celebrated this event with a twenty-day holiday and celebration.

The suppression of individual uprisings in Gaul and punitive expeditions to Germany and Britain did not reconcile the Gauls with Roman hegemony.

After a long bloody struggle, Caesar managed to suppress this grandiose uprising.

In 51, after the suppression of individual small anti-Roman outbreaks, the Gallic War was over and the richest country with a population of many millions became part of the Roman Republic. During his stay in Gaul, Caesar took 800 cities, conquered 300 tribes and sold into slavery about a million captured Gauls.

The Gallic War is the most important event in Roman history, which hastened the decay of the republic-polis and the formation of an empire. On this issue, the opinions of ancient and modern historians are unanimous. The Gallic campaigns, says Plutarch, opened a new road for Caesar in life, outlined new plans and radically changed his position in Rome.

Gallic booty made it possible for Caesar's agents - Clodius, Curio and Mark Antony - to deploy a broad demagogic policy. From this booty, the expenses for organizing spectacles, festivities, for distributions, gifts and bribery were covered. The influx of money and especially slaves, in which there was then an acute need, revived trade, crafts and agriculture and raised the purchasing power of the population. As a result, social and cultural life has revived.

The Gallic victories predetermined the outcome of the civil war that broke out in Rome between the triumvirs immediately after the end of the war in Gaul.

The Gallic uprising and the catastrophe that broke out at that time in Mesopotamia made a stunning impression in Rome. Rome received heavy blows in the two most important and vulnerable points - in the east and in the northwest.

External defeats were immediately reflected in domestic politics. Political life was completely disorganized. The senate government was not in a position to restore order in the city, and Pompey, in fact, the supreme ruler of Rome, did not do this for personal reasons, hoping that political anarchy would make the optimates more compliant and force the senate to officially recognize him as princeps.

The Caesarians, too, did not slumber, using all means to win the electors over to their side.

During these years, Caesar was especially generous with promises and was ready to accept the maximum democratic program.

Political demagogy in these years exceeded all limits. "Candidates for public magistracies set up tables in the streets and bribed the crowd without any shame"2. The suitability of this or that candidate was decided not by voting, but by brute physical force: arrows, swords and slings.

The growing popularity of Caesar in the lower strata of the population, who made up the majority in the comitia, pushed Pompey to closer rapprochement with the optimates and the senate. In this way, Pompeii, from a triumvir, a conspirator against the republic, turned into its defender, which he remained in the memory of subsequent generations.

The political anarchy grew stronger every day, and the passions of the contending parties flared up and intensified.

In the midst of the election campaign of 52, major clashes took place in the streets of Rome and throughout Italy. In one of these battles, Mark Cicero almost died, and in the massacre on the Appian Way, Publius Clodius, Caesar's right hand, was killed.

The murder of Clodius caused great excitement in Rome. A crowd of people gathered near the house of Clodius, demanding revenge for the murders.

Trunk popular demagogue. Excited by the speeches of the tribunes, friends of Clodius, including the historian Sallust, an ardent follower of Caesar, the crowd in a solemn procession carried the corpse of Clodius to the Hostilian Curia, the seat of the Senate, next to it, the procession participants laid a fire of benches, tables, rags and everything that fell under the arm, and lit. The flames quickly engulfed the building of the Hostilian Curia and the nearby Portia Basilica. This was followed by the destruction of the houses of the enemies of Clodius.

The murderer of Clodius, Milo, had to leave Rome. Even the brilliant speech of Cicero, delivered in defense of Milo, did not save him from the wrath of the crowd.

Throughout the summer of 52, Rome was in a terrible panic: meetings, fights, excited speeches were heard in the streets, while thieves, taking advantage of the general turmoil, devastated houses.

Having reached extreme limits, political anarchy forced even such an implacable republican as Cato the Younger to give up his principles and agree to a military dictatorship, albeit in a softened form of a one-man consulate.

At the end of 52, Pompeii, who was in Spain, at the suggestion of Cato, was appointed in absentia by the sole consul with the provision of "extended power" to him.

Pompeii at that time combined in his person the three highest republican positions: 1) consul, 2) proconsul and 3) supply manager of the city. Remaining in Rome, he retained the governorships in Spain and Africa, ruling the provinces through his legates.

Pompey used the almost dictatorial power handed to him by the Senate to maintain the rule of the optimates, strengthen his position and diminish the authority of his opponent, Caesar.

In addition to tactical considerations, an alliance with the optimates was quite consistent with the conservative nature of Pompey, who was afraid of everything risky and unusual.

Pompey's policy was successful, especially in aristocratic circles, and greatly weakened the authority of Caesar. Of great importance was the fact that Mark Cicero, known for his zealous defense of the republic, went over to the side of Pompey.

A decisive struggle between the adherents of Caesar and Pompey unfolded in the Senate in 51-50. Feeling some strength behind him, the leader of the optimates, M. Claudius Marcellus, made a proposal in 51: as a result of the end of the Gallic War, appoint a successor to Caesar,
and him to return to Rome. Due to the protest of Caesar's supporters, Marcellus's proposal was not accepted, but the question of Caesar's formation of the supreme command did not leave the agenda for the entire 51-50 years.

Particularly vigorously objected to the deprivation of Caesar's supreme command by the people's tribunes of 50, the associates of Caesar.

To the proposal of Marcellus to recall Caesar, Curio made a counterproposal - to deprive Pompey of command as well. In proposing to remove the emergency powers of both rivals simultaneously, the Caesarians were well aware of how difficult it would be to re-recruit troops in Italy. Meanwhile, in Gaul, Caesar had under the banner of a whole army, made up of selected Gauls and Germans, ready at any moment to support their leader and patron.

Bribed by Caesar, the senate hesitated. 370 senators against 21, in order to avoid a new civil strife, accepted the proposal of Curio to lay down power at the same time as Caesar and Pompey. Informed through his agents about the events in Rome, Caesar sent a letter to the Senate in January 49, in which he, repeating the proposal of Curio, expressed his readiness to disband the army and return to private life, provided that Pompey did the same. However, this time Caesar's opponents won. Caesar's letter was not read in the Senate. Marcellus threatened to declare Caesar an enemy of the fatherland if he did not disband the army. The people's tribunes Cassius Longinus and Mark Antony, who protested against this, were expelled from the curia and, disguised as slaves, fled from Rome to the camp of Caesar, who stood with his legions in combat readiness in Ravenna .

This opened the war between two contenders for the supreme leadership of slave-owning Rome - Caesar and Pompey (49 - 45 years).

The correlation of social forces in the Roman Republic at that time was such that it was difficult to decide which of the rivals - recent friends - would emerge victorious.

On January 6, Cassius Longinus and Mark Antony fled from Rome, and on the morning of January 14, 49, news was received in Rome that Caesar had crossed the Rubicon River bordering Gaul and
about the occupation of the city of Arimina by him. Caesar counted on the speed of action, and, as subsequent events showed, in this respect he was not deceived.

Caesar made great efforts to induce the troops to enter Italian territory and rekindle the flames of civil war.

In an effort to raise the spirit of militancy in the soldiers, Caesar showered them with all sorts of promises: he promised to give each soldier a fortune of 400 thousand sesterces and a horseman's ring.

The other side was also preparing for war. Pompeii was ordered by the Senate to recruit 100,000 soldiers in Italy and add additional allied cohorts to them. In addition, he was given the right to dispose of public, and, if necessary, private funds.

However, despite the extensive powers of Pompey's position was not easy. The Italian slave owners were terribly afraid of a new war, which could cause a united uprising of free and slaves, counting on the support of Caesar, who was approaching Rome with an army. Recruitment of troops in Italy was extremely slow: there was neither a sufficient number of people, nor sufficient funds.

As a result, it was decided to leave Rome and move the seat of government to Capua. This was soon followed by a new decision - to leave Italy altogether and move the theater of operations to Greece and the East, where Pompey expected to receive support in people and money from his many friends and vassals. Having reached Brundisium, Pompeii with 30 thousand soldiers crossed to the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea and landed in Dyrrhachia.

Caesar, having received reinforcements, followed Pompey to Brundisium, but due to the superiority of the enemy fleet, he was forced to turn back and headed for Spain, where Pompey's supporters gathered in large numbers. On the way to Spain, Caesar stopped in Rome, “by the gentleness of his behavior” calmed the citizens of the capital who were trembling with fear, seized the inviolable, sacred fund and hurried to Spain.

The Spanish war was very stubborn and demanded great effort. Only after many failures did Caesar defeat the legates of Pompey (49).

After the Spanish war, on his way to the East, Caesar reappeared in Rome, where his adherent Praetor Aemilius Lepidus proclaimed him dictator for the first time.

After that, Caesar hurried to Brundisium and proceeded to ferry troops to Greece, demanding a more vigorous continuation of the war or dissolution home.

The area where Caesar's army was stationed after the crossing was harsh, poor and deserted. Due to poor supplies, Caesar's soldiers did not receive food for several days and ate grass and roots. In this condition of the troops, Caesar ran into the fresher troops of Pompey at Dyrrhachium and suffered a serious defeat.

In August 48, a second battle took place - at Pharsalus, in Thessaly, - which ended in a brutal defeat for Pompey.

The defeated Pompeii fled from Greece to the island of Lesbos, and from there to Egypt. Pompey was followed by Caesar with 3 1/2 thousand infantry, 800 horsemen and 30 ships.

In Egypt at this time there was a dynastic war caused by the death of King Ptolemy Auletes, once restored to the throne by Pompey. According to the will, the ten-year-old son of the deceased king Ptolemy Dionysus and his sister Cleopatra, who, according to Egyptian custom, was engaged to her brother, were appointed heirs to the throne. The guardian of the young king, the eunuch Potin, rebelled against this marriage. Potinus expelled Cleopatra and proclaimed himself regent of the state. Fearing that Pompeii would take the side of Cleopatra, Potinus ordered Pompey to be killed before he landed in Egypt.

Upon arrival in Egypt, Caesar intervened in dynastic feuds and took Cleopatra under his protection. Caesar's intervention in the internal affairs of Egypt, and especially the heavy monetary indemnity and natural duties imposed by him, aroused the indignation of the local population, which turned into a real war. The rebels were joined by the local garrison, which consisted of mercenaries. Locked up in the royal castle, Caesar withstood a painful siege for several months, during which he ordered the navy and buildings of the Alexandria harbor to be set on fire. The famous Alexandrian Library was destroyed in a fire that broke out.

In March 47, the Alexandrian War ended. Caesar, having suppressed the uprising, solemnly entered Alexandria and proclaimed the twenty-year-old Cleopatra queen, who charmed him with her beauty.

The news of the unrest in Asia in the summer of 47, raised by Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, forced Caesar to leave Egypt and hasten to Asia Minor.

Defeated at Zela, Farnak cleared Asia and retired to his Bosphorus kingdom, where he soon died. On this occasion, Caesar reported to Rome: "I came, I saw, I conquered" ("Veni, vidi, vici").

The victory over Pharnaces gave the East into the hands of Caesar, who reorganized it in his own interests. Having expressed obedience to Caesar, the eastern kings, temples and cities retained their former possessions and, in addition, received various awards and favors.

After the conquest of the East by Caesar, Pompey's followers gathered in Africa under the command of Cato the Younger and Metellus, Pompey's father-in-law, but after several months of war, the Republicans were defeated at the city of Utica. Cato, the main organizer of the anti-Caesarian opposition, took his own life (46).

Much more serious and difficult was the war in Spain, where the remnants of the Pompeians gathered again, led by the sons of Pompey - Gnaeus and Sextus. After a long and intense struggle, the Pompeians were defeated in a decisive battle at Munda (45), near Grenada.

The defeat of the Pompeians made Caesar the sole ruler of the Roman Republic. In 46, Caesar receives a ten-year dictatorship, lifelong censorship, the right to propose candidates for the people's tribunes and aediles, and in 44 he becomes dictator for life. As a permanent dictator, Caesar received an unlimited right to dispose of public finances, armed force, appoint rulers in the provinces, perform censorship functions, mint coins, wear triumphal clothes, red shoes and a laurel wreath in the performance of public duties. In addition, Caesar received the title of emperor as a symbol of supreme military power. The title of emperor secured military power for him, the title of great pontiff made him the head of the most influential priestly college, the lifetime tribunate transferred the legislative initiative into his hands and made his personality sacred. Caesar's head was depicted on the lunettes, his genius was sacrificed on a par with the gods, his purple toga resembled the toga of ancient kings; surrounded by a retinue of servants, Caesar the dictator personally held court, sitting on a golden chair, and received senators without getting up.

Republican institutions were reduced to the level of state bodies dependent on the dictator. The Senate turned into a state council, the number of senators increased to 900. Along with the noble nobles, the senatorial title complained to horsemen, plebeians, freedmen, Romans, Italics and provincials (Gauls, Spaniards), - in general, to everyone who Caesar wanted.

A similar fate befell the comitia, which turned into a body for the election of officials recommended by the dictator.

The main support of Caesar was the army, the importance of which during the period of civil wars and military dictatorships increased to extraordinary proportions. The military imprint lies on the whole regime of Caesar.

In his actions, Caesar was bound by the will of his officers and soldiers. Failure to comply with the requirements of the troops caused grumbling, discontent and mass desertions.

To prevent soldier riots and conspiracies, and at the same time to attract veterans to his side, Caesar used twofold measures: threats and punishments, on the one hand, awards and triumphs, on the other.

In wealth, splendor and pomp, the triumphs of Caesar surpassed the triumphs of all former military leaders.

Each soldier was given 20 - 25 thousand sesterces - an incredibly large amount, centurions - twice, and prefects and tribunes - four times more.

In addition to one-time awards, veterans were given land allotments. Following the example of his predecessors, but only on an incomparably larger scale, Caesar launched a colonization policy. The sources contain indications of the existence of Roman colonies introduced by Caesar in Italy and the provinces: Africa, Gaul, etc. The money needed to buy land and loans to the colonists was obtained in various ways; part of the expenses was covered from Gallic booty, part was taken from the confiscated temple property, part from the property of citizens included in the proscription lists.
To facilitate trade turnover and regulate monetary relations, a single coin for the entire state was adopted - gold and silver, equal to 1/3 of a gram - and it was planned to draw up an extensive code of laws that should unite scattered and scattered praetor edicts and senatus consultations.

Finally, the account of time was specified and simplified. A special commission headed by the Alexandrian astronomer Sosigen replaced the lunar year, accepted until that time in Italy, with a more precise solar year of 365 1/4 days, with an intercalary day every four years. Thus the Julian calendar was established, which is still in use today.

Rome, the capital and seat of Julius Caesar, remained the administrative and political center of the emerging empire. Caesar did not spare money for the decoration of the capital, for the construction of luxurious public and private buildings. Under him, a temple of the god Mars was built on a drained lake, a huge theater, several libraries, forums of Julius with a temple of Venus the Mother, etc.

In order to secure provinces for Rome, to satisfy veterans and to ease the overpopulation of large cities, Caesar restored old cities and built new ones, settling Roman colonists in them.

The center of Roman settlements in Italy and the provinces were cities (municipalities), which were the backbone of the imperial system.

In the socio-economic policy of Caesar, municipal policy occupies a central place.

In 46, a special law on municipalities followed, two years later supplemented by the Rubria law, which equated the municipalities with respect to civil rights to Rome. Autonomy was recognized for municipalities in matters relating to their socio-economic life: the distribution of taxes and duties, the election of municipal magistrates, members of the municipal council, etc.

The highest body of the municipalities was the curia, the municipal council, or senate, chosen from the wealthy people of the city. Julius Caesar's Law of the Provinces determined the rates of taxes

and duties. The rights of governors were limited, at the same time, the possibility of arbitrariness also relatively decreased. The duties of the provincials in relation to the governor were reduced to the delivery of transport, fodder for livestock and accommodation for servants. The number of provinces under Caesar increased: Gaul, Belgium and Illyria joined the old provinces.

As the boundaries of the Roman state expanded, social relations changed and the tasks of governance became more complex, the old state forms were replaced by a new, imperial system of government, the comitia gradually lost their significance, and the senate turned from an authoritarian political body into a state council. Under Caesar, a general purge of the Senate was carried out, and its personnel were radically changed. The number of magistracies was increased: praetors, aediles, quaestors and minor magistrates. The voters deprived of their rights, at the will of the head of state, were restored to their former rights, with one half of the candidates elected by the people, the other appointed by Caesar.

The socio-economic policy of Caesar in all directions anticipated the policy of the Roman Empire. The ultimate goal of this policy was to turn the city-state into a vast power representing the interests of the slave-owning class not only in Italy, but in the entire Mediterranean.
The mood of the metropolitan population in the forties was extremely excited. This dissatisfaction of the urban plebs resulted in two major uprisings during the absence of Caesar, held under the slogans of cassation of debts and reduction of rent. With great difficulty, the governors of Caesar managed to suppress this movement.

Caesar's social policy was of the palliative nature of temporary measures to ease the crisis of the slave society.

Concerned about the overflow of the capital with lumpenproletarian elements and the costs associated with their maintenance, Caesar took the risk of serious measures: reducing distributions and evicting the surplus population from the city. The number of bread recipients was reduced from 320,000 to 150,000, of which 80,000 were evicted to overseas colonies.

Through the removal of the colonies, Caesar hoped to strengthen the army, cleanse the city of poor elements and recreate small property. The withdrawal of colonies was the most important state measure, for the implementation of which they did not stop before any violence.

The eviction of veterans caused deep discontent among peaceful farmers, who were forced to cede part of their lands and were subjected to constant violence by soldiers and officers. Dissatisfaction also existed among the upper classes, who, for various reasons, did not put up with the replacement of the republic by a monarchy. Growing dissatisfaction with Caesar's regime took the form of a conspiracy that ended in Caesar's death. The assassination of Caesar on March 15, or, according to the Roman calendar, the Ides of March 44, marked the end of the Caesarian dictatorship and the beginning of a new civil war between the Republicans and the Caesarians.

In 60 BC An important event took place in the political life of Rome - an alliance was formed of the three most influential political figures in the composition of Pompey, Caesar and Crassus. It was an informal agreement between representatives of the three most influential socio-political forces - the army, the populace and the riders. In essence, it meant the unification of all anti-Senate groups. Despite the fact that from a formal point of view, this triumvirate was not fixed at the institutional level by law, in political practice it became in fact the second government, existing together with the official government controlled by the Senate.

The motives for creating such an alliance are covered in the sources and historiography in sufficient detail. Obviously, in 60 BC. a situation developed in which three influential leaders - Pompey, Caesar and Crassus, against the background of dissatisfaction with the actions of the Senate, saw each other as a source of mutually beneficial support. According to Dio Cassius, Pompey was dissatisfied with the fact that, after a victorious campaign, the Senate refused to award land plots to his veterans, and to recommend him to the consulate for the next year. In the same year, Julius Caesar returned from the province of Further Spain, having served there as governor after the departure of the praetorship in Rome. Caesar also began to seek the consulship, but met with opposition from the senators (Dio., XXXVII, 54.2). Crassus, who represented the interests of the equestrian estate, was dissatisfied with the Senate law on the investigation of judges suspected of bribery. In addition, he expected to become a leading political figure due to the authority of Pompey and Caesar. "Crassus imagined," says the same Cassius, "that his origin and wealth should place him above all" (Ibid., 56.4). The initiator of the creation of the triumvirate is believed to have been Julius Caesar. He managed to reconcile Pompey and Crassus, who were at enmity with each other, and unite them in friendship, "putting the power of both at the service of himself" (Plut., Caes., 13). Caesar was convinced that he could never become powerful without them, and, according to Dio Cassius, "was not afraid of their strengthening if they, united, become even more powerful." Pompey, according to the same Cassius, was afraid of the growing influence of Crassus and Caesar and "did not want to be crushed by them" (Dio., XXXVII, 56.3).

The question of whether Caesar was already hatching dictatorial plans still remains controversial. Plutarch claims that the whole idea of ​​​​Caesar with the triumvirate was nothing more than "a coup d'etat imperceptibly carried out for everyone" (Plut., Caes., 13). More restrained in the assessments of Dion Cassius. In his opinion, Pompey, Caesar and Cassius came to an agreement only "for the organization of the republic as they please" (Dio., XXXVII, 57). In historiography, in general, an opinion was established regarding the exclusively tactical goals of the triumvirs. They were more concerned about stabilizing their own situation at the current moment and implementing current bills in the interests of their many supporters, rather than about seizing power. Triumvirs offered new ways to solve urgent social problems. At the same time, each of them had his own interest: "Pompey sought the approval of his orders in the East and the rewarding of his veterans, Caesar dreamed of a consulate in 59 BC and the implementation of a number of measures in favor of the plebs, and Crassus wanted to satisfy the interests of the horsemen and get the eastern provinces under control "Mashkin N.A. History of ancient Rome. Ed. 3rd. M., 1956. S. 78. .

Despite the fact that among the members of the triumvirate, Caesar was perhaps the least influential political leader, in a short time he managed to become a key figure in the "alliance of three." The triumvirs agreed to take Caesar to the consulate, so that he, as consul, could realize the interests of all members of the triumvirate. In 59 BC with the support of the veterans of Pompey, the horsemen of Crassus and the urban plebs, Caesar was elected consul. Mark Bibul, a Senate protege, became the second consul.

Having received consular powers, Caesar proposed several bills to the popular assembly. First, he put forward a plan to provide land plots to 20,000 veterans of Pompey and land-poor citizens with three or more children. Secondly, a law was put forward to approve all Pompey's orders in the East. Thirdly, in favor of the supporters of Crassus, a one-third reduction in the tax payable amount from the province of Asia was envisaged. In addition, Caesar demanded the adoption of a law that would increase the penalties for extortion of provincial governors - proteges of the Senate Zarshchikov A.V. Caesar and the Caesarians: the role of a personal group in the political struggle // Diss. for the competition uch. Art. to. and. n., Saratov, 2003. S. 85. . According to some authoritative historians, in particular R. Carson, it was the extortion law that became one of the most important monuments of Caesar's state activity, "for more than 500 years, serving as a guiding thread for the Roman magistrates in the provinces" Carson R.A.G. "Caesar and the Monarchy", Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 47. .

Almost all ancient sources report the use by Caesar and his colleagues in the triumvirate of methods of forceful pressure in the implementation of legislative initiatives. For example, the authors well describe the events that accompanied the adoption of the agrarian law in favor of the soldiers of Pompey. Despite the fact that the second consul - Bibulus spoke out against this law, the senators did not agree to put it to a vote, and the people's tribunes imposed a "veto" (prohibition), Caesar cynically ignored all legal opposition. He went to the Forum and turned to the people for support, "putting Pompey next to him on one side, and Crassus on the other" (Plut., Caes., 14). As a result, succumbing to forceful pressure, the senators were forced to agree to the adoption of the law, and Caesar's consular comrade Mark Bibulus was so intimidated by the triumvirs that "until the end of his consulate he did not leave his house and only expressed his protest in edicts" Mishulin A.V. History of Ancient Rome. General history course. Ancient history. M., 1946. S. 223. . According to Suetonius, many "at that time began to talk jokingly not about the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus, but about the consulship of Julius and Caesar" (Suet., Iul., 20,2). Caesar also used other informal methods of struggle against his political opponents. So, he intimidated the sanator Lucius Lacullus with false accusations, who objected to him too sharply, and also "hired an informer against the entire hostile party (optimists) as a whole" Mashkin N.A. History of ancient Rome. Ed. 3rd. M., 1956. S. 83. .

Caesar did not forget about his own interests. According to a draft law introduced in 59 BC. in the Senate by Caesar's supporter - tribune Publius Vatinius, Caesar was proposed to transfer the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria to the administration for a five-year period with the right to recruit an army of up to three legions (10 thousand people) and wage war with neighboring tribes. In addition, Caesar was to receive the right to appoint legates in the rank of praetor at his own discretion, without the consent of the senate. After the law was successfully discussed in the popular assembly, the Senate, under pressure from Pompey and Crassus, had to give Caesar Narbonne Gaul with the right to recruit one legion additionally Utchenko S.L. Julius Caesar. M., 1976. S. 101.

In March 58 to. AD Caesar arrived in Gaul, where he was to receive a loyal army, gain fame, wealth and the opportunity to interfere in the political life of Rome. The interests of Caesar and the entire triumvirate in Italy and Rome were defended by Pompey and Crassus.

Thus, having received the consulate, Caesar fulfilled his obligations towards his colleagues - the triumvirs, satisfied the demands of a significant part of the Roman citizens, weakened the influence of the senate, and at the same time took care of the implementation of his own vain plans. As a result, the triumvirate grew stronger and turned from a secret agreement into a clear and significant factor in the political life of Rome. To further strengthen the "union of three", informal agreements were sealed with family ties. Caesar's daughter Julia was given in marriage to Pompey, despite the fact that she was already betrothed to Servilius Caepio. Caesar himself married Calputnia, the daughter of one of Caesar's prominent supporters, Calpurius Piso (Ibid., 21).

By the mid 50s. 1st century BC. the political situation in Rome became noticeably aggravated, which led to a weakening of the influence of the triumvirate on the political life of Rome. Before Caesar left for Gaul, where he waged grueling wars against the Gallic tribes for several years, the allies maintained agreement among themselves and quite successfully controlled the situation. However, after the departure of Caesar to Gaul, Pompey and Crassus, due to constant quarrels with each other, could not consistently represent the interests of the triumvirate Mashkin N.A. History of ancient Rome. Ed. 3rd. M., 1956. S. 91. tribune of the people. Clodius began to oppose both the policy of the Senate oligarchy and the triumvirs. Being a good orator, a resolute and daring leader, he passed a series of laws in favor of the plebs, despite the opposition of the Senate, as well as Pompey and Crassus. As a result, colleges of citizens were created in the quarters of Rome, which turned into political clubs of the plebs; decisions on the abolition of any payment for bread were implemented; limited competence of censors in the preparation of senatorial lists; significantly simplified the procedures for holding public meetings. Wanting to strike at the Senate, Clodius managed to discredit and expel one of the most authoritative leaders of the optimates camp - Marcus Tullius Cicero. In his political struggle, Clodius began to rely on the masses armed with clubs, consisting of the urban plebs, freedmen and even slaves. In opposition to the formations of Clodius, the senators created similar detachments, headed by the people's tribune of 57 BC. Milo. Street violent brawls of political opponents began to instill fear in the ordinary inhabitants of Rome. "Often the assembled dispersed only after," notes Plutarch, "they desecrate the orator's dais with corpses and stain it with blood" (Plut., Caes., 28). In this situation, the influence of the power of the triumvirs noticeably weakened, and political power became fragmented. According to T. Mommsen, in Rome in the 50s BC. there were already three governments in effect: the formally ruling Senate, the informal triumvirate, and the semi-criminal groups of Clodius and Milo Mommsen T. History of Rome. T. 2. St. Petersburg, 1994. S. 334. .

