1236 Mongols defeated that. Ain Jalut, or the last battle of the Mongols

Mongols

At the end of the 30s. 13th century Russian lands were subjected to a devastating invasion by the army of the Mongol khans - the best in the world in discipline, organization, maneuverability and armament of the cavalry, which had already conquered all states in the space from the Pacific Ocean to the Volga and Don.

Arising at the beginning of the thirteenth century. the state of the Mongolian tribes, united by Temujin - Genghis Khan, at the beginning of its existence experienced a period of extraordinary growth, accompanied by aggressive campaigns in all neighboring camps in order to seize booty and establish dominance, in the interests of the Mongolian tribal elite.
The magnificent organization of troops, generally characteristic of nomads, reinforced by rigid centralization in management, a clear structure of society adapted to permanent war in the name of the great super-task - the establishment of world domination, for the sake of which it was subject to an unprecedentedly cruel discipline, enshrined in a special code of laws of the emerging empire - "Yasa" , - brought Mongolian weapons one victory after another. In the first decade and a half of the existence of the state, the lands of the Buryats, Kirghiz, Uighurs, Yakuts (who migrated to the north), Khitans, Jurchens, and Northern China were conquered. A terrorist regime was established on the occupied lands: cultural centers - cities - were mercilessly destroyed. The population, much more cultured than the conquerors, was exterminated or enslaved.

In 1218 the Mongols invaded Central Asia. The next year, a huge army of Genghis Khan invaded the state of Khorezm and captured it in a short time, destroying a flourishing power with a long history, developed science and culture.

In 1220, after the final conquest of Khorezm, Genghis Khan formed a select army of 30,000 horsemen, placing at the head of it his best commanders, the Uriankhai (Tuvan) Subedey - bagatura, famous for his wisdom and composure, the experienced brave Jebe-Noyon, known for swiftness actions and his son-in-law Tuchagar (soon killed in battle) and sent in pursuit of the fleeing Khorezm Shah Mohammed. Following him, this Mongol corps captured city after city and soon invaded Iran.

Meanwhile, Muhammad, left alone, died of a cold in the winter of that year, disappearing to his pursuers. However, Genghis Khan, having put an end to the resistance in Khorezm. demanded the continuation of the campaign, in order to turn to the west, go around the Caspian Sea from the south and find out the ability of the Western peoples to resist.

Having swept through Northern Iran, the iron avalanche of the Mongols invaded Eastern Transcaucasia, where they captured Nakhichevan, but at Ganja it was stopped by the heroic defenders of the city and turned towards Bagratid Georgia. The hastily assembled militia of Georgian feudal lords under the command of the son of Queen Tamar - Georgy Lash and his commander (amirspasalar) Ivane Mkhargrdzeli was defeated as a result of a well-known tactic similar to that later used by Dmitry Donskoy. One part of the Mongols began to retreat from the blow of the Georgians, luring the enemy under the blow of another.

Having devastated Georgia and the lands of the future Azerbaijan, the Mongols made a difficult transition through the Caucasus Range and broke into the lands of the North Caucasus. Faced here with the combined forces of the Alans and Polovtsy, they managed to split the coalition by deceit, assuring the Polovtsy of their friendship, and defeated the Alans, who were left alone, and then the Polovtsy of Khan Yuri Konchakovich, in which the Mongols were helped by roamers - the baptized descendants of the Khazars who lived near the Don. Being before that, in alliance with the Polovtsy, they went over to the side of the aliens, feeling their strength. In addition to the son of the famous Konchak, another leader who converted to Orthodoxy, Daniil Kobyakovich, also died.

However, there were too many Polovtsy to destroy them in one battle. Fleeing from the onslaught of the Mongols, they left in different directions, including the Crimea, captured by the Mongols in the winter of 1223, and beyond the Dnieper, under the protection of their recent opponents - the Russian princes. The leader of this Polovtsian association, Khan Kotyan, was the father-in-law of the Galician prince Mstislav Mstislavich Udatny and, not without reason, expected to receive help here.

South-Western Rus' at that time consisted of three, practically independent centers - Galicia, Kiev and Chernigov principalities. Moreover, all three were headed by princes named Mstislav. The armed forces of each of these states were too weak to withstand the blow of the Mongols, but their rulers had no idea what kind of threat appeared in the steppe. Centuries of generally successful warfare with the nomads developed a disdainful attitude towards the nomads in the Russian princes. Adjacent to them, forming a reserve against the nomads, were the Smolensk and Volyn principalities, as well as several small, semi-independent destinies.

Having gathered in Kyiv for advice, the princes decided to help the Polovtsy so that they would not fall under the rule of the Mongols and would not strengthen them even more. It was also decided to advance towards the enemy, without devastating their lands.

Battle on the Kalka

The mobilization of the forces of southwestern Rus' took about two weeks. The town of Zarub, which controls the strategic ford across the Dnieper, the lowest crossing within the Russian lands, was appointed as the gathering place for the militias. Here, in addition to Galician Mstislav Mstislavich, in April 1223, troops arrived led by Mstislav the Old of Kyiv, his son-in-law Andrei, his vassals - descendants of the Turov-Pinsk princes - Alexander Dubrovitsky and Yuri Nesvizh, as well as Izyaslav Terebovlsky, Svyatoslav Kanevsky, Mstislav Yanevsky and Svyatoslav Shumsky.

The Chernigov troops were led by Mstislav Svyatoslavich, with him were his son (name unknown), as well as Mstislav Vsevolodovich Kozelsky, Izyaslav Novgorodsky, Ivan Romanovich Putivlsky, Oleg Svyatoslavich Kursky, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich Trubchevsky. A detachment of Smolensk people was led by Vladimir Rurikovich.

Young Daniil Romanovich and his brother Vasilko arrived with the Volynians. Prince of Lutsk Mstislav Yaroslavich "Mute" also came. The strongest of the Russian princes, Yuri Vsevolodovich of Suzdal, also promised help, but the army sent by him under the command of Vasilko of Rostov was very late. The news of the defeat of the Russians overtook him in the Chernihiv region.

The Mongols, having learned about the concentration of Russian armies, again tried to cunningly split their opponents by sending an embassy to Kyiv, but the princes, having heard about the insidiousness of the newcomers, destroyed the ambassadors. War became inevitable. At the end of April, the Russian-Polovtsian army set out from Zarub to the south. The advance of the Russian princes lasted 17 days. During this time, the contradictions between the leaders intensified in the Russian camp. There was a disastrous division of forces.

Mstislav Udatny (in the literature he is often called "remote"), apparently deciding not to share the glory of the future victory with anyone, began to act independently. He sent his detachment to the left bank of the Dnieper and with a thousand soldiers attacked the Mongol reconnaissance detachments, putting them to flight. At the same time, a military leader named Gemyabek was captured. The Turkic name of the prisoner suggests that by the spring of 1223 the composition of the Mongol "expeditionary force" was already heavily diluted with representatives of the defeated peoples (primarily the Turks), who had gone over to the service of the victors.

At this time, to concentrated before the crossing at the Dnieper rapids and about. Khortytsya, the “Galician exiles” arrived in time for the Russian army - i.e. those who, during long strife, moved (or were expelled) outside the Galich land. They lived in the lower reaches of the Dniester, on the Danube and along the sea coast.

The generals of the Mongols decided to impose their plan of action on the Russians, luring them deep into the steppes, away from the banks of the Dnieper. On May 16, the entire Russian-Polovtsian army crossed to the left bank, where they threw back the reconnaissance detachment of the Mongols, who fled, leaving, possibly as a bait, a large number of cattle. The departure of the Mongolian "veil" looming on the horizon and its pursuit by the Russians lasted 8 days. On May 28, the vanguard of the Russian forces under the command of Mstislav Mstislavich Galitsky reached the Kalka River (modern Kalchik or Kalitsa are tributaries of the Kalmius, which flows into the Sea of ​​​​Azov), where he had a collision with the Mongolian guards.

Mstislav Mstislavich ordered Daniil Romanovich with the Polovtsy to cross to the left bank and continue pursuing the enemy, while he himself, probably soon sensing a trap and fearing for the fate of his vanguard, crossed over to personally reconnoiter the situation.

Apparently, Mstislav Udatny headed away from the light forces that had gone ahead and climbed a hill, as he found columns of the heavy cavalry of the Mongols waiting for him in the folds of the terrain, but “for the sake of envy”, warning only his army, did not inform his allies about this, making the final decision to defeat the Mongols on their own. Perhaps the Galician prince did not see all the forces of the enemy and was unable to correctly and soberly assess the situation, nevertheless, a fatal decision, dooming tens of thousands of people to death, was made.

Battle on the Kalka

Meanwhile, on the left bank, the advance detachment, consisting of Polovtsy and Volhynians, discovered the enemy going on the attack and attacked him. There was a clash of spearmen, and a battle broke out. Young Vasilko was knocked out of the saddle by a Mongol spear, and his older, eighteen-year-old brother Daniel was wounded in the chest, but continued to fight. As it often happened before, the Polovtsians, despite the fact that they were led by Mstislav's experienced comrade-in-arms, voivode Yarun, soon could not withstand the pressure of a more staunch enemy and fled, bringing confusion to the Russian ranks. Finding themselves unable to resist the superior forces of the Mongols, the Galician-Volyn squads also turned their horses. Luck, a constant companion of Mstislav Mstislavich, for the first time left him.

For the main part of the Russian forces, the battle took place spontaneously. The troops, exhausted by the long march, were stretched far along the steppe path, and the generals, who, moreover, were deprived of information from the vanguard, became hostages of the situation. Chernigov and the Kiev militia following him stopped on the right bank. Chernihiv, apparently, learned that a heavy battle was ahead and began to cross the Kalka. The squad of Oleg Kursky still managed to come to the aid of the Galicians, but at that time a mass of Polovtsians, pursued by the Mongols, flew into the crossing, and brought confusion, mixed the Chernigov regiments, not allowing them to meet the enemy in an organized manner.

Events developed rapidly. In the army of Mstislav of Kyiv, who camped for the night on a hill even to the west, they did not have time to take part in the battle at all (for this it was necessary at least to arm themselves). Seeing the Mongols escaping to the river and the fleeing Polovtsy, the Kyiv prince thought only of defense. He ordered to enclose the camp with a fortification of wagons and stakes, which was done. The Mongols tried to storm it, but were repulsed. Unfortunately, most of the vassals, apparently, abandoned their Kyiv overlord and began to seek salvation in flight (their names are not in the list of prisoners, but some are mentioned among those who died during the persecution). This significantly weakened the Kiev army and, probably, this can explain the passivity of Mstislav the Old, who did not even make an attempt to break through to the water for three days.

Leaving relatively small forces to besiege the "kiyans", Subudai and Jebe organized the pursuit of the fleeing Galicians, Volynians and Chernigovians. In this phase of the battle, Vladimir Rurikovich distinguished himself. His squad, most likely, closed the column and managed to "run out" for the battle. As a result, the Smolensk people were able to defeat the Mongol forces pursuing them and safely reach the Dnieper. Returning to Kyiv alone, the prince of Smolensk, who retained his strength, took the vacant throne of the grand duke.

Managed to get to the Dnieper crossing and Mstislav Mstislavich (who ordered to destroy and push the boats from the shore, which killed many more exhausted fugitives who were unable to cross the river) and the Volyn princes, as more ready for battle. Probably Chernihiv residents were less fortunate. Up to half of the princes who took part in the battle died, and six - during the pursuit. Of the other warriors, only one in ten returned home.

Three princes who were in the fortified camp - the "city" were forced to capitulate, having lost hope, when the army was exhausted from thirst, and the Mongol detachments began to return from pursuit to the battlefield. The princes believed the oath of the wandering ataman with the characteristic name of Ploskin. Kissing the cross, he assured that the Mongols would spare the prisoners if they laid down their arms. However, the Mongols were not going to keep their promises to the vanquished. The Kiev army was completely destroyed, and the Mongols captured the princes tied up under the boards, on which they sat down to feast and crushed them.

The Mongols, however, also suffered serious losses. They did not go deep into the Russian lands and attacked the Volga Bulgaria, but here their attempt was repulsed by a relatively weak enemy. Reporting this, Ibn al-Athir explains that Jebe and Subedei had only 4,000 soldiers left. Thus ended a long-term raid unparalleled in military history by a separate cavalry detachment, which defeated several states and peoples on its way, defeating a three times superior enemy on the Kalka and overcoming a gigantic distance returning to Mongolia, losing about 25 thousand soldiers, which is incomparable with the losses of the enemy.

What is the reason for these victories? It, in addition to the qualities and advantages of the Mongolian military art mentioned above, lies in the incredible mobility of the cavalry of Genghis Khan, who knew how to gather into a fist in a critical situation and beat the enemy to complete destruction. In the case of the Georgians, they could not stretch the enemy with a long retreat in a small area and, holding it in a vise, defeated them in a one-day battle. They carried out a lengthy operation against the Russian-Polovtsian forces, and only after exhausting and stretching the enemy fell on his “head”, isolated across the river, and then simply swept away and surrounded and drove individual detachments one by one. So there was no battle, in the classical sense, there was only an unsuccessful battle of the vanguard and the subsequent defeat of the main forces.

The consequences of the Battle of Kalka were catastrophic for Rus'. The death of tens of thousands of soldiers undermined the power of Southern Rus', inflicting irreparable moral damage on it. The Mongols also gained valuable combat experience. We got the necessary information about the enemy.

In the Russian literary and epic tradition, the battle on the Kalka was perceived as the place of death of the last “brave” heroes, including Alyosha Popovich and others, who shortly before left the strife in the Suzdal region to serve the Kyiv prince. In the popular mind, this event was perceived as a turning point, the end of a passing era, the onset of a new, tragic stage in the life of Rus'.

The first "acquaintance" with the military art of the Mongol conquerors ended in an unheard of defeat of the Russian troops from an enemy at least twice as large as them. At first glance, the defeat of 1223 on the Kalka is due to subjective reasons: the frivolity and ambition of Mstislav Udaly, who led the vanguard, his blatant disregard for the organization of intelligence, inconsistency in the actions of individual units due to the lack of a unified command, arrogant underestimation of the enemy by all participants.

However, they are all just a consequence of one common cause. The army of the era of mature feudalism, split not so much by the strife of ambitious leaders, as by the centrifugal forces of the development of ancient Russian statehood, collided with a monolithic barbarian force, united by an unthinkably tough discipline, armed with new tactics, brought to perfection in countless victorious campaigns in its native, steppe element. The outcome of the struggle was obvious.

The conquest of Rus'

Organization and tactics of the Mongolian army.

The total number of Mongolian troops who took part in the campaign against Rus' reached 130 thousand soldiers. The conquering army had a clear decimal organization. The highest unit was "tumen" - 10 thousand horsemen under the command, as a rule, of one of the "Chingizids" - the sons or grandsons of Genghis Khan. The army had a single command in the person of the elected head of Batu Khan (in the Russian chronicles - Batu) and Subede (Subetai-Baatur, Subudai) - one of the best generals of Genghis Khan, who defeated the Russians on the river. Kalka.

The Mongol army was traditionally divided into heavy and light cavalry, but the favorite weapon of all the Mongols and related tribes was the bow. In terms of strength and range of combat, the Mongolian bow far surpassed those used by the peoples of Eastern Europe. In battle, Mongolian warriors constantly used lasso. Their spears were equipped with hooks for pulling the enemy off the saddle, and defensive weapons were not inferior in strength to European ones. Having conquered China, the Mongols learned to use throwing machines and constantly used them when storming fortified cities.

The battle order of the Mongolian army, whether it was a separate tumen or a larger association, was uniform: behind the chain of guard patrols, the "ertoul" moved - the vanguard, which accounted for 1/9 of the total number. The main forces were divided into three parts: the left wing, which accounted for 2/9 of the total; center - 3/9; right wing - 2/9. Each of these parts also had a ternary structure and a two-tier construction. One part advanced into the first line, while the other two walked in a ledge to the right and left. Behind followed the reserve - 1/9 of all forces.

The tactics of the Mongols did not fundamentally differ from the tactics used by all nomads. In battle, the center could often start a false retreat, luring the enemy under the blows of the wings, but the superbly organized reconnaissance and the scope of the actions of the huge forces of the Mongols allowed them to carry out such actions on a strategic scale, as happened on the river. Kalka.

The management of the Mongolian troops, in comparison with their opponents, stood at a different qualitative level. The senior and senior command staff never personally participated in the battle and, watching from the side, directed its course through an effective system of sound and visual signals. Failure to comply with the order and unauthorized retreat were punishable by death.

In 1236, the Mongols defeated the Polovtsy, who lived between the Ural and Don rivers; after fierce resistance, they destroyed the Volga Bulgaria (on the territory of modern Tatarstan and Chuvashia) and in the late autumn of 1237 concentrated at the borders of the Ryazan land. The Ryazan princes, without waiting for help from Vladimir, sent an embassy to Batu and began to gather troops. Boyar Yevpaty Kolovrat was also sent to Chernigov for help. When the embassy at the khan's headquarters was killed, they, apparently, were the first to attack the Mongols, inflicting serious losses on them.

Mongols near the walls of Ryazan

Having defeated the Ryazan princes (at the same time, the remnants of their troops were able to avoid complete destruction), the Mongols, having previously taken Pronsk, laid siege to Ryazan on December 15, while simultaneously ruining other Ryazan cities. The capital of the principality fell on the sixth day of defense. A few days later, near Kolomna, the main forces of the Vladimir-Suzdal land and the remnants of the Ryazan troops were defeated. Then, approaching Moscow, the Mongols took it five days later. Before Vladimir, the conquering army moved for almost a month.

The capital of North-Eastern Rus' fell on the third day of resistance. The Grand Duke left it even earlier to gather a new army in the forests beyond the Volga. After that, the Genghisid army was divided into three parts. One, under the command of the young and talented temnik Burundai, moved in the footsteps of Yuri Vsevolodovich and, suddenly attacking the camp near the river. Sit, destroyed his army here, which did not have time to put up organized resistance.

The prince was killed. Another part ravaged the cities of the Volga region, reaching Vologda, while one detachment, which had previously taken Galich-Mersky, did not return to the main forces. The third - with Batu himself, set out for Novgorod, but, having lost two weeks near Torzhok, was forced to turn at the end of March, not reaching the goal of several crossings. The reason for this, most likely, was the inability to break through further along the narrow paths and river channels, littered with fences, behind which, most likely, the Novgorod army stood.

Departing to the south, the Mongol troops marched in a broad front of a strategic "raid", devastating a vast territory, including the eastern regions of the Smolensk and Chernigov principalities. Here, the conquerors, weakened by losses, faced the stubborn resistance of the Kozelsk fortress. Having lost a huge number of dead under its walls in two months, they called it the "evil city", destroying, in the end, everything living in it.

While the main forces of the Mongols were preparing for a march to the West, replenished with new reinforcements, and suppressed the last centers of resistance of the Kipchak-Polovtsy, a strong detachment was sent to the lower reaches of the Oka, where they took Murom and Nizhny Novgorod, and also ravaged the Mordovian lands and Russian volosts along the Lower Klyazma. In 1239, the Mongols took Pereyaslavl and Chernigov, under which the local princes were defeated in a field battle.

The Mongols appeared under the walls of Kyiv in November 1240. The capital of Southern Rus', abandoned by its then ruler, Daniil Romanovich of Galicia, resisted until December 6, when the walls of the last stronghold of its defenders, the Church of the Tithes, collapsed under the blows of ramming machines. From Kyiv, the conquerors went in two streams through Volyn to Poland, taking Vladimir-Volynsky along the road, and through Galichila to Hungary. They failed to take some cities of Southwestern Rus', which later allowed Daniil Romanovich to successfully resist the Mongols until 1261. In 1254, he defeated the army of the temnik Kuremsa.

