Where the battle on the ice took place in 1242. Literary and historical notes of a young technician

Myths about the Ice Battle

Snow-covered landscapes, thousands of warriors, a frozen lake and crusaders falling through the ice under the weight of their own armor.

For many, the battle, according to the annals, which took place on April 5, 1242, is not much different from the shots from Sergei Eisenstein's film "Alexander Nevsky".

But was it really so?

The myth of what we know about the Battle of the Ice

The battle on the ice really became one of the most resonant events of the 13th century, reflected not only in "domestic", but also in Western chronicles.

And at first glance it seems that we have enough documents in order to thoroughly study all the "components" of the battle.

But upon closer examination, it turns out that the popularity of a historical plot is by no means a guarantee of its comprehensive study.

Thus, the most detailed (and most quoted) description of the battle, recorded "in hot pursuit", is contained in the Novgorod First Chronicle of the senior version. And this description has just over 100 words. The rest of the references are even more concise.

Moreover, sometimes they include mutually exclusive information. For example, in the most authoritative Western source - the Senior Livonian rhymed chronicle - there is not a word that the battle took place on the lake.

The lives of Alexander Nevsky can be considered a kind of "synthesis" of the early annalistic references to the collision, but, according to experts, they are a literary work and therefore can be used as a source only with "great restrictions."

Concerning historical works XIX century, it is believed that they did not bring anything fundamentally new to the study of the Battle on the Ice, mainly retelling what was already stated in the annals.

The beginning of the 20th century is characterized by an ideological rethinking of the battle, when symbolic meaning victory over the "German-knightly aggression" was brought to the fore. According to historian Igor Danilevsky, before the release of Sergei Eisenstein's film "Alexander Nevsky", the study of the Battle on the Ice was not even included in university lecture courses.

The myth of a united Russia

In the minds of many, the Battle on the Ice is the victory of the united Russian troops over the forces of the German crusaders. Such a "generalizing" idea of ​​the battle was already formed in the 20th century, in the realities of the Great Patriotic War, when Germany was the main rival of the USSR.

However, 775 years ago, the Battle of the Ice was more of a "local" than a nationwide conflict. In the 13th century, Russia experienced a period of feudal fragmentation and consisted of approximately 20 independent principalities. Moreover, the policies of cities that formally belonged to the same territory could differ significantly.

So, de jure Pskov and Novgorod were located in the Novgorod land, one of the largest territorial units of Russia at that time. De facto, each of these cities was "autonomy", with its own political and economic interests. This also applied to relations with the closest neighbors in the Eastern Baltic.

One of these neighbors was Catholic Order sword-bearers, after the defeat in the battle of Saul (Shauliai) in 1236, attached to the Teutonic Order as the Livonian Landmaster. The latter became part of the so-called Livonian Confederation, which, in addition to the Order, included five Baltic bishoprics.

As the historian Igor Danilevsky notes, the main reason for the territorial conflicts between Novgorod and the Order was the lands of the Estonians who lived on the western shore of Lake Peipsi (the medieval population of modern Estonia, in most Russian-language chronicles, appeared under the name "chud"). At the same time, the campaigns organized by the Novgorodians practically did not affect the interests of other lands. The exception was the "border" Pskov, which was constantly subjected to retaliatory raids by the Livonians.

According to the historian Alexei Valerov, it was the need to simultaneously resist both the forces of the Order and the regular attempts of Novgorod to encroach on the independence of the city that could force Pskov in 1240 to “open the gates” to the Livonians. In addition, the city was seriously weakened after the defeat at Izborsk and, presumably, was not capable of long-term resistance to the crusaders.

At the same time, according to the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, in 1242, not a full-fledged "German army" was present in the city, but only two Vogt knights (presumably accompanied by small detachments), who, according to Valerov, performed judicial functions on controlled lands and monitored the activities of the "local Pskov administration".

Further, as we know from the annals, prince of novgorod Alexander Yaroslavich with his younger brother Andrei Yaroslavich (sent by their father, Vladimir Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich) “expelled” the Germans from Pskov, after which they continued their campaign, going “to the Chud” (that is, to the lands of the Livonian Landmaster).

Where they were met by the combined forces of the Order and the Bishop of Dorpat.

The myth of the scale of the battle

Thanks to the Novgorod chronicle, we know that April 5, 1242 was a Saturday. Everything else is not so clear.

Difficulties begin already when trying to establish the number of participants in the battle. The only figures we have are those of German casualties. So, the Novgorod First Chronicle reports about 400 killed and 50 prisoners, the Livonian rhymed chronicle - that "twenty brothers were killed and six were captured."

The researchers believe that these data are not as contradictory as it seems at first glance.

Historians Igor Danilevsky and Klim Zhukov agree that several hundred people participated in the battle.

So, on the part of the Germans, these are 35–40 knight brothers, about 160 knechts (on average, four servants per knight) and Estonian mercenaries (“chud without number”), who could “expand” the detachment by another 100–200 soldiers . At the same time, by the standards of the 13th century, such an army was considered a fairly serious force (presumably, during the heyday, the maximum number of the former Order of the Sword-bearers, in principle, did not exceed 100-120 knights). The author of the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle also complained that there were almost 60 times more Russians, which, according to Danilevsky, although an exaggeration, still suggests that Alexander's army significantly outnumbered the Crusaders.

Thus, the maximum number of the Novgorod city regiment, the princely squad of Alexander, the Suzdal detachment of his brother Andrei and the Pskovites who joined the campaign was unlikely to exceed 800 people.

From chronicles we also know that the German detachment was lined up by a "pig".

According to Klim Zhukov, this is most likely not about the "trapezoid" pig, which we are used to seeing in the diagrams in textbooks, but about the "rectangular" one (since the first description of the "trapezoid" in written sources appeared only in the 15th century). Also, according to historians, the estimated size of the Livonian army gives grounds to talk about the traditional construction of the "hound banner": 35 knights that make up the "wedge of the banner", plus their detachments (up to 400 people in total).

As for the tactics of the Russian army, the Rhymed Chronicle mentions only that "the Russians had many shooters" (who, apparently, made up the first line), and that "the army of the brothers was surrounded."

We don't know anything more about this.

The myth that the Livonian warrior is heavier than the Novgorod one

There is also a stereotype according to which the combat attire of Russian soldiers was many times lighter than the Livonian one.

According to historians, if there was a difference in weight, it was extremely insignificant.

Indeed, on both sides, exclusively heavily armed horsemen participated in the battle (it is believed that all assumptions about foot soldiers are a transfer of the military realities of subsequent centuries to the realities of the XIII century).

Logically, even the weight of a war horse, without taking into account the rider, would be enough to break through the fragile April ice.

So did it make sense in such conditions to withdraw troