What the science of archeology studies 4. The most famous archaeologists

Archeology (from Archeo... and Greek lygos - word, teaching)

a science that studies the historical past of mankind from material sources. Material sources are instruments of production and material goods created with their help: buildings, weapons, jewelry, dishes, works of art - everything that is the result of human labor activity. Material sources, unlike written ones, do not contain a direct account of historical events, and historical conclusions based on them are the result of scientific reconstruction. The significant originality of material sources has necessitated their study by archaeological specialists who excavate archaeological sites (See Archaeological Sites), examine and publish findings and results of excavations, and use these data to reconstruct the historical past of mankind. Special meaning has A. for the study of eras when there was no writing at all, or the history of those peoples who did not have writing even in later historical time. A. unusually expanded the spatial and temporal horizon of history. Writing has existed for about 5000 years, and the entire previous period of human history (equal, according to the latest data, almost 2 million years) became known only thanks to the development of A. And written sources for the first 2 thousand years of their existence (Egyptian hieroglyphs, linear Greek writing , Babylonian cuneiform) were discovered by archaeologists. A. is also important for eras when writing existed, for the study of ancient and medieval history, because information gleaned from the study of material sources significantly complements the data from written sources.

The theoretical basis of historical reconstructions based on archaeological data is the historical-materialist principle, according to which at any stage of development of society there is a certain natural connection between material culture and socio-economic life.

A. has its own special research methods. The most important of them are: stratigraphic - observation of the alternation of cultural layers deposited as a result of prolonged human habitation in a given place, and the establishment of the chronological relationship of these layers. Items obtained during archaeological excavations are classified according to the following criteria: the purpose of the item, the time and place of its manufacture. To determine the purpose and functions of tools, a method is used to study traces of work on them. For chronological classification, the Typological method is used. In addition to the archaeological methods themselves, methods borrowed from other sciences are used: dating organic remains based on the content of radioactive carbon 14 C in them, establishing relative and absolute dates based on the growth rings of wood found in archaeological sites, establishing the absolute age of baked clay products by measuring them residual magnetization, various geological dating methods (based on deposits of ribbon clays, etc.).

To study ancient things and methods of their production, they use spectral analysis, metallography, technical petrography, etc.

To establish the interdependence of social phenomena of the past with geographical factors, it is necessary to study the natural environment of man in ancient times. Pollen analysis serves these purposes, making it possible to trace the evolution of vegetation, and at the same time the evolution of climate in a given area. A. is thus related to paleoclimatology. The purposes of archaeological research also serve the data obtained during excavations about ancient cultivated plants(paleobotany), about the animal world (paleozoology). Archaeologists obtain the remains of ancient people, which allows paleoanthropologists to give an idea of ​​the life and type of man of past eras and of his changes under the influence of various social and natural conditions.

Due to the fact that a significant part of archaeological materials represents mass finds, the use of methods of mathematical statistics is of great importance in archaeology.

Archaeology is closely connected with the natural sciences, not only in the use of their methods, but also in the use of their conclusions for the interpretation of archaeological data, and itself, for its part, provides valuable materials to the natural sciences. However, archeology’s connections are even closer with the social sciences, one of the sections of which it represents: with history, ethnography (See Ethnography), art history, sociology, as well as with the so-called. auxiliary historical disciplines: epigraphy (See Epigraphy) -- the science of inscriptions on stone, metal, clay and wood, numismatics (See Numismatics) - the science of coins, sphragistics (See Sphragistics) - the science of seals, heraldry (See Heraldry) - the science of coats of arms. A., being a unified science in its research methods, has achieved a high degree of specialization. Back in the 19th century. There were 4 separate branches of history: classical history, which studies the written period of history. Greece and Rome, eastern A., medieval A. and primitive A. Individual specialists study the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic eras, Bronze Age(See Bronze Age), Early Iron Age (See Iron Age). There are other systems of specialization: by ethnicity and by individual countries.

History of archaeology. For the first time the term "A." used in the 4th century. BC e. Plato, referring to the science of antiquities in itself in a broad sense words. But later the term “A.” had for a long time, and partly still has in different countries different meaning. Back in the 18th century. this word began to denote the history of ancient art. When in the 19th century. the attention of science was attracted by all the remains of antiquity (not only artistic ones), and gradually began to take shape modern understanding A.; nevertheless, in some bourgeois countries to this day, A. continues to study the art of the ancient world, and the history of art is forced to limit itself to the Middle Ages and modern times. Sometimes A. is understood as source study of art history, which is also erroneous.

The beginnings of A. were already in ancient times. Babylonian king Nabonidus in the 6th century. BC e. carried out excavations in the interests of historical knowledge; He especially looked for the inscriptions of ancient kings in the foundations of buildings, carefully noting the finds or the futility of the search. In Dr. Rome, the result of a conscious study of antiquities is a pattern of development material culture, which was given by the great poet and thinker Lucretius. In the 1st century BC e. he already knew, ahead of many archaeologists of the 19th century, that the Stone Age gave way to the Bronze Age, and the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.

All archaeological research ceased at the beginning of the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance in the 15-16th centuries. Numerous excavations were carried out in Italy, the sole purpose of which was to obtain ancient sculptures. In the 18th century with the development of noble collecting, antique dealers in a number of countries began to collect individual archaeological finds. Soon, the first experiments in excavations for scientific purposes were carried out in some countries.

After the Great French Revolution (late 18th century), with the development of bourgeois historical science, Armenia quickly began to develop. The excavations of Pompeii (See Pompeii) and Herculaneum (near Naples) were of particular importance in its development. These cities were covered with volcanic ash in 79 AD. e., excavations there began at the beginning of the 18th century. and took on a scientific character by the end of the 18th century. (when Naples was occupied by the troops of the 1st French Republic). Figures of the French bourgeois revolution and the Napoleonic wars were particularly interested in antiquity. This interest, combined with the desire for accurate knowledge typical of the era, led to the organization of systematic Pompeian excavations. Here scientists learned how modest household utensils can be of interest to historical knowledge. Pompeian finds everywhere attracted attention to everyday antiquities, not only from ancient times, but also from other eras.

In the 1st half of the 19th century. As a result of archaeological excavations, the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt were discovered. But during these excavations, according to the old tradition, the main attention for a long time was paid to works of art and written historical sources.

Back in the early 19th century. primitive antiquities in all countries were considered unknowable, since their chronological division was considered impossible. But this obstacle was overcome when interest in antiquity increased in connection with the attempts of sociologists to study the emergence of human society. To create such a chronology, the hypothesis about three centuries- stone, bronze and iron. It was expressed in the 18th and early 19th centuries. different authors, including in Russia A. N. Radishchev. It was first substantiated by archaeological material by the Danish archaeologist K. Thomsen in 1836. This classification was confirmed and developed by another Danish archaeologist E. Worso.

The work of the French scientist E. Larte was of great importance for the development of primitive architecture. Studying the caves of Southwestern France since 1837, he established the chronology of their deposits and proved that the man who made the most ancient stone tools was a contemporary of the mammoth and other extinct animals. The spread of Darwinism since 1859 (the year of publication of Darwin's Origin of Species) made Larte's conclusions generally accepted and provided a scientific basis for the search for the remains of primitive man, which has successfully developed since then. A convinced Darwinist was the French archaeologist, an active participant in the Revolution of 1848, G. Mortillier, who in 1869-83 established a chronological classification of primitive antiquities based on evolutionary theory. He placed the study of primitive man in close connection with the destruction of biblical legends and the church worldview. He identified all the main epochs of the ancient Stone Age and gave them names (Chelle, Acheul, Mousterian, etc.), which are still used in science. In 1865, the English archaeologist and ethnographer J. Lubbock first proposed dividing the Stone Age into 2 eras: Paleolithic - Old Stone Age and Neolithic - New Stone Age. For a long time it was not possible to establish any connection between the Paleolithic and Neolithic. Scientists spoke about this about an “inexplicable gap.” At the end of the 19th century. French archaeologist E. Piette established this connection by discovering the transitional era-Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age).

He had a great influence on the development of architecture in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Swedish archaeologist O. Montelius. He divided ancient things into types (a type is a set of things that are homogeneous in shape; archaeologists now know tens of thousands of types), and the types, in turn, were linked into typological evolutionary series, tracing for this (through careful analysis of details) gradual changes in forms. He checked the correctness of the construction of the rows using the finds. So, the evolution of axes, the evolution of swords, the evolution of vessels, etc. were mutually verified based on their joint finds in burials (early axes were found with early swords, later ones with later ones, etc.). The main flaw of his method is the study of things in their self-development and outside the social environment that created them. Montelius proceeded from the incorrect premise that things develop according to the same laws as living organisms. He established many archaeological dates (mainly for the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age). A follower of Montelius was the French archaeologist J. Dechelet, who published at the beginning of the 20th century. consolidated descriptive work on Western archeology. Europe. It is based on A. France, it begins with the Paleolithic, but Special attention focused on the early Iron Age. The life of the ancient Gauls has been recreated based on a careful study of countless small finds. The English archaeologist A. Evans filled in at the beginning of the 20th century. the gap between primitive and ancient antiquities. His excavations on Crete revealed a high civilization of the Bronze Age, which had constant intercourse with Egypt and Asia, which made it possible to determine the time of Cretan antiquities. Findings of Cretan products in Europe then served the best reason for European archaeological chronology.

Among the concepts that contained the basic theoretical principles of modern architecture, it should be noted that it arose in the first half of the 20th century. concept of archaeological culture. By mapping the cultural elements of simultaneously existing groups of humanity in different territories, European archaeologists came to the conclusion that the differences discovered were associated with ethnic, social or economic communities and that often the ancient tribes and peoples who created them were hidden behind archaeological cultures. This led to attempts to study the origins of peoples, based (among other sources) on archaeological data.

For science, the question of the ways of dissemination of various cultural phenomena is important. The development of archaeological cartography as a scientific method played a major role in the study of this issue. Challenging task A. is the creation of chronological schemes and the transition from relative to absolute chronology data.

Great archaeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries. were made in the Mediterranean and Middle East. In Greece, excavations were carried out in Athens, Sparta and other cities, the famous Pan-Hellenic sanctuaries in Delphi and Olympia were discovered; in Italy, in addition to Herculaneum and Pompeii, large excavations were carried out in Rome and Ostia. Excavations in Pompeii received a particularly large scale after the reunification of Italy in 1860. They were then headed by G. Fiorelli (a participant in the Italian national liberation movement). He created methods for reconstructing non-preserved or partially preserved structures and objects. Under him, the excavations of Pompeii became a school for archaeologists from all countries. In Asia, the important Ionian centers of Miletus and Ephesus and the Hellenistic cities of Priene and Pergamum were excavated, in Syria - Heliopolis and Palmyra, and many others. The discovery of the bronze culture was of especially great scientific importance. centuries in the Aegean world in the 2nd millennium BC. e. and excavations of Knossos (A. Evans) on the island. Crete, Troy in Asia. In M. Asia, the Hittite culture was discovered and the capital of the Hittites was excavated at Boğazköy near Ankara (G. Winkler). Research in Phenicia, Syria and Egypt has revealed millennia-old cultures of these countries, dating back to the Neolithic era. Excavations in Susa and Persepolis provided abundant material on the culture of Dr. Iran, and excavations in Mesopotamia discovered the Assyrian cities of Dur-Sharrukin, Nineveh, etc. Babylon and Ashur were excavated. The oldest in the world has been discovered Sumerian civilization and its centers Ur, Lagash. Research in the East gradually covered vast territories: the ancient cultures of China and India were studied. In the West hemisphere, archaeologists focused on studying the monuments of pre-Columbian America: the Aztecs in Mexico, the Mayans in the Center. America, Incas in Peru, etc.

Science has achieved great success in the study of the Early Iron Age, Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages in Europe. The discovery of the Hallstatt culture and the La Tène culture, and then the Lusatian culture, introduced the life of tribes and peoples of the Iron Age. The study of the Roman provinces in Europe led to the discovery of the remains of the culture of barbarian tribes. Medieval cities have been explored and architectural monuments and works of art. Slavic art achieved great success. A gigantic collection of Slavic antiquities was published in the 20th century. Czech archaeologist L. Niederle, who proved with many arguments the commonality of ancient Slavic culture. The most prominent archaeologist of the 20th century. there was an English scientist G. Child. He compiled the first continuous classification of the ancient cultures of Europe and Asia and studied the socio-economic structure of primitive society, being in this regard under the direct influence of Soviet A.

A. in pre-revolutionary Russia and in the USSR. Much attention Peter I showed interest in fossil antiquities in Russia. In 1718, in two decrees, he ordered the collection of those found “... in the ground, or in the water... old signatures... old... guns, dishes and other things that are very old and extraordinary...” “Where they are found,” he wrote, “make drawings for everything, like what they find.” The famous historian V.N. Tatishchev worked on archaeological work and published in 1739 one of the world’s first instructions for archaeological excavations. Interest in ancient antiquities especially developed in Russia, when in the 2nd half of the 18th century it became part of the Russian state. Black Sea coast, rich in finds of antiques. The first large scientific excavations of a Scythian mound were carried out in 1763 by General A.P. Melgunov; the study of ancient Greek cities in Crimea began at the end of the 18th century. P. I. Sumarokov.

The study of ancient antiquities achieved brilliant success early on. I. A. Stempkovsky on the territory of the ancient Bosporan state (See Bosporan state) (Kerch region) began a systematic archaeological study of ancient Greek cities. With him, the Scythian mound Kul-Oba near Kerch was opened in 1830, which for the first time introduced science to the masterpieces of ancient jewelry.

Slavic-Russian architecture began to develop almost simultaneously with ancient history. The national upsurge that came after the Patriotic War of 1812 aroused increased interest in national history and contributed to an active search for new sources on the history of Dr. Rus'. At first, written sources were meant, but it was K. F. Kalaidovich, who discovered many ancient manuscripts, who then introduced fossil Russian antiquities into science, publishing and quite correctly commenting on the treasure of gold objects found in 1822 in Old Ryazan; he also gave the first scientific description of Russian fortified settlements (See Gorodishche) (ancient fortified settlements). The exceptional wealth of Russia in ancient settlements and mounds was first noticed and appreciated by Z. Ya. Khodakovsky in the 20s. 19th century The first excavations of Slavic burial mounds near Moscow were carried out methodically correctly in 1838 by A. D. Chertkov. In 1859 it was created government agency according to the leadership of A. - Archaeological Commission. A major role in the development of A. played public organizations: archaeological societies and provincial archival commissions. The largest were the Russian Archaeological Society and the Moscow Archaeological Society. The latter took the initiative to convene periodic All-Russian archaeological congresses. At the beginning of the 19th century. A number of archaeological museums were created, which received collections of antiquities and which subsequently carried out excavation activities. One of the most important centers of archaeological activity in Russia was the State Historical Museum in Moscow, created in 1883. Large collections archaeological materials are stored in the State Hermitage (Leningrad), State Museum fine arts them. A. S. Pushkin (Moscow) and in a number of others. The leading figure in Slavic-Russian art of the 19th century. was I.E. Zabelin, who used the wonderful collections of the Armory to create a history of the life of Dr. Rus'. Zabelin did a lot for ancient Armenia, and also developed a scientific method for excavating large mounds and showed how many important conclusions can be drawn from observations of the layers of the mound; in 1863 he excavated the richest of the Scythian mounds, Chertomlyk, on the lower Dnieper, and in 1864, the richest of the ancient mounds, Bliznitsa Bolshaya near Taman. A complete chronological classification of the kurgan antiquities of Southern Russia was compiled by D. Ya. Samokvasov, who in 1873 excavated the richest of the Slavic-Russian kurgans - the Black Tomb in Chernigov.

The famous geographer, anthropologist, ethnographer, and archaeologist D. N. Anuchin had a fruitful influence on the development of Russian architecture; at the end of the 19th century. in his works on the bow and arrow and on the accessories of funeral rites, he was the first in Europe to successfully demonstrate, using archaeological materials, the uniformity of the cultural development of different peoples.

One of the founders of Russian primitive architecture was V. A. Gorodtsov. He did a lot of work on studying the Bronze Age and its chronologization and was the first to prove its existence in the East. Europe.

Studying ancient cities raised to a higher level by B.V. Farmakovsky, who produced at the beginning of the 20th century. large excavations of the Greek city of Olbia (See Olbia); his original and complex excavation technique made it possible to clarify the appearance and boundaries of the city over a number of eras.

In the 1860-80s. part Russian Empire entered Wed. Asia with her ancient cities. These cities have been centers of civilization since ancient times, and in the Middle Ages the most cultural in the world. Excavations there are complex and difficult. On Wednesday. Archaeological exploration of Asia was successfully carried out in 1885 by N. I. Veselovsky; he discovered the cities of the eastern Hellenistic kingdoms. He also managed to resolve a dispute that lasted more than a hundred years about the date of the “stone women”: he proved that these, widespread in the East, belonged to. Europe and Siberia of statues to the nomadic Turks. The archeology of Samarkand, one of the most important ancient cultural centers in the world, was created at the beginning of the 20th century. many years of work by V. L. Vyatkin; he excavated the residential layers of the Middle Ages and studied their chronology (he also studied the ancient layers); in 1908, near Samarkand, he excavated an astronomical observatory from the 15th century. Ulugbek. In Transcaucasia, archaeological work was carried out by N. Ya. Marr, who excavated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. the capital of medieval Armenia, the city of Ani.

The study of Slavic-Russian mounds was especially intensive at the end of the 19th century. L.K. Ivanovsky excavated 5877 mounds Novgorod land. He was the first to combine the grandeur of the excavations with their methodical nature, so his materials later formed the basis of the Russian kurgan chronology. Near Smolensk, near the village of Gnezdovo, there are the most valuable mounds of Russian warriors-combatants of the 10th century, who formed the basis of the feudal class of Ancient Rus'. Their main researcher was V.I. Sizov, who in 1885 discovered the central rich princely mound with Slavic artifacts and with his research refuted the speculations of Russian and foreign Normanists (see Normans). Sizov managed to identify the most ancient Slavic mounds, the so-called. long; he was the first Russian archaeologist to show the chronological significance of the evolution of types of ancient things (using the example of seven-lobed temporal rings from the Vyatichi burial mounds); He connected the study of drawings of Old Russian manuscripts with A. A. Spitsyn traced the settlement of Old Russian tribes using burial mound materials; his conclusions coincided with the chronicle news and largely supplemented them; this researcher ranks in Russian science special place; he published and classified the most a large number of antiquities (primitive and medieval). Archaeological study of Dr. Rus' for the first time in the world showed what valuable results excavations of medieval antiquities can produce.

Prominent representatives of Russian pre-revolutionary architecture belonged for the most part to the advanced representatives of bourgeois science. However, they were not and did not consider themselves historians, classifying A. either as a natural science or as a so-called science. artistic sciences.

In the USSR, art is developing on the solid basis of Marxism-Leninism. About the significance of agriculture as a historical science, Marx wrote: “The same importance that the structure of bone remains has for the study of the organization of extinct animal species, the remains of instruments of labor have for the study of disappeared socio-economic formations... Instruments of labor are not only a measure of the development of the human labor force , but also an indicator of those social relations in which labor is performed” (K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 23, p. 191). The methodology of historical materialism is the theoretical basis of the Soviet Union. A. The productive forces of ancient societies are studied using fossil tools and other remains of material culture. For any era under study in any territory, Soviet archaeologists strive to trace social relations and find out specific options for the development of the primitive communal, slave, and feudal systems. Thus, the basic patterns of social development are studied.

Exploring socio-economic development, Soviet archaeologists found out on many specific examples for all eras and many countries, the true reasons for major and minor modifications of material culture. At the same time, it has been established that cultural phenomena, including material ones, developing in different countries according to general patterns, acquire as a result features of formal similarity. Bourgeois scientists explain this similarity by migration or borrowing, however, it is socially determined. Soviet A., without denying either resettlement or borrowing, believes that these processes are socially conditioned and are neither the driving force of the historical process nor its main content.

In the USSR, archaeological work is organized on a national scale and is carried out as planned in the interests of historical science. Back in 1919, by decree signed by V.I. Lenin, the Academy of the History of Material Culture was created - a leading archaeological research institution. In 1937, the academy was transformed into the Institute of the History of Material Culture of the USSR Academy of Sciences (renamed in 1959 to the Institute of Archeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences). In the Academies of Sciences of the Union Republics there are institutes of science or sectors. Over 500 museums in all regions and republics have archaeological departments. Museum staff conduct archaeological research, the materials of which are used for political and educational work. Archaeological excavations, based on the resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR dated October 14, 1948, are carried out only according to “Open Sheets” issued by the USSR Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Sciences of the Union Republics; unauthorized excavations are prohibited, because they cause irreparable harm to science. Structures and things obtained by an unqualified excavator are essentially lost to science. Many studies of Soviet architecture are related to large new buildings. In the USSR, construction organizations allocate special funds for excavations of ancient settlements and burials that are subject to destruction or flooding during the construction process. The owner of all discovered antiquities is the state, which transfers them to scientific institutions and museums.

The training of Soviet archaeologists is carried out at archaeological departments or at archaeological departments in the history departments of many universities - Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, Tashkent, Ashgabat, Tbilisi, Baku, Yerevan, Kazan, Saratov, Perm, Sverdlovsk, Odessa, Kharkov, Samarkand, Tartu, etc. . (see Historical education).

The scale and number of annual archaeological expeditions, which are organized not only by archaeological institutes, but also by the country's museums, have increased immeasurably. The plans of these expeditions are closely related to the tasks put forward by Soviet historical science.

Soviet archaeologists have traced the ancient history of the USSR, starting with the first appearance of man on the territory of the country. The Paleolithic era is represented by many discovered in Soviet time monuments, including those where the Paleolithic was not previously known (Belarus, the Urals, Yakutia, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Armenia; the oldest sites in the USSR were found in Armenia). For the first time, Paleolithic dwellings were discovered and studied, and the fact of the settled population was established in the very distant Mousterian era. Finds of Paleolithic figurines (more of them are now known in the USSR than in all other countries) European countries), drawings and ornaments opened up ancient art to science. The discovery of Paleolithic painting in the Kapova Cave in the Urals showed that this art existed not only in the south of France and the north of Spain, as was previously thought. The study of tools made it possible to trace the evolution of technology and reconstruct the labor processes of primitive man. In this area, the works of S. A. Semenov on the study of primitive technology are valuable. Major discoveries Paleolithic monuments and their research were done by P. I. Boriskovsky, S. N. Zamyatnin, K. M. Polikarpovich, A. P. Okladnikov, G. K. Nioradze. The first generalizing Marxist work by P. P. Efimenko, “Primitive Society” (the 3rd edition was published in 1953), was of great importance for the development of Soviet science about the Paleolithic.

Due to the specific conditions of their occurrence in all countries, the monuments of the era transitional to the Neolithic - Mesolithic have been little studied. In the Soviet Union, much has been done to study the Mesolithic (works by M.V. Voevodsky and A.A. Formozov).

The history of the Neolithic tribes of the European part of the USSR was studied by A. Ya. Bryusov, M. E. Foss, N. N. Gurina. The most important discoveries in the primitive archeology of Siberia, Far East and Wed. Asia was made by A.P. Okladnikov. On Wednesday. Asian studies of the settlements of ancient farmers, which are very important for a correct understanding of the civilizations of Dr. East, carried out by V. M. Masson. To the south-east In the European part of the USSR, the culture of the most ancient agricultural tribes (Tripillian culture) T. S. Passek studied with extraordinary care and completeness, continuous excavations of settlements.

Results of the study of the Bronze Age of the South. Siberia are described in the works of S.V. Kiselev, and North. The Caucasus and Transcaucasia - in the works of B. A. Kuftin and E. I. Krupnov. The works of A. A. Jessen were devoted to the issues of the ancient metallurgy of copper and bronze in the Caucasus.

The study of antiquity by Soviet archaeologists provided valuable material for characterizing the economy and culture of a slave-owning society. An outstanding researcher of ancient Africa was Academician S. A. Zhebelev, who left a number of major studies on the history of the ancient states of the South of the USSR. The researcher of the ancient cities of the Black Sea region is V.D. Blavatsky, the author of a number of important generalizing works on ancient culture and art. Specialists in Scythian-Sarmatian archeology (B.N. Grakov, P.N. Shultz, K.F. Smirnov) have achieved significant success in the study of the ancient tribes of southern Eurasia. The remarkable Pazyryk mounds in Southern Altai were explored by S.I. Rudenko. Soviet archaeologists, unlike pre-revolutionary archaeologists, deal a lot not only with the applied art of antiquity, but also with all types of material production. Much work on the study of the Bosporan state was carried out by V.F. Gaidukevich. For the study of ancient monuments of the North. In the Black Sea region, underwater A. methods are also used.

Representatives of Soviet eastern Africa almost re-studied a number of important ancient and medieval civilizations of the Caucasus, Wed. Asia and the Volga region. The study of ancient Transcaucasian fortresses is carried out by B. B. Piotrovsky; since 1939 he has been excavating the city of Teishebaini in Armenia, where abundant materials on agriculture, crafts, military affairs and the art of the ancient Eastern kingdom of Urartu have been discovered. Piotrovsky wrote the history of Urartu using archaeological data.

Since 1950, Armenian archaeologists have successfully excavated another Urartian fortress, Arin-berd (K. L. Oganesyan). B. N. Arakelyan is excavating the Garni fortress, providing rich material about the development of local Armenian culture and its connections with ancient civilization. Excavations by I. A. Javakhishvili, S. N. Janashia and other Georgian archaeologists near Mtskheta provided the most important materials for reconstructing the history of Georgia. In Azerbaijan, extensive archaeological materials were obtained as a result of excavations of burial grounds and ancient settlements near Mingachevir (S. M. Kaznev). The results of excavations of medieval Transcaucasian cities are interesting: Dvina - in Armenia, Dmanisi - in Georgia, Ganji, Baylakan - in Azerbaijan.

On Wednesday. Asia in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya S.P. Tolstov discovered a civilization completely new to science. Dr. Khorezm a; Large excavations in this area have been carried out since 1938, settlements of all eras from the Neolithic to the Middle Ages have been discovered. The success of the expeditions was facilitated by the widespread use of aerial photography and aerial reconnaissance for the first time in the USSR. In the southern part of Turkmenistan, an expedition led by M. E. Masson is studying the archaeological monuments of the Parthian kingdom (See Parthian kingdom). In Uzbekistan, the Varakhsha settlement is being explored, excavations are underway at Afrasiab (the settlement of ancient Samarkand), and in Tajikistan at ancient Penjikent. At all these monuments, in addition to other discoveries, there are remarkable finds of numerous fragments of painting in houses and temples. A. N. Bernshtam carried out extensive work on the study of Central Asian nomadic societies. A. Yu. Yakubovsky found out the social topography of the most important medieval cities Wed. Asia and established a close connection between A. Central Asia and A. Volga region; he proved that the Volga centers of the Golden Horde did not grow on a Mongolian cultural basis, but on a Central Asian one. The northernmost of the Muslim states of the Middle Ages, Volga Bulgaria, was systematically explored by A.P. Smirnov. He excavated the rival Bulgarian capitals of Bolgar and Suvar, the history of this state was traced using archaeological materials, the process of the emergence of class society was clarified, and many crafts were described in detail.

Excavations of the Khazar fortress Sarkel a (M.I. Artamonov) gave interesting materials on the history of Khazar culture. Extensive research was carried out on the study of Finno-Ugric tribes on the Volga and in the Urals and on the A. peoples of the Baltic states (H. A. Moora). The works of Soviet archaeologists, which made it possible for the first time to write the socio-economic history of a number of civilizations of the Caucasus, Wed. Asia and the Volga region, showed their true historical significance and high cultural level. The works of P. N. Tretyakov, I. I. Lyapushkin, V. V. Sedov and others are devoted to the extremely interesting and important topic of the origin and early culture of the Eastern Slavs. Old Russian craft is specially studied large group scientists, among whom the most important works were written by B. A. Rybakov and B. A. Kolchin. B. A. Rybakov found out in detail the technical techniques of ancient Russian artisans, social organization craft and proved the high level of its development. Archaeologists have carried out extensive excavations of ancient Russian cities: Novgorod (A.V. Artsikhovsky), Kyiv (M.K. Karger), Vladimir (N.N. Voronin), Smolensk (D.A. Avdusin), Old Ryazan (A.L. Mongait), Lyubech (B. A. Rybakov), Bogolyubov (N. N. Voronin), Izyaslavl (M. K. Karger), Moscow (M. G. Rabinovich, A. F. Dubynin) and many others. Open everywhere craft workshops and it has been proven that Russian medieval cities, contrary to the opinion of previous historians, did not have a specific trade or administrative character, but were (like medieval cities in other countries of Europe and Asia) primarily craft centers. The remarkable discovery of birch bark documents (See Birch bark documents), a completely new source of the history of the language and culture of Ancient Rus', marked the excavations in Novgorod. Discoveries have also been made in the field of ancient Russian monumental architecture; numerous remains of temples, defensive structures, etc. have been excavated. A number of important studies are devoted to them (works by N. N. Voronin, M. K. Karger, A. D. Varganov, B. A. Rybakov, A. L. Mongait, P. A. Rappoport).

The main result Soviet works according to Slavic-Russian A., which gave a lot of new things to characterize the feudal economy, we must recognize the establishment high development ancient Russian civilization, long underestimated by historians. Rus' before Mongol invasion was one of the leading countries in Europe, and material historical sources convincingly prove this.

Soviet historians widely rely on archaeological materials in their works. Synthesis of heterogeneous historical sources became characteristic feature Soviet historical science.

Lit.: Avdusin D. A., Archeology of the USSR, M., 1967; his own. Archaeological exploration and excavations, M., 1959; Amalrik A.S. and Mongait A.L., In Search of Vanished Civilizations, 2nd ed., M., 1966; theirs. What is archeology, 3rd ed., M., 1966; Artsikhovsky A.V., Introduction to Archeology, 3rd ed., M., 1947; his own. Fundamentals of Archeology, 2nd ed., M., 1955; Blavatsky V.D., Ancient field archeology, M., 1967; Buzeskul V.P., Discoveries of the 19th and early 20th centuries in the field of the history of the ancient world, vol. 1-2, P., 1923-24; Zhebelev S. A., Introduction to archaeology, part 1, History of archaeological knowledge, P., 1923, part 2, Theory and practice of archaeological knowledge, P., 1923; Merpert N. Ya. and Shelov D. B., Antiquities of our land, M., 1961; Michaelis A., Artistic and archaeological discoveries for 100 years, M., 1913; Mongait A.L., Archeology in the USSR, M., 1955; his own. Archeology and modernity, M., 1963; Formozov A. A., Essays on the history of Russian archeology, M., 1961; Child G., Progress and Archaeology, trans. from English, M., 1949; Archeology and natural Sciences. Sat., M., 1965; Soviet archaeological literature. Bibliography 1918-1940, M.-L., 1965; the same, 1941-1957, M.-L., 1959; Childe G., A short introduction to archeology, L., 1956; Clark G., Archaeology and society, L., 1960; Kenyon K. M., Beginning in archaeology, L., 1952; De Laet S., l'archéоlogie et sesproblémes, Berchem-Brux., 1954; Leroi-Gourhan A., Les fouilles préhistoriques. P., 1950.

Dictionary foreign words Russian language

Many objects that people used in ancient times are now under a thick layer of earth. To find them, it is necessary to carry out excavations. Tools, jewelry, weapons, treasures, ancient burials - all these and other material sources help to restore the lives of people in the distant past, about which there is often no written information.

Archeology - independent science. The main occupation of archaeologists is excavations, which make it possible to extract from the ground material monuments of human life in ancient times.

Without the scientific discoveries of archaeologists, it is impossible to imagine the life of people in the distant past. Found objects become the property of museums and become available to people.

Excavations

Excavations are very hard work. Archaeologists literally go through large masses of land bit by bit in search of monuments of the past. Sometimes aviation is used to survey the area. Archaeologists have to work in a variety of conditions. Excavate a burial ground, explore a cave inhabited in ancient times, work in places where construction is underway, go down to the seabed in a sunken city or ship - and this is not all that can await them.

Archaeologists do not choose excavation sites at random. They know what territories people could have used for their settlements in ancient times. Hints can also be found in the works of ancient writers. They may contain information about where battles took place, fortresses were built, and cities that no longer exist were located. This helps archaeologists determine where to excavate.

Excavations for the purpose of extracting antiquities are often carried out by unscrupulous people: collectors who want to replenish their personal collection, robbers who sell found objects for their own enrichment. In such cases, invaluable evidence of the past disappears without a trace for science. According to Russian laws, this is considered a crime.

Study of finds

Searching for remnants of the past is just the beginning of the work; then archaeologists begin studying the finds. The most important task is to determine to what time certain archaeological finds belong. When researching, scientists pay attention to everything: the shape, color, age of the object, the material from which it is made, and other characteristics. Analysis of objects and the soil in which they were located is carried out in the laboratory. They are also taking measures to preserve the finds.

Important information can be obtained by comparing objects found in one place with similar ones. It is necessary to do everything to ensure that the finds become such historical sources that help reveal the secrets of the past. For example, stone arrowheads found by archaeologists make it possible to judge both the hunting tools and the settlement areas of ancient hunters.

During excavations of the Qumran settlement (Fig. 1), located on the western coast of the Dead Sea in Israel, archaeologists found manuscripts, most of which were written in Hebrew. These finds are of great value for historical science. The oldest manuscripts date back to the 2nd century. BC e.

In southern Italy in ancient times there was a city of Pompeii (Fig. 2). It was located at the foot of the Vesuvius volcano. In 79, during a volcanic eruption, the city was covered with a layer of ash up to the roofs. Several centuries later, nothing reminded anyone of the city that had once been located here. In 1748, its excavations began, temples, markets, residential buildings and much more were discovered.

The excavations of Carthage (Fig. 3) made it possible to look into the depths of time. Carthage is an ancient city in North Africa, in the region of modern Tunisia. Founded by the Phoenicians in 825 BC. e. It was once a powerful state on the Mediterranean Sea, which conquered North Africa and even lands in Europe.

Clay vessels - amphorae, found by archaeologists during the excavations of Carthagin (Fig. 4) have a narrow neck, a pointed or rounded bottom and two handles. Wine, olive oil, and grain were transported and stored in them. The ancient Greeks and Romans widely used them in their households. Typically, such vessels were marked with a mark - a sign indicating the name of the potter and the place where they were made. Archaeologists find such amphorae, as a rule, on sunken ships, in settlements and burials. Material from the site

In Veliky Novgorod, archaeologists discovered pavements dating back to 938 (Fig. 5). Residents laid logs along the entire street, and wooden blocks were laid on top of them. Log houses discovered during excavations in Veliky Novgorod (Fig. 6) help to find out how our ancestors lived in the 10th century, what utensils and tools they used and much more

The sickles found by archaeologists during excavations (Fig. 7) allowed scientists to come to the conclusion that in Ancient Rus' the same technique was used to make sickles as in the 19th-20th centuries.

Petra (Fig. 8) is a city that existed from the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. to the 15th century n. e. in South Jordan. Here, archaeologists discovered under a layer of earth the remains of temples, theaters and even cave dwellings.

Gorgippia (Fig. 9) is an ancient city in the Bosporan state on the eastern shore of the Black Sea (modern Anapa). City blocks were excavated here, household items and burials were discovered. The time to which archaeologists attribute the found objects is approximately the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. In place of this ancient greek city Today the Anapa Archaeological Museum-Reserve has been created.

Pictures (photos, drawings)

• Rice. 1. Archaeological excavations. Qumran settlement, which existed around 130 BC. e. - 134 AD e.

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  Rice. 2. The city of Pompeii, which existed in the 6th century. BC e. - I century n. e.

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  Rice. 3. Excavations of Carthage

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  Rice. 4. Amphoras from Carthage

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  Rice. 5. Pavements in Veliky Novgorod

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  Rice. 6. Log houses in Veliky Novgorod

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  Rice. 7. Sickles

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  Rice. 8. Temple-mausoleum in the rock, Petra

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  Rice. 9. Excavations of the ancient Greek city of Gorgippia

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  Archaeological excavations

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  German archaeologist G. Schliemann (1822-1890)

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  Russian archaeologist A. V. Artsikhovsky (1902-1978)

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  English archaeologist G. Carter (1874-1939)

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Mention of archeology began in Ancient Greece. For example, Plato understood this concept as the study of antiquity, and in the Renaissance he meant the study of the history of Greece and Ancient Rome. In foreign science, this term is associated with anthropology. In Russia, archeology is a science that studies fossil materials that are associated with human activity in ancient times. She studies the excavations and this moment collaborates with many scientific fields and has several sections dealing with different eras and cultural areas.

The profession of archaeologist is a multifaceted and interesting job.

People study the culture and life of ancient civilizations, reconstructing the distant past from the remains that are carefully excavated in the layers of the earth. This work requires great care and painstakingness. Because over time, the remains of the past become more fragile and dilapidated.

An archaeologist is a person who excavates in search of sources for new research. This profession is often compared to detective work. The work of archaeologists is creative, requiring attention, imagination and abstract thinking - to recreate the pristine picture of the ancient world in the past.

The profession became popular in Greece and Ancient Rome. Since then, the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages were known, many excavations were carried out and even more ancient architectural monuments were found. During the Renaissance, the main goal of archaeologists was to find ancient sculptures. As a separate science, it was formed at the beginning of the 20th century.

What qualities should an archaeologist have?

You need knowledge of the many facts accumulated by scientists in your chosen field for your activities. This could be the Neolithic or Paleolithic era, Bronze, Early Iron, Scythian times, antiquity, maybe Slavic-Russian archeology, etc. The list is not complete and can be continued. Archaeologist is an interesting profession, but it requires the erudition of scientists and the ability to compare various sources.

Such a person must have his own opinion and be able to defend it, argue, based on logic, and not on emotions. It can be difficult, but it is necessary to abandon your hypotheses if there are facts that refute them. The work of archaeologists requires important qualities- this is patience, diligence, accuracy. They are extremely necessary during excavations.

Needs good stamina and physical training, since the work of archaeologists is most often associated with excavations that take place in various climatic conditions. Plus there is no allergy to organic materials. An archaeologist is a person who must be balanced, calm, and able to work in a team.

Knowledge required

Professionals must be able to draw, draw, and photograph. Know the basics of not only restoration, but also conservation of metal, stone, clay and organic materials(leather, bone, wood, fabric, etc.). A broad knowledge of anthropology, linguistics, ethnography, geodesy, topography, geology and paleozoology is required. Those archaeologists who study historical antiquities must have a good knowledge of history and auxiliary disciplines (textual criticism, numismatics, paleography, sphragistics, heraldry and much more).

Field archaeologists must be economists, good organizers, teachers and psychologists. But the most important thing is that they must be able to “see the earth,” read its layers and layers and correctly compare the antiquities found.

Occupational diseases

Human archaeologists have their own diseases, which they acquire during expeditions. Most often this is gastritis or a stomach ulcer, which directly depends on the quality of nutrition, since often normal conditions no for cooking. Rheumatism and radiculitis are also common, since very often archaeologists have to live in tents under various conditions. weather conditions. Because of this, various arthrosis and arthritis occur.

What is the job of an archaeologist?

What do archaeologists do? Not only global excavations, but also individual mosaic fragments that must be correctly selected and carefully put together into one whole. It often happens that it takes many years to unravel the secrets of the past. But final result worth it. Because this is exactly the way to recreate the past, which seems to be forever hidden in the bowels of the planet.

What do archaeologists do? They study sources, analyze them and subsequently supplement them with various already known facts. Research includes not only excavations, but also a desk part, when work takes place directly with artifacts and documents. Scientists can work not only on land, but also under water.

The most famous archaeologists

Heinrich Schliemann is the German scientist who discovered Troy. This is one of the first pioneer archaeologists who began to study antiquity. He was born on January 6, 1822. According to the horoscope - Capricorn. Conducted excavations in Syria, Egypt, Palestine, Greece and Turkey. For almost half of his life, Henry tried to demonstrate the historical importance of Homer's epic. He tried to prove that all the events described in the poems are not fantasy, but reality.

Norwegian anthropologist Thor Heyerdahl was born in 1914, on October 6. He wrote many books. His expeditions were always bright, filled with heroic events. Many of his works caused controversy among scientists, but it was thanks to Tour that interest in ancient history peoples of the world has increased significantly.

There are famous archaeologists in Russia. These include he was born in 1908. Zodiac sign: Aquarius. This is a famous Russian orientalist historian and academician. He explored many monuments of the North Caucasus, Transcaucasia and Central Asia. Already in 1949, he was appointed deputy director of the Hermitage for scientific affairs.

Outstanding discoveries

Archaeological scientists highlight the 10 most significant finds in the world that were found during excavations:

Unexplained Finds

What unusual things do archaeologists find? There are a number of excavated exhibits that are simply impossible to explain logically. Alarmed scientific society Acambaro figures. The first was found in Mexico by the German Waldemar Jalsrad. The figurines appeared to have ancient origins, but caused much skepticism among scientists.

Dropa stones - echoes ancient civilization. These are hundreds of stone discs found on the cave floor, engraved with stories about spaceships. They were controlled by creatures whose remains were also found in the cave.

Terrible finds

In archeology, there are also some rather creepy finds. For example, screaming mummies. One of these was tied hand and foot, but there was a scream frozen on her face. There were suggestions that she was buried alive, tortured, poisoned. But studies showed that the jaw was simply tied up poorly or not at all, which is why the mummy’s mouth was open.

Archaeologists have also found huge claws of an unknown monster. And the skull and beak found huge sizes They only convinced the scientists that it would not be pleasant if such a monster were to meet someone on its way. But later it turned out that these were ancient ancestors and their height was 2-3 times higher than human height. It is said that there is a possibility that this bird has survived to this day, and it can be found in areas of New Zealand. The natives of this country have many legends concerning Moa.

Archaeologists' tools

During excavations, these types of tools are mainly used: bayonet, shovel and sapper shovels, picks and shovels of various sizes, brooms, sledgehammers, hammers and brushes of various sizes. The work of an archaeologist can be quite difficult, especially when it comes to excavating large mounds.

The important point is correct work on the object. And the ability to choose the necessary tool is also necessary. The excavation director not only monitors the health of archaeologists, but also helps to use the right brushes and shovels correctly.

How to become an archaeologist

You can learn how to full-time department, and in absentia. Archaeologist is a profession that can be acquired by anyone who has a passion for antiquity and excavations. To do this, you need to enter a university that trains historians. It is in this discipline that they can then engage in excavations and other areas. An archaeologist is a historian. However, unlike the latter, he is engaged not only in the study of theory, but also personally searches and explores antiquity.