The composition and organization of the troops of Galicia-Volyn Rus' in the middle - second half of the XIII century. against the general Russian background, they stood out for their originality. Leading a fierce struggle to maintain independence from the Golden Horde and at the same time repelling the attacks of the Hungarian king from the southwest, as well as the Yotvingians and Lithuanians from the north, faced with mass betrayals of the Galician boyars, Daniil Romanovich Gapitsky found support among the townspeople and peasants. Having practically lost most of the Galich "armsmen" who went over to the side of the king, he relied on the creation of large contingents of medium-armed (at the expense of the treasury) cavalry "snuznikov" in leather "koyars" and "yaryks" of the Mongolian type - a kind of analogue of the "sergeantry" of the French kings. Moreover, Daniel created units of crossbowmen on foot, capable of not only interacting with the cavalry and conducting independent actions, but also deciding the outcome of the battle.

Such significant transformations in military affairs, which also led to qualitative changes - the transformation of infantry into a decisive force on the battlefield (half a century before the Battle of Courtrai in Flanders, usually issued by Western military historians as the beginning of the coming era of infantry dominance), - it is quite legitimate to call military reform.

For three years, the scattered forces of the Russian principality states resisted the invaders without hope of supporting hostile Catholic Europe, but even after the defeat of most of Rus', active resistance continued until 1261. Our ancestors showed miracles of heroism, fighting "one with a thousand, and two with darkness" in field battles, on the walls of fortresses and in partisan detachments.

After the defeat of the troops of princes Andrei and Yaroslav Yaroslavich near Yareslavl in 1258, organized resistance to the Mongols practically ceased. The only form of it was the defense of fortresses. The defeat of the Horde detachment in the army of Andrei Gorodetsky by Dmitry Alexandrovich in 1285, as well as the victory of Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver near Bortnev in 1317 over the Moscow-Tatar army of Yuri Danilovich, are only indirectly related to the resistance to the yoke of the conquerors.

By the mid-forties, the conquered Russian lands became part of the Golden Horde - a gigantic military empire that stretched from the Carpathians to the upper reaches of the Ob. The conquerors established strict administrative and political control on its territory, imposed an unbearable tribute on the defeated. From time to time, they made punitive campaigns in the Russian lands, which aggravated the ruin of the country, accompanied by the desolation of cities, the mass deportation of the population into slavery, the death of cultural monuments, and the disappearance of crafts.

The fight against the Mongol yoke was complicated by the intensified expansion of the western neighbors. Russian principalities often had to wage war on several fronts, repelling attacks not only by the Horde, but also by Lithuanians, as well as Swedish and German crusaders, Hungarians, Poles and Yotvingians.

The rulers of the Golden Horde sought to turn the ruling elite of Rus' into a part of their administration, executors of their will, transferring the right to collect tribute to the princes. But the elimination of the Basques, obtained at the bloody price of suppressed uprisings, reduced the degree of Horde control over Russia and made it possible to give its preparations for liberation an organized character.

Yu.V. Sukharev

The heroic end of Kit Buk was the last song of Mongol greatness. So let this song be a call today that will awaken our faded courage, inspire our minds, restore bewildered faith and awaken dormant strength in us.

For this historical essay, the journalist and writer Baasangin Nominchimid was awarded the Baldorzh Prize in 2010, awarded in Mongolia for the best journalistic works. For the first time in Russian - translated by S. Erdembileg especially for ARD.

But the most cruel fate awaited the Christians of Damascus. Kutuz, entering the city in a victorious procession, celebrated his triumph, subjecting them to total extermination. The cultural values ​​of the Christians of Syria were incinerated to the ground, which even the most fanatical adherents of Islam from the Arab Umayyad dynasty and the half-savage Kurds from the Fatimids - Ayyubids left untouched. He didn't stop there. Christians were persecuted all over Syria.

An eyewitness of that time wrote that the shed blood of the crusaders was much higher than the blood of Muslims shed during the invasion of Hulagu Khan. The greed of the crusaders of Acre, Tire and Sidon turned into a flow of Christian blood throughout Syria, the destruction of the cultural and religious values ​​​​of Christianity. The crusaders finally lost their possessions in the southwestern part of Syria.

All the sultans who participated on the side of Qutuz in the battle of Ain Jalut were awarded land holdings. Sultan Musa, who at the critical moment of the battle left the right wing of the Mongol troops, which had a decisive influence on the outcome of the battle, retained the right to own his lands. These lands were left to him by the Mongols because he expressed his loyalty to serve them. The double betrayal was rewarded.

But Baibars, the closest associate at the battle of Ain Jalut, who completed his success by pursuing the Mongols through the entire territory of Syria, and captured many Mongol garrisons in various cities up to Aleppo, was deprived of the mercy of Qutuz. Since ancient times, there was a knot of contradiction between them.

Qutuz at one time participated in a conspiracy to assassinate Aktai, the ruler of the Bahreis. And Baibars was one of Aktai's confidants. Their mutual feuds temporarily subsided in the face of an urgent need to unite against a common strong enemy - each of them had accounts with the Mongols. As it was recorded in the sources, Baybars hoped that Qutuz would appoint him Sultan of Aleppo, but this did not happen. And the old hostility flared up again, but became even more irreconcilable. One of them will have to yield, two sultans will not sit on the same throne. Qutuz was justifiably wary of strengthening the power-hungry and strong Baybars.

The sources describe that upon completion of a successful campaign in Syria, Qutuz finally decided to return back to Misir. Along the way, he enjoyed hunting. Once he shot from a bow either a hare or a fox. When he galloped up to the killed prey, someone ran up to him, apparently, prepared in advance by Baibars. That man had previously been sentenced to death, but Kutuz pardoned him. In gratitude for his salvation, he swore to be faithful to him forever and asked permission to touch his right hand in order to receive a blessing.

Suspecting nothing, Kutuz held out his hand to him, and then Beibars, who was standing nearby, pulled his saber from its scabbard and cut off this hand. Then he killed him completely. Those who accompanied Kutuz were taken by surprise and shocked. Surely there were supporters of Baybars among those accompanying Kutuz. Upon returning to Misir, all the glory of the great victory over the Mongols went not to Kutuz, but to Baybars, the crowd greeted him with jubilation in Cairo.

Kutuz ended ingloriously, hacked to death by the hands of his own people. The winner of the Mongols was not worthy to die on the battlefield. Once he overthrew his Sultan Ayyubid, who raised him and entrusted him with the command of the Mamluk army. Having overthrown the Sultan, Qutuz then mercilessly killed his son as well. Kit Buka Noyon was right, having no doubt that by the will of Khukh Tengri, the traitor's life would end in a miserable death. Traitors are killed by traitors.

Why there was no retribution from Hulagu Khan for the death of his commander

Hulagu Khan was greatly saddened when he was informed of the death of his faithful commander. But he could not go to war against Misir, to avenge the death of his nuker. The Khan faced an even more severe challenge than the defeat of his separate army at Ain Jalut.

After the death of the Great Khan Mongke, a struggle for the Khan's throne broke out between the brothers Khulagu, Khubilai and Arigbukha. In the very patrimony of the Mongols, the flames of internecine war flared up, brothers with weapons went against each other, mutual massacre began.