In 56 BC the triumvirs, on the initiative of Caesar, made an attempt to restore their political authority and order in the state. In the city of Lucca, bordering with Cisalpine Gaul, they made the most important state decisions that the Senate and the people's comitia had to fulfill. Caesar was extended his stay in Gaul with unlimited powers for five years. Pompey and Crassus received the consulate in 55 BC. After the end of their consular powers, Pompey received control of the Spanish provinces, and Crassus - Syria, which was considered the most important province in the East. As a result, the triumvirs could control the political situation in almost the entire territory of the Roman state. According to R. Carson, it was this decision of the triumvirs that was the prologue to the establishment of the future dictatorship of Caesar, since it was "the will of the triumvirs that largely determined the direction of the activities of the Senate, the people's assembly and the magistrates" Carson R. A. G. "Caesar and the Monarchy", Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 46. .

Despite the fact that the three leaders managed to advance their decisions in the Senate and comitia, in the second half of the 50s. their union ceased to exist as an influential factor in Roman politics. This was due to a number of circumstances. Firstly, Crassus, after his departure from consular duties and departure for Syria, was in 53 BC. killed by the Parthian wars. Thus, from the triumvirate, the duumvirate of Pompey - Caesar automatically turned out. Secondly, in the face of the political chaos that gripped Rome in 52 B.C. the Senate was forced to make a proposal to Pompey, to accept the supreme authority to restore order. The situation in Rome was indeed very serious. According to Plutarch, at that time "the state was sinking into the abyss of anarchy, like a ship rushing without control" (Ibid., 28). "And many have already spoken openly," Plutarch also remarks, "that the state cannot be healed by anything other than autocracy" (Ibid). In this crisis, Pompey, as "the most authoritative, was elected "consul without a colleague" (Suet., Iul., 26), which actually meant giving him dictatorial power. Having taken a number of drastic measures, Pompey became the most powerful man in Rome. In these conditions, he no longer needed the support of Caesar.On the contrary, in an effort to maintain primacy, he was now interested in weakening his former ally, who, meanwhile, had acquired great military strength and influence due to the successful conduct of wars in Gaul.Thirdly, the claim to political primacy had and Caesar himself. For a ten-year stay in Gaul, he became a very powerful and wealthy military leader, whose authority among the soldiers was extremely high. Caesar, "doubled his legionnaires' salary for eternity, let them go bread without measure and count, and sometimes gave each soldier according to a slave from among the captives "(Ibid., 26,3). At the same time, from afar, he tried to influence the political life of Rome. He sent them there gold and other booty were used to bribe officials, organize feasts and gladiator fights for the people. With funds from the booty, Caesar also began to build the Forum, and "one land under it was worth more than a hundred million" (Ibid., 26.2). Caesar was aware of his strength and did not want to have a rival in the person of the influential Pompey. "His fame had already equaled the glory of Pompey's victories," writes Plutarch, "and now he enjoyed all the pretexts that Pompey himself gave him and the conditions of the time, and the decline of civil life in Rome" (Plut., Caes., 28). Thus, the triumvirate finally broke up, and an open conflict was brewing between Pompey and Caesar.

Thus, the period of the triumvirate brought Caesar significant political and military conquests. From the moment the "alliance of the three" was concluded, Caesar played a leading role in it, despite the lack of authority in comparison with his colleagues under the agreement. He is elected consul and successfully implements the plans of the triumvirs, aimed at fighting the senate, satisfying the interests of supporters and his own political ambitions. Relying on the support of Pompey and Crassus, Caesar achieved the transfer of Cisalpine and Narbonne Gaul, as well as Illyria, to him.

Of the three united leaders, it was Caesar who received perhaps the most significant political dividends from the triumvirate. Waging wars in distant Gaul, he was able to become a famous commander and influential politician, who had huge army support and equally huge material resources, with the help of which many political problems of Rome were solved. Over time, however, the triumvirate has exhausted its possibilities. After the death of Crassus and in connection with the sharply aggravated political situation in Rome, the idea of ​​fighting the Senate lost its relevance. The contradictions between Pompey and Caesar, who claimed sole political leadership, came to the fore.

The military-political confrontation that arose between Pompey and Caesar unfolded against the backdrop of growing chaos in the Roman state. After two years of social upheaval, in August 50 BC. Cicero wrote: “Unfortunately, I do not foresee peace this year either, and the closer that strife that is inevitable comes (meaning the clash between Pompey and Caesar), the more clearly this danger is visible” Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters // Reader on the history of ancient Rome. // Under the editorship of V.I. Kuzishchina. M., 1987. S. 152. . The formal reason for the open clash of the former triumvirs was the refusal of Pompey and the Senate to provide Caesar with an opportunity in absentia, without the resignation of the proconsul in Gaul, to stand as a candidate for consular elections in Rome in 49 BC. AD According to the Senate resolution, Caesar was to resign his command, disband all his troops and, as an honest man, return to Rome. However, Caesar feared "that he could not be unharmed if he parted with the army" Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters. There. S. 152. . For their part, they were offered compromise options. For example, he agreed to disband his troops, but only if "Pompey does the same" (Ibid., 30).