Archaeologist salary

The average Russian salary is approximately 15 thousand rubles. But for just one expedition, an archaeologist can receive up to 30 thousand rubles. Wage V different cities may vary. For example, in Moscow it ranges from 20 to 30 thousand rubles. In the regions it is approximately 5-7 thousand lower.

For archaeologists, there is no more interesting profession than the one they have chosen. It is not surprising, because hard work in the deserts, among steep rocks, far from civilization, is fully rewarded with amazing finds that become a real sensation and allow you to immerse yourself in the distant history of mankind.

Who are archaeologists? And what are they doing?

What is an archaeologist?

An archaeologist is a scientist who studies human history from material sources. These include tools, dishes, jewelry, art objects, remains of buildings and other objects once created by man.

The work of an archaeologist involves constant excavations, hikes, expeditions, and research that help make great discoveries and piece by piece recreate all stages of people’s lives from the beginning of humanity.

What does the word "archaeology" mean?

The work of archaeologists is based on ancient science archeology, closely related to many other disciplines - history, anthropology, paleography, genealogy.

Term "archeology" is a combination of two ancient Greek words - ἀρχαῖος (ancient) and λόγος (teaching). The first scientist who began to systematically study this science is considered to be Herodotus.


His works "History", telling about the Greco-Persian wars and the customs of many peoples, are the earliest full-scale historical treatise and play important role in understanding ancient culture.

What does an archaeologist do?

Archaeologists study the culture of disappeared civilizations, excavate ancient cities, and reconstruct history from layers of earth and remains. Unlike written evidence, physical sources do not directly tell about the past, so archaeologists have to conduct lab tests and engage in scientific reconstruction of events.

Archaeologists often work in museums, where they are responsible for the safety of finds and introduce people to the results of their work. Often, in order to recreate a picture of the past and reveal the secrets of history, they have to work on some archaeological site for many years, sometimes in difficult weather conditions, so the main qualities of archaeologists are patience, endurance and excellent physical fitness.


Archeology is a fairly broad concept that includes many narrower disciplines. Most archaeologists specialize in certain areas of history, which allows them to improve their knowledge and penetrate more deeply into individual stages of history.

Thus, a specialist in the field of historical archeology studies the past on the basis of written sources, an Egyptologist studies Ancient Egypt, and an archaeoastronomer studies the astronomical ideas of people in ancient times.

What knowledge do archaeologists require?

In order to conduct a comprehensive study of finds, an archaeologist must have knowledge in many sciences, including the exact ones. Geology, ethnography, topography, textual criticism, geodesy - this is only part of what a specialist needs to know to successfully study history.

Many people believe that archaeologists only engage in excavations, but in fact, their scope of activity includes many other works. In particular, to understand exactly where to dig, they have to work with written sources, spending hours studying ancient books, geographical maps. Sometimes, to discover ancient objects, archaeologists engage in aerial photography or geological exploration.

What significant discoveries have archaeologists made?

Since the existence of archeology, experts in this field have made many amazing discoveries. In 1824, it was archaeologists who managed to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs, and in 1748 they excavated the ancient city of Pompeii, destroyed during the eruption of Vesuvius.


In 1871, archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovered the Homeric city of Troy, and in 1900, thanks to Arthur Evans, humanity learned about the Minoan civilization. In addition, archaeologists own such greatest discoveries, like the Inca city of Machu Picchu, the tomb of Tutankhamun, the temple complex of Angkor Wat, the Qumran scrolls.

Archeology is a historical discipline that studies the historical past of mankind using material sources.

Material sources are tools of production and material goods created with their help: buildings, weapons, jewelry, dishes, works of art - everything that is the result of human labor activity. Material sources, unlike written ones, do not contain a direct account of historical events, and historical conclusions based on them are the result of scientific reconstruction. Archeology is of particular importance for the study of eras when there was no written language at all, or the history of those peoples who did not have writing even in later historical times.

Archeology has unusually expanded the spatial and temporal horizon of history. Writing has existed for about 5,000 years, and the entire previous period of human history (equal, according to the latest data, almost 2 million years) became known only thanks to the development of archeology. And written sources for the first 2 thousand years of their existence (Egyptian hieroglyphs, linear Greek writing, Babylonian cuneiform) were opened to science by archaeologists. Archeology is also important for the eras when writing existed, for the study of ancient and medieval history, since information gleaned from the study of material sources significantly complements the data of written sources.

History of the formation of Archeology

The mention of archeology dates back to Ancient Greece. Plato understood the whole of antiquity by the concept of “archaeology”. During the Renaissance, this concept was often used to refer to the history of Ancient Rome and Greece. Often in foreign science the term “archeology” is used as part of the science of man - anthropology.

In Russia, a concept has developed (since the 19th century), which still persists, that archeology is a part of historical science that studies mainly fossil materials associated with human activity from ancient times to the Middle Ages inclusive.

Stages of development of Archeology in Russia

XVIII century - early XIX V. - Origin, initial stage, excavations of many monuments begin.

Mid-19th century - mid-30s of the XX century. - Characterized by the development of Archeology as a science, the creation of archaeological societies and museums. The formation of Russian archeology, the formation of its main directions.

Mid 30's - late 60's. XX century - Considered the period of the so-called. “Lysenkoism” in science, allegedly an attempt by the Soviet leadership to establish communist views in archeology.

The end of the 60s - the present - Characterized by the decentralization of science (the spread of the study of archeology to the regions; previously it was studied in the so-called Academic centers, Moscow State University, St. Petersburg State University, KSU and some others). Departments are emerging at universities in the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia and the Far East.

History of the term "archaeology"

The word “archaeology” (Greek ἀρχαιολογία) was first used by Plato to mean “the history of past times.” After Plato, the term “archeology” was used by the famous ancient historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus in the title of one of his works. The work of Dionysius served as a model for Josephus.

In Europe

The most ancient monuments in Eurasia are located in 4 regions: Transcarpathia, Transcaucasia, Central Asia and Southern Siberia. On the banks of the Tisza there is one of the most ancient monuments - Korolevo, studied by V. N. Gladilin. 5 layers, seven paleosols in a 12-meter thickness give a chronology from 1 million to 40 thousand years ago. A series of pebble choppers, unifaces, handaxes, and flakes were discovered in the ancient layers.

The second monument is Kldara in Southern Tajikistan, explored by V. A. Romanov. Here the Pleistocene thickness reaches almost 100 m. The third early monument is the Azykh Cave in Azerbaijan in the valley of the river. Kuruchai, studied by M. Guseinov. Its 10 layers cover a period of about a million years. Other monuments: Karatau and Lahigi sites in Tajikistan (age 200 thousand years), Upalinka excavated by Okladnikov in Gorno-Altaisk with choppers and choppers. Molchanov examined layers in the Dering-Yuryakh cave in Yakutia, where choppers, scrapers, and points were discovered. Early materials were obtained by U. Islamov from the Selunkur cave near Osh and the lower area near the site of the city of Angren. On the Black Sea coast, the earliest settlements are Colchis, Yasht, Gali and others. Stone products were located here directly on the surface. By nature, these are hunting camps and “workshops” (places for the manufacture of tools).

Types of archaeological sources.