This feud went on for four years. But resistance to the policy of Khubilai, who moved the center of the Mongol Empire to China, continued on a different scale for the next 40 years. Khaidu, a descendant of Ogedei Khan, could not reconcile with Khubilai.

The son of Hulagu Khan with his army fought on the side of Arigbukhi, while Hulagu himself sided with Khubilai.

On the miniature - Hulagu Khan.

After the overthrow of Baghdad by Hulagu Khan - the stronghold of the Islamic world of that time - and the execution of the Caliph of Baghdad, who was his highest person, Berke, Khan of the Golden Horde, the heir of Batu Khan, who became a devout Muslim, became embittered at Hulagu and did not harbor a threat. He repeatedly exchanged messengers with Baybars, agreeing on a joint action against the ulus of Ilkhan Khulagu.

In addition, the dispute between Hulagu and Berke also came out because of the rich Caucasian lands adjacent to their possessions. The matter was aggravated by the fact that several princes of khan blood from the Golden Horde, who served in the army of Hulagu Khan, were killed under mysterious circumstances. All this led to the fact that at the end of 1260, near Derbent, two Mongol troops clashed with each other in a fratricidal slaughter, mercilessly shedding each other's blood.

An unprecedented number of warriors participated in this battle on both sides. They write that there has never been such an unprecedented battle either in all previous wars under Genghis Khan, or later. Here, in just a few days, incomparably more Mongol blood was shed than that which was shed during the entire history of the Mongol conquests.

Along with this, the descendants of the Jagatai ulus, believing that they were undeservedly deprived, began to claim the lands of the Golden Horde and the lands of the Ilkhans. At the junction of these states, on the border lands in Central Asia, armed skirmishes broke out every now and then.

Due to all these difficult circumstances, Hulagu Khan was unable to send the main forces of his army to Syria and Misir. This allowed the Mamluks to gain a foothold in Syria and then inflict another defeat on a significant group of Mongol troops in 1281 near the city of Homs.

For the first time, the point of the Mongolian saber was blunted in Ain Jalut. But almost at the same time, naturally or accidentally, throughout the Mongol Empire, like a contagious disease, ruthlessly destroying its unity and power, schismatic thoughts and deeds began to spread. Not much time passed before the great Mongol Empire split. From it were formed: with the center in China, the superpower of Asia - the Yuan Empire or the Mongolian Blue Horde, in Central Asia - the ulus of Jaghatai, in Iran, in the Middle East - the empire of the Ilkhans, from the eastern outskirts of the Kipchak steppe to the Dniester River, the Golden Horde arose.

If the Mongols had not fallen into internecine wars, as Kit Buka believed, the hooves of Hulagu Khan's cavalry would have razed Syria and Misir to the ground, and neither Baibars' talent as a commander, nor the prowess of the Mamluk Turks would have prevented this. This is recognized by the Arab historians themselves.

In that era, the power of the Mongols, which reached the highest point of its power, no one was able to resist. Throughout the theater of operations - whether in China, in Rus', in Europe or in the Middle East - there was not a single force capable of withstanding the unrestrained onslaught of the Mongol cavalry. Unless the Mongols themselves could fight among themselves on equal terms. Which, unfortunately, happened.

In any historical deeds, there is its starting point, progressive development, reaching the highest point - the apogee, then the reverse movement begins - the decline, of which humanity has been convinced enough. In the XIII century, the deeds of the Mongols reached their peak, then the countdown began, the Mamluks were the starting point of this movement.

However, no other people managed to create such a super-huge empire. Until now, many historians are wondering why, how the Mongols were so invincible.

At that moment, the Mongol Empire stretched over a ninth of all known land at that time, which is approximately 33 million square kilometers. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the colonial possessions of Great Britain, during the period of its highest power, extended to 33.7 million square meters. km, but at that time all unknown lands were already discovered, and with this in mind, its colonial territories accounted for less than one third of all land on Earth.

It has been noted that, starting from the time of Genghis Khan, the Mongols treated only one people with particular severity, pursuing everywhere and trying to suppress. These were the Kipchaks-Turks, related to the Mongols by origin, who roamed over a vast territory from the foot of the Altai Mountains to the Dnieper River, and who were not inferior to the Mongols in military skill and courage. Perhaps, precisely because the Kipchaks competed with them on equal terms, the Mongols treated them with such implacability. Subedei-bogatur first encountered the Kipchaks, pursuing the remnants of the Merkits on the Chui River, since then the Mongol persecution of them continued up to Hungary, to the Magyars. And then even further - to the borders of Misir (Egypt).

The first dynasty of the Mamluk state, called the Bahrei dynasty, which existed from 1250 to 1382, descended precisely from these Kipchaks and Turks. Kutuz was born in Khorezm, and Baibars - either in the Crimea or in Karakhan of today's Kazakhstan.

For the Kazakhs, Baibars is a national pride, they revere him as their epic hero. Monuments were erected in his honor, in our time a serial film was created about him. Baybars Mosque in Cairo and his mausoleum in Syria have been reconstructed by the government of Kazakhstan. (And in Kazakhstan there is the mausoleum-tomb of Jochi Khan. Unfortunately, not to mention any reconstruction, not a single official or delegation of Mongolia visited this mausoleum-tomb, in general, few people know about its existence).

Baybars' victory at Ain Jalut over one tumen of the Mongols brought him fame in no way inferior to the glory of the great Sultan Saladin, who defeated the united army of the crusaders in 1187 in the area of ​​Hattin, at a distance of just over 60 kilometers from Ain Jalut.

In honor of the victory at Ain Jalut, Islamic historians called Baibars the "Islamic Lion".

During the capture of Khorezm by Genghis Khan, a small Turkic tribe that lived in the north of the city of Merv retreated to the west, temporarily finding refuge in Armenia. Then, fleeing the ongoing offensive in the Middle East of the Mongol troops led by Chormogan and Baichu, this tribe reached Anadolu (Modern Anatolia). Later, they laid the foundation for the emergence of the all-powerful Ottoman Empire in the territory that spread from Asia to half of the European continent. It can be said that this empire was born in the footsteps and on the ruins of the world empire created by the Mongols.

Epilogue

The strength of the military campaigns of the Mongols, invincible for a whole century, was exhausted among the sandy hills of Ain-Jalut in the Sinai desert. Has dried up - like a stream of heavy rain goes into the sand.

The well-established and unquestionable idea both in the East and in the West about the invincibility of the Mongol conquerors - the executors of God's command - dissipated. Only the legend remains. Such a fate awaited these conquests.

The entire Arab-Muslim world saw that the Mongols could also be defeated, that they, like everyone else, were made of flesh and blood. And that, when the time comes, they, too, are teetering on the fine line between victory and defeat.

The Mongol army that fought in Ain Jalut was one small group, just one tumen of the Great Empire. It was one of hundreds of their battles. The defeat at Ain-Jalut put an end to further conquests, but it did not in the least shake the foundations of the Mongol Empire, its greatness and power still aroused fear and respect everywhere.

Ain-Jalut, in its meaning, marked farewell to the idea of ​​the domination of the Great Mongol Empire over the rest of the world. Ideas initially unrealizable, doomed to inevitable failure.

Genghis Khan divided people into two groups. Not on the aristocracy and their servants, not on the rich and the poor. And he shared them according to their devotion to the cause they serve, respected honesty and loyalty, despised the greedy, sycophants, hated traitors. Genghis Khan, wherever he met such people, crushed them like creeping reptiles, lice and bedbugs.

Enraged, Genghis Khan executed Jamukha's associates when they betrayed their master and brought him prisoner. At the same time, he showed high confidence to Nayan batyr, who came to serve him, but first giving his master, Targudai Khan, the opportunity to leave. Subsequently, Nayan became one of the commanders of Genghis Khan and served him with honor to the end. Genghis Khan respected the courage and selflessness of Zurgadai, the khan of the Taichiuts, although he was his implacable enemy.

Genghis Khan on the throne. Medieval Persian miniature.

For loyalty and valor, Genghis Khan ranked his nukers among the subjects of Khukh Tengri. Such nukers were Jebe, Subudai, Nayaa, Mukhulai, Kit Buka and many others. By the definition of L. N. Gumilyov, these were “ people of long will." They clearly stood out among the rest with selfless service to the cause, readiness to sacrifice themselves for the sake of the common cause. These qualities were widely manifested among the Mongols in the XIII century. Kit Buka, who died at Ain Jalut, and other batyrs were the last representatives of this generation.

The image of the commander Kit Buk from the depths of centuries rises before us full of pride and valor, at the tragic moment of his death, turning to his descendants: “Let my descendants not be ashamed of me, they will not say that I saved my own skin, running away from the enemy and showing them my back.” He has nothing to be ashamed of before his descendants, but the descendants have something to be ashamed of before him.

The heroic end of Kit Buk turned out to be the last song of the greatness of the Mongols. Let this song today be a call that will awaken our courage that has faded in us, inspire our minds, restore bewildered faith and awaken dormant strength in us.

‘Ain al-Jalut. Decisive battle. Part 4

After the death of Kitbuga, all the determination of the Mongol army came to naught. Simply put, the battle scenario for the Mongols has completely changed. There was no other goal left for them but to make their way to the northern exit from the clearing. ‘Ain Al-Jalut to take flight.

And the Muslims began to pursue the Mongols, destroying those who resisted and capturing those who surrendered. The hordes of the Mongols fell slain under the feet of the warriors of Kutuz, like cut leaves of palm trees. The myth was dispelled, prestige fell, and the terrible army of the Mongols was utterly defeated.

The Mongols threw all their forces into breaking through to the exit from ‘Ain al-Jalut. After long battles, with great difficulty and with great effort, they managed to break through the ranks of the Muslims, who blocked the exit from the clearing, after which they hastily fled.

After that, a huge number of Mongol troops hurriedly headed north in search of shelter. Kutuz's troops began their pursuit. Their task was not to win one battle against the enemy, they had a higher goal - to liberate Muslim lands from the invaders.

The Mongols who fled from 'Ain al-Jalut reached Baysan (a town about 20 kilometers northeast of 'Ain al-Jalut). (Al-Maqrizi, " As-Suluk ila ma‘rifati duwal al-muluk ", 1/517)

The Mongol troops that reached Baysan found that the Muslims would not leave them behind and would continue the pursuit for a long time, so their commanders found no other way out but to line up their ranks again and repulse the Egyptian army.

All historians agree that the battle at Baysan was more difficult for the Muslims than the first battle at 'Ain al-Jalut. The Mongols offered fierce resistance and fought to the death.

During this battle, the Mongols launched a swift offensive, and for a while the initiative passed to them. The ranks of Muslims wavered, and this moment became a severe test for the Egyptian army for all the time of its existence.

Kutuz watched all this and saw the real state of affairs. He was not somewhere near these events, but in the very epicenter. Qutuz began to inspire his warriors and call them to perseverance in battle. Then came the call: ""

Kutuz said these words loudly three times, and then humbly turned to the Almighty with prayers: O Allah! Grant victory to Your servant Kutuz over the Mongols ". (Al-Maqrizi, "As-Suluk ila ma'rifati duwal al-muluk", 1/517)

Kutuz at this moment confesses to the Lord in his weakness and helplessness. He says "Give victory to Your servant...". " I am not the ruler of Qutuz... not the ruler of the Muslims... not the Sultan of Egypt... I am your miserable slave". Indeed, Allah Almighty will not leave his slave who sincerely asks him for help.

Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him) reported that the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said:

قال الله عز وجل: أنا عند ظن عبدي بي، وأنا معه حيث يذكرني، والله لله أفرح بتوبة عبده من أحدكم يجد ضالته بالفلاة، ومن تقرب إلي شبرا، تقربت إليه ذراعا، ومن تقرب إلي ذراعا، تقربت إليه باعا، وإذا أقبل إلي يمشي، أقبلت إليه أهرول

« Almighty and Great Allah said: "I will be as My servant thinks I am [Allah will do for a person exactly what he expects from Him], and I am with him [I show him My mercy, which finds its expression in help and assistance] where he commemorates Me.

By Allah, indeed, Allah rejoices in the repentance of His servant more than any of you when he unexpectedly finds his camel lost in the desert. To the one who approaches Me by a span, I will approach by a cubit, to the one who approaches by a cubit to Me, I will approach by a fathom, and if someone approaches Me with a step, then I will rush to him at a run "». ( Bukhari 6309 and Muslim 2747)

After all, Kutuz knocked on the doors that open to everyone who knocks on them. He approached the Possessor of Heaven, Earth and everything else. When the rulers on Earth bow before the Lord of earth and heaven, He will certainly show them His mercy.

The sincere obedience of Kutuz became the mountain that fell on the Mongols and doomed them to death. And the hordes, which previously inspired fear and awe, fell on the land of Baysan like dead flies.

This time, the Muslims finally destroyed the myth of the invincible Mongol army. And the moment that Muslims have been waiting for more than forty years has come. The numerous Mongol army was completely destroyed.

The army, which was able to conquer half the globe, was defeated. The army, which shed the blood of millions of people, which devastated hundreds of cities, committed violence and sowed evil on the earth, was utterly defeated.

There is nothing surprising in the fact that Qutuz won. After all, Allah Almighty helps His servant. Kutuz did not come to power when everything was quiet and calm in the country. The state at that moment was not strong. When he sat on the throne, there were no untold riches in the treasury. All circumstances were against him.

However, he turned to Allah Almighty for help, did all the work honestly and conscientiously, and encouraged others to do the same. If every Muslim ruler does what Qutuz did, he will certainly achieve what he has achieved. And he will not need much time for these changes, because Kutuz was able to do all this in just ten months.

It is only important to find sincere honest people who will work and work for the good of the state. And Allah Almighty will certainly help!

This battle, which had the most important consequences, took place on Friday in September (26th of the month of Ramadan) 1260.

Muhammad Sultanov

The armies of Genghis Khan and his descendants had no equal in all of Eurasia. During the entire period of conquests, the Mongols did not lose a single major defeat. The hordes of the steppes were capable of crushing any, even many times superior in number, army, no matter how talented the commander led it. From India to Central Europe, bloodthirsty horse archers from the heart of Eurasia were unrivaled. We understand what factors gave the Mongols such a crushing advantage.

harsh life

The way of life of the Mongols was very harsh. The climatic conditions of the Great Steppe forced them to wander endlessly across it in search of scarce pastures, constantly suffering from cold or heat, hunger and thirst. Mongolian children learned to ride a horse and shoot at about the same time as they learned to walk - there is no other way to survive in the steppe. They spent much more time on horseback than the best riders of settled peoples. The same with the bow, which was both a working tool for them and almost the only way to have fun from a young age. As a result, even the most average Mongol warrior had much higher combat skills than the best warriors of the Mongols' enemies. It’s just that for the Mongols, these skills were not even combat, but labor.

Mongolian horse

The Mongolian horse looks like its owner. This is one of the hardiest horse breeds in the world. She is able to travel great distances, content with meager food and a small amount of water. There is no variety in the life of a nomad: only the steppe, other nomads, and horses. Therefore, the Mongols understand their horses in a way that the rider of another state will never understand.

social order

In addition to the harsh conditions of survival, another important characteristic of the Mongolian people for us was the social system. Their tribal system was a lower level of organization than feudalism, which the vast majority of their opponents had. But Genghis Khan was able to reform Mongolian society, turn the shortcomings of the tribal system into virtues. He became the leader of the leaders, uniting the tribes. But this system was completely different from the European feudal system, in which “the vassal of my vassal is not my vassal”: Genghis Khan built an unprecedentedly clear and rigid vertical of power for those times. In it, each level of management was responsible to the higher for the lower. Yes, the Mongols had an aristocracy. Pasture owners noble noyons and their "boyars" nukers led the detachments.

Mongolian is not surprised by anything

There is one more thing: a good neighborhood. The Mongols in their development were a nation that was very backward from its neighbors. But at the same time, they were always aware of the innovations and innovations that were created by their neighbors, the most advanced powers of that time - China and Khorezm. The Mongols could not be surprised or frightened by anything: they were familiar with most of the military innovations of the era even before Genghis Khan led his hordes to conquer the whole world. This advantage should not be underestimated. In Guns, Germs and Steel, Jared Diamond wrote that Eurasia has so far outstripped the rest of the planet's continents in its development precisely because it is elongated from east to west, and not from north to south. This greatly facilitates cultural exchange: it is easier for nations of similar climatic zones to interact with each other. And the Mongols lived in the most key zone of the mainland for this exchange - just between the Middle East, India, China, and, to a lesser extent, Europe.

Mongolian bows

The Mongols brought this ancient weapon to perfection. They did not know how to forge iron weapons, but in the skill of making bows they surpassed all other peoples. According to various testimonies, the pulling force of the Mongolian bow was 65-75 kg, while the pulling force of the best bows in Europe and China did not reach 40 kg. Note that the Mongolian bow at the time of the beginning of the conquests of Genghis Khan was an exclusively Mongolian innovation. The bows of other steppe peoples were still an order of magnitude worse. Needless to say, the Mongols also masterfully handled bows. Warriors could fire 12 arrows per minute, which is comparable to the rate of fire of 20th century rifles. In addition, the Mongols did not practice "shelling": they were taught precisely aimed shooting from childhood. The Mongolian minimum is to get into one or another part of the human body at a gallop from 30 steps.

Tactics

The Mongols won hundreds of battles with a fairly simple tactic that the Europeans could not oppose. This is how Marco Polo described it: “In battles with the enemy, they gain the upper hand like this: running away from the enemy, they are not ashamed, running away, turn around and shoot. They taught their horses, like dogs, to turn in all directions. When they are driven, they fight gloriously on the run, and just as strongly, as if they were standing face to face with the enemy; runs and turns back, shoots accurately, beats both enemy horses and people; and the enemy thinks that they are scattered and defeated, and he himself loses, from the fact that his horses are shot down, and the people are pretty much killed.

Over time, the Mongols improved this tactic, came up with other techniques. But they were not always skillfully able to use their advantages to their advantage.

Chronology

• 1123 Battle of the Russians and Polovtsians with the Mongols on the Kalka River
• 1237 - 1240 The conquest of Rus' by the Mongols
• 1240 The defeat of the Swedish knights on the Neva River by Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich (Battle of the Neva)
• 1242 The defeat of the Crusaders by Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky on Lake Peipus (Battle on the Ice)
• 1380 Battle of Kulikovo

The beginning of the Mongol conquests of the Russian principalities

In the XIII century. the peoples of Rus' had to endure a hard struggle with Tatar-Mongol conquerors who ruled in the Russian lands until the 15th century. (the last century in a milder form). Directly or indirectly, the Mongol invasion contributed to the fall of the political institutions of the Kyiv period and the growth of absolutism.

In the XII century. there was no centralized state in Mongolia; the union of the tribes was achieved at the end of the 12th century. Temuchin, the leader of one of the clans. At a general meeting (“kurultai”) of representatives of all clans in 1206 d. he was proclaimed a great khan with the name Genghis(“Infinite Power”).

As soon as the empire was created, it began its expansion. The organization of the Mongolian army was based on the decimal principle - 10, 100, 1000, etc. The imperial guard was created, which controlled the entire army. Before the advent of firearms Mongolian cavalry took up in the steppe wars. She is was better organized and trained than any nomadic army of the past. The reason for success was not only the perfection of the military organization of the Mongols, but also the unpreparedness of rivals.

At the beginning of the 13th century, having conquered part of Siberia, the Mongols in 1215 set about conquering China. They managed to capture the entire northern part of it. From China, the Mongols took out the latest military equipment and specialists for that time. In addition, they received cadres of competent and experienced officials from among the Chinese. In 1219, the troops of Genghis Khan invaded Central Asia. Following Central Asia captured Northern Iran, after which the troops of Genghis Khan made a predatory campaign in Transcaucasia. From the south they came to the Polovtsian steppes and defeated the Polovtsians.

The request of the Polovtsy to help them against a dangerous enemy was accepted by the Russian princes. The battle between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongol troops took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River in the Azov region. Not all Russian princes, who promised to participate in the battle, put up their troops. The battle ended with the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops, many princes and combatants died.

In 1227, Genghis Khan died. Ogedei, his third son, was elected Great Khan. In 1235, the Kurultai met in the Mongolian capital of Karakorum, where it was decided to begin the conquest of the western lands. This intention posed a terrible threat to the Russian lands. Ogedei's nephew, Batu (Batu), became the head of the new campaign.

In 1236, the troops of Batu began a campaign against the Russian lands. Having defeated the Volga Bulgaria, they set off to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan, the Mongol troops moved to Kolomna. Many Russian soldiers died in the battle near Kolomna, and the battle itself ended in defeat for them. On February 3, 1238, the Mongols approached Vladimir. Having besieged the city, the invaders sent a detachment to Suzdal, who took it and burned it. The Mongols stopped only in front of Novgorod, turning south due to mudslides.

In 1240 the Mongol offensive resumed. Chernigov and Kyiv were captured and destroyed. From here, the Mongol troops moved into Galicia-Volyn Rus. Having captured Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich in 1241, Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moravia, and then in 1242 reached Croatia and Dalmatia. However, the Mongol troops entered Western Europe significantly weakened by the powerful resistance they met in Rus'. This largely explains the fact that if the Mongols managed to establish their yoke in Rus', then Western Europe experienced only an invasion, and then on a smaller scale. This is the historical role of the heroic resistance of the Russian people to the invasion of the Mongols.

The result of the grandiose campaign of Batu was the conquest of a vast territory - the southern Russian steppes and forests of Northern Rus', the region of the Lower Danube (Bulgaria and Moldova). The Mongol Empire now included the entire Eurasian continent from the Pacific Ocean to the Balkans.

After the death of Ögedei in 1241, the majority supported the candidacy of Ögedei's son Gayuk. Batu became the head of the strongest regional khanate. He established his capital at Sarai (north of Astrakhan). His power extended to Kazakhstan, Khorezm, Western Siberia, the Volga, the North Caucasus, Rus'. Gradually, the western part of this ulus became known as Golden Horde.

The struggle of the Russian people against Western aggression

When the Mongols occupied Russian cities, the Swedes, threatening Novgorod, appeared at the mouth of the Neva. They were defeated in July 1240 by the young prince Alexander, who received the name Nevsky for his victory.

At the same time, the Roman Church was making acquisitions in the countries of the Baltic Sea. Back in the 12th century, German chivalry began to seize the lands belonging to the Slavs beyond the Oder and in the Baltic Pomerania. At the same time, an offensive was carried out on the lands of the Baltic peoples. The Crusaders' invasion of the Baltic lands and Northwestern Rus' was sanctioned by the Pope and the German Emperor Frederick II. German, Danish, Norwegian knights and hosts from other northern European countries also took part in the crusade. The attack on Russian lands was part of the doctrine of "Drang nach Osten" (pressure to the east).

Baltics in the 13th century

Together with his retinue, Alexander liberated Pskov, Izborsk and other captured cities with a sudden blow. Having received the news that the main forces of the Order were coming at him, Alexander Nevsky blocked the way for the knights, placing his troops on the ice of Lake Peipus. The Russian prince showed himself as an outstanding commander. The chronicler wrote about him: "Winning everywhere, but we won't win at all." Alexander deployed troops under the cover of a steep bank on the ice of the lake, eliminating the possibility of enemy reconnaissance of his forces and depriving the enemy of freedom of maneuver. Considering the construction of the knights as a “pig” (in the form of a trapezoid with a sharp wedge in front, which was heavily armed cavalry), Alexander Nevsky arranged his regiments in the form of a triangle, with a tip resting on the shore. Before the battle, part of the Russian soldiers were equipped with special hooks to pull the knights off their horses.

On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which was called the Battle of the Ice. The knight's wedge broke through the center of the Russian position and hit the shore. The flank attacks of the Russian regiments decided the outcome of the battle: like pincers, they crushed the knightly “pig”. The knights, unable to withstand the blow, fled in panic. The Russians pursued the enemy, “flashed, rushing after him, as if through air,” the chronicler wrote. According to the Novgorod Chronicle, in the battle “400 and 50 Germans were taken prisoner”

Stubbornly resisting the western enemies, Alexander was extremely patient with the eastern onslaught. Recognition of the sovereignty of the khan freed his hands to repel the Teutonic crusade.

Tatar-Mongol yoke

While persistently resisting the Western enemies, Alexander was extremely patient with the Eastern onslaught. The Mongols did not interfere in the religious affairs of their subjects, while the Germans tried to impose their faith on the conquered peoples. They pursued an aggressive policy under the slogan "Who does not want to be baptized must die!". Recognition of the Khan's sovereignty freed forces to repel the Teutonic crusade. But it turned out that the "Mongol flood" is not easy to get rid of. RRussian lands despoiled by the Mongols were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde.

In the first period of Mongol rule, the collection of taxes and the mobilization of Russians into the Mongol troops was carried out on the orders of the great khan. Both money and recruits went to the capital. Under Gauk, Russian princes traveled to Mongolia to receive a label to reign. Later, a trip to Saray was enough.

The incessant struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Rus'. Rus' retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Rus' of its own administration and church organization.

To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baskak governors was created - the leaders of the military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who monitored the activities of the Russian princes. The denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the summoning of the prince to Sarai (often he lost his label, and even his life), or with a punitive campaign in the unruly land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the XIII century. 14 similar campaigns were organized in Russian lands.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a census of the population - "recording in number." Besermen (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, to whom the collection of tribute was given. The size of the tribute (“exit”) was very large, only the “royal tribute”, i.e. tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind, and then in money, amounted to 1300 kg of silver per year. The constant tribute was supplemented by "requests" - one-time requisitions in favor of the khan. In addition, deductions from trade duties, taxes for “feeding” khan officials, etc. went to the khan's treasury. In total there were 14 types of tributes in favor of the Tatars.

The Horde yoke slowed down the economic development of Rus' for a long time, destroyed its agriculture, and undermined its culture. The Mongol invasion led to a decline in the role of cities in the political and economic life of Rus', urban construction was suspended, and fine and applied arts fell into decay. A severe consequence of the yoke was the deepening of the disunity of Rus' and the isolation of its individual parts. The weakened country was unable to defend a number of western and southern regions, later captured by the Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords. Rus' trade relations with the West were dealt a blow: only Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Vitebsk and Smolensk retained trade relations with foreign countries.

The turning point was 1380, when Mamai's army of thousands was defeated on the Kulikovo field.

Battle of Kulikovo 1380

Rus' began to grow stronger, its dependence on the Horde weakened more and more. The final liberation took place in 1480 under Tsar Ivan III. By this time, the period was over, the collection of Russian lands around Moscow and was ending.