The irreconcilable position of the Senate and Pompey forced Caesar to start hostilities, which relatively quickly acquired the character of a civil war. Almost all layers of Roman society were drawn into it, as well as numerous peoples in the provinces. In anticipation of the planned armed struggle, Cicero perspicaciously noted: "In these strife, as I foresee, the senate and those who prosecute will be on the side of Gnaeus Pompey; those who live with fear and without hope will join Caesar." Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters. There. S. 153. . Such an assessment made by Cicero is not accidental. While the senatorial aristocracy protected its own interests, Caesar's program reflected a wider range of social interests. It provided for the establishment of unlimited power similar to the Hellenistic monarchy, where the interests of not only one class (for example, the Senate), but all Roman citizens and the population of the Roman provinces would be expressed. This is probably why Caesar was able to win over quite a lot of people to his side soon after he crossed the Rubicon River and entered Italy. March 1, 49 BC, i.e. just two months after the speech of Caesar's legions on Rome, Cicero noted: “People from the municipalities talk a lot to me, the villagers talk a lot; they don’t care about anything except the fields, except for the estates, except for their money. : the one in whom they were previously confident, they fear (Pompey), but they love this one whom they feared (Caesar)" Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters. There. S. 154. .

The rapid advance of Caesar's army deep into Italy caused a mass exodus of the population. "Everywhere a stampede began in fear and tears," notes Appian (App., B. C., II, 35). Soon Rome was filled with a stream of refugees from the surrounding cities and villages. In a state of chaos, the authorities were unable to maintain order either by persuasion or by orders. Succumbing to the general panic, Pompey and most of the senators fled from Rome. According to ancient authors, on the way to Rome, Caesar tried everywhere to show his loyalty and humane treatment, thanks to which the mass panic stopped, and, having occupied Rome, Caesar found him "in a calmer state than he expected" (Plut., Caes., 35 ). Even his political opponent Cicero praised Caesar's actions. In one of his letters to a certain Titus Pomponius, he writes: "What kind of person appeared in the state, how active, how vigilant, how prepared. I swear, if he does not execute anyone and does not take anything from anyone, then those who extremely he was afraid they would love him extremely" Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters. There. . At the same time, having taken possession of Rome, Caesar made it clear to the senators and officials who remained in it that from now on "everything will come only from him" (App., B. C., II, 107). So, contrary to the law, he seized the rich state treasury, and the people’s tribune Metellus, who was about to prevent this arbitrariness, said: “If you are dissatisfied with my actions, then go away. my power" (Plut., Caes., 35). According to Cicero, Caesar just did not arrange reprisals because he "considered mildness pleasing to the people" Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters. There. .

While Pompey, who fled from Rome, was gathering his troops in Greece, Caesar defeated his main forces in Spain, which consisted of eight legions. There, as in Italy, he showed mercy to the vanquished and enlisted many of Pompey's captured legionnaires into his ranks. After returning from Spain, Caesar became dictator. This extraordinary position for a period of six months, as we said above, was a traditional part of the Roman system of government. Unused since the Hannibal Wars, in the 1st c. BC. she was reanimated by Sulla. Caesar's dictatorship was not something out of the ordinary. Like Sulla, Caesar formalized his position of power through the Senate appointment of Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 239.

However, 11 days after taking office, he resigned his dictatorial powers, declared himself consul and moved against Pompey in Greece. June 6, 48 BC In the north of Greece, in Vessaly, a decisive battle took place between the opponents, during which the Pompeians were defeated, and Pompey himself fled to Egypt, where Mommsen T. was treacherously killed. History of Rome.T. 2. St. Petersburg, 1994, p. 347. .

Thus, the physical elimination of a dangerous and influential competitor, the military strength and authority of Caesar, his flexible policy towards all segments of the population, as well as the inefficiency of the republican institutions of power in a period of crisis for the state, were the main prerequisites for establishing Caesar's dictatorship.

Victory in the civil war brought Caesar control of the Roman state. If even in the autumn of 48 BC. Caesar received dictatorial powers from the consul Servilius Isauricus for a period of one year, in the spring of 47 BC. - for 10 years in a row, then in 44 BC. he has already received the powers of a permanent dictator. This was a radical departure from Roman tradition, which viewed the dictatorship "as an extraordinary magistracy of strictly limited duration" Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 241.

Introduced, for example, in case of restoration of order in the state. At the same time, the legitimacy of Caesar's power rested more on the recognition of his authority than on fear of force. The need for a dominant leader to control the political system was recognized in Rome in the years leading up to the civil war. Even Cicero, who was a zealous supporter of republican government, recognized the need for the state "a kind of trustee who could use the generally recognized auctoritate to maintain order" Cicero Mark Tullius. Dialogues: About the state. On laws // Reader on the history of ancient Rome. // Under the editorship of V.I. Kuzishchina. M., 1987. S. 208. . Thus, the elevation of Caesar to the rank of dictator was, in fact, a recognition of the need for a dominant trustee who would prevent violence, arbitrariness and corruption in Roman society.

The autocracy of Caesar was supplemented by other state powers. He received the lifetime competencies of the people's tribune and censor with the right to review the lists of senators and observe morals. In addition, the Senate and the people gave him the right to recommend. As a dictator, Caesar could recommend his candidates for magister positions (consuls, praetors, aediles). It is true, "with the exception of applicants for the consulate, half of the candidates were elected by the will of the people, and half by the appointment of Caesar" (Suet., Iul., 41.2).