VARIETIES OF SOURCES

Archeology is the only branch of human study that relies more on the material remains left behind by people than on direct observations of human behavior or written evidence. This focus on material evidence forces archaeologists to improve those methods and techniques for collecting and understanding data that ensure the extraction of maximum information from available sources.

Categories of archaeological sites. The material remains of interest to the archaeologist fall into four broad categories. The first is artifacts, i.e. objects created or processed by people. Artifacts include tools and jewelry, such as stone tools, textile clothing, time-corroded bronze jewelry, and clay vessels. Artifacts also include objects that were accidentally or intentionally formed during the manufacture of certain products, such as production waste (for example, plates chipped from a stone core during the manufacture of a tool), thread trimmings left over from weaving, pieces of slag (vitreous material) , remaining during metal smelting) and various by-products of industrial chemical processes.

The second category is archaeological sites, which include disturbances of the soil layer caused by human activity or man-made structures. The simplest and most common form of such an object is a hole dug in the ground to store food or waste; such an abandoned pit can be identified by the difference in its filling from the surrounding soil, often darker and softer, with a higher content of organic materials. Decay from pillars and the dark outline of wooden blocks that have rotted or burned in place often make it possible to trace the outlines and structure of a log building. A slightly more complex structure is the hearth, in which stones used to reflect heat can be arranged in a ring around a recess filled with charcoal and ash. The most complex objects include stone foundations of buildings, mine tunnels, earthen embankments and tombs.

The third category consists of biological remains - any materials that once belonged to living nature. Raw bones, snail shells, pollen, charred grains and wood are all biological remains. Traditionally, biological materials that have been processed into artifacts, such as bone needles or cotton fabric, are not considered biological remains.

The biological remains themselves can be divided into three types. Food scraps are either pieces discarded during the preparation and consumption of food or leftover food. This category includes, for example, a clam shell, a deer leg bone, or an ear of corn, suggesting that the clam itself, the deer leg, or the kernels of corn were eaten. If some materials of animal or plant origin were used to make artifacts, then technical waste is generated from them. Thus, technical waste is bone fragments from a deer shoulder blade, resulting from cutting out a hunting weapon from it. Finally, those remains (biological or otherwise) that were not used or processed by people, but were simply preserved in the same place where people lived, represent ecofacts. Examples of fossil biological ecofacts include ancient plant pollen, earth snail shells, and insect shells. Ecofacts, in principle, provide the opportunity to reconstruct the natural environment of the era of the existence of an archaeological site.

The fourth category consists of soil, pebble and other geological deposits accumulated on the monument area. Among them there are important eco-facts that provide information about its natural environment and the history of its formation. Sediments may also contain chemical traces of decayed materials. Sediment sampling often reveals minute biological remains and artifacts that are very difficult or impossible to detect in the field. It is therefore common practice in archeology to take sediment samples in the field and subsequently subject them to careful laboratory analysis.

Material remains acquire special value when the relative location of the places where they were found is known. A separate fragment of wood decay, for example, may be the remains of a block for chopping meat or a post for tying domestic animals; several rotten pillars located in a small circle will indicate a primitive dwelling or granary; the arrangement of decayed pillars in the form of a large oval with traces of internal columns will be evidence of the existence of a more substantial public structure here. In the same way, an arrowhead found in the abdomen of the skeleton of a buried person highly likely indicates the violent death of this person, while the same arrowhead found in a garbage heap may mean that it simply fell into the garbage when cutting up the carcass of an animal killed by an arrow. It is the importance of the spatial distribution of finds that forces archaeologists to so carefully record in the field the location of all significant finds.

The process of forming a monument. Sometimes an archaeologist is lucky enough to discover a monument with exceptionally well preserved material remains. For example, the Ozette complex in Washington state is an ancient American Indian settlement that was later buried under a mudslide; A few years later, a new settlement was founded on this site, which was also eventually blocked by a landslide. This situation was repeated nine times, providing archaeologists with nine successive closed complexes in which wood, leather and other items were perfectly preserved. The burial in 79 AD can be compared to this situation. under the volcanic deposits of Pompeii (HL) in Italy, where ash covered the city so quickly that people were caught on the steps of stairs, and even food was preserved in vessels.

But all archaeological sites - even those that are exceptionally well preserved - have been affected by various processes, the consequence of which has been the change, destruction or internal displacement of archaeological remains. At most monuments, these processes led to a fundamental change in their character and content. These processes, which are usually called the processes of monument formation, are divided into impacts of cultural origin, caused by human activity, and natural impacts.

Take, for example, a hut with a wooden frame and a thatched roof that contained various artifacts. When leaving the home, its inhabitants probably took with them, if possible, all the utensils they could, leaving behind only those things that were not worth the effort to carry. Wood, textiles, and other organic materials left behind are likely to have decomposed due to mold, fermentation, and bacteria; as they decayed they were crushed. Food products or objects that were often touched with hands, as a result of which they were thoroughly saturated with salt and fat from contact with humans, may have attracted wild animals. The hut itself was also built from organic materials and could, having decayed and collapsed, disappear from the face of the earth in the shortest possible time. The only noticeable trace of it in this case would be a circle of rotted pillars and several stone and bone objects, which could have been moved by carrion-eating animals, wind or rain streams. Some of the bone products would have been destroyed after a certain time under the influence of acids contained in the soil. Over time, all traces of the structure would be buried under sediment.

The destruction of organic materials over time is the rule in archeology, unless the influence of one of the four factors that prevent the action of microorganisms is affected. Firstly, the safety of these materials can be ensured by their charring. Too much heat can destroy the object, while too little heat favors the activity of microorganisms; however, between these two extremes a situation arises when the object retains its shape, but can no longer serve as food. For example, nets woven from plant fibers found in shell middens in South Africa are very fragile products that would never have been preserved if they had not been charred.

Secondly, the material can survive if it does not come into contact with the oxygen that microorganisms need. The preservation of the finds at the Ozette site resulted from the fact that the clay layers isolated the cultural remains from oxygen. The exceptionally good preservation of materials under water is also explained by the fact that in these cases there is no access to oxygen.

Thirdly, a highly acidic environment can contribute to the preservation of organic materials, again because it prevents the development of microorganisms. In an acidic environment, organic materials remain intact. Human sacrifices placed during the early Iron Age in the acidic waters of the swamps of England or Denmark were so well preserved that the people's skin, hair, clothing and garrotes around their necks were found intact. Archaeologists were even able to examine the stomach contents of a man from the Tollund peat bog and determine what he ate during his dying meal.

Fourth, exceptional dryness or cold can contribute to the preservation of organic materials. The famous Egyptian mummies have survived to this day primarily due to the dry environment, although embalmers took other measures to ensure their safety. In the Arctic, in the permafrost zone, entire frozen carcasses of woolly mammoths were discovered. Less well known are the mummies from Greenland and the bodies from the Inuit Eskimo site, which were preserved due to the combined effects of cold and dryness.

However, the presence of such conditions is an exception, and archaeologists are prepared for the fact that, as a rule, they are able to discover only the remains of objects that existed during the life of the monument under study. Mostly items made of stone, ceramics, glass and some metals (such as gold) are preserved; other metals are susceptible to corrosion, bone is damaged by acids, and the degree of preservation of products made from these materials depends on the chemical environment of the layer in which they find themselves. Objects made from organic materials, especially soft ones, are extremely rarely preserved in most archaeological sites.