The Senate, which was previously the highest state authority, became essentially an advisory body under the dictator Caesar, who replenished it with more than half of his proteges. At the same time, using the right of the censor, Caesar increased the number of senators from 600 to 900 people. Another supreme body of the republican constitution, the people's assembly, practically ceased to function as an independent institution. The meetings at the Forum consisted mainly of Caesar's clients or his friends, who approved the candidacy of the dictator in the election of magistrates. The executive authorities were reorganized in accordance with Caesar's wishes. As the volume of public affairs increased markedly, the dictator increased the number of traditional magistracies. Under Caesar, they began to choose 16 praetors instead of eight, six aediles instead of four, and 40 quaestors instead of 24. If Caesar's candidates for these posts still required the formal consent of the people, then lower-ranking officials (legates, prefects, procurators) were appointed personally dictator. Especially many such officials were sent to the provinces to manage state property, finances and control the collection of taxes Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 244-245.

In addition to the plots of land, "Caesar paid his veterans out of the booty 24,000 sesterces" (Suet., Iul., 38). Thus, the adaptation of the soldiers to civilian life went smoothly and the requirements of the legionnaires were satisfied.

Deciding the debt issue, Caesar also chose a compromise path, if possible not infringing on the interests of any of the parties. He refused a full cassation of debts, which could destabilize property relations. The debts were reduced by deducting the interest paid from the principal, and the remainder could be paid in equal installments over three years. The loan interest was reduced to 6% per annum. The usurer was severely punished for violating this ordinance. Caesar also canceled the rent arrears in Rome and Italy, and "those who paid for housing in Rome up to 2 thousand sesterces and in Italy up to 500 thousand, he released from payment for a year" (Ibid., 38.2) .

The question of distributing free bread to the Roman plebs was also topical. Ever since 58 B.C. free grain distributions were established, the list of recipients of this alms swelled to 300 thousand people. Caesar made a thorough revision of this list and reduced the number of recipients to 150 thousand people, significantly reducing the burden on the treasury and grain suppliers, "and so that when updating the lists new unrest could not arise, he decided that every year the praetor by lot should replace the deceased recipients with new ones from among those not included in the lists" (Ibid., 41.3). To please the people, Caesar practiced periodic generous distributions of cash and products from his own reserves. So, in memory of his deceased daughter Yulia, he "distributed to the people ten measures of grain and the same number of pounds of butter, in money of 300 sesterces each." Particularly impressive was the generosity of Caesar after the successful conduct of military campaigns. For example, "after the Spanish triumph, he arranged an unheard of rich feast and distribution of meat" (Ibid., 38). The dictator did not forget about the craving of the people for all kinds of spectacles and performances. In the Caesarian era, the sphere of entertainment acquired a very wide scope: "Battles of gladiators and theatrical performances were held in all quarters of the city and in all languages, and races in the circus, and athletic competitions, and sea battles" (Ibid., 39).

The main direction of the provincial policy of Caesar was the massive granting of Roman citizenship to the local nobility. For the first time in Roman history, the right of a Roman citizen was granted to an entire province - Cisalpine Gaul. In Transalpine Gaul, some cities and communities were awarded Roman citizenship. Actually, measures to expand the rights of citizenship were linked to the solution of the problem of increasing the birth rate of Roman citizens. Since from 130 BC. the birth rate was steadily falling, it was necessary to implement measures to stimulate it. Caesar instituted a cash reward program that encouraged people to have three or more children. To control emigration and support the population of Italy, a rule was established according to which "no citizen over 20 and under 40 years of age who is not in military service may leave Italy for more than three years." Other original measures were implemented in this direction (Ibid., 41.3). In particular, "Caesar granted Roman citizenship to all who practiced medicine in Rome, and to all teachers of the noble arts" Cicero Mark Tullius. Letters // Ibid. M., 1987. S. 155. .

The dictatorship of Caesar was very painfully perceived in the circles of the senatorial aristocracy. A case is widely described in the literature when the senators, who came in full force to present the most honorable decrees to Caesar, "were severely offended that the dictator accepted them sitting" (Plut., Caes., 60). The Roman nobility had a deeply rooted belief in the justice of only the collegiate system of oligarchic rule. The autocratic regime of Caesar, although recognized as temporarily necessary, was categorically unacceptable in the long term. Monarchist sentiments were also rejected by the people. So, for example, during one of the holidays, the attempts of Antony, one of Caesar's associates, to crown the statue of the dictator with the royal crown of Carson R. A. G. "Caesar and the Monarchy" were met with exclamations of disapproval in the crowd. Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 52. . However, with the beginning of the establishment of the dictatorship, the Senate and the people "themselves handed Caesar powers beyond measure: a permanent consulate, a lifelong dictatorship, care of morals, then the name of the emperor, the nickname of the father of the fatherland, a statue among the royal statues, an elevated place in the theater." (Suet., Iul., 76). In a sense, Roman citizens were in a state of split desires. On the one hand, they needed a strong dictatorial power capable of ensuring stability in society, on the other hand, they remained staunch supporters of a republican form of government based on the collegiality and turnover of all officials. Caesar successfully solved the most acute socio-economic problems, strengthened the institutions of state administration and restored public order, but "his omnipotence, to which there was no end in sight, caused increasing fears" (Plut., Caes., 60).

It was on this basis that a conspiracy against Caesar matured among the senators, at the center of which were Cassius Longinus, Decimus Brutus and Mark Brutus. It is noteworthy that Mark Brutus justified the murder of Caesar by saying that he "became a tyrant, and the duty of all honest people is to kill a tyrant" Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 250.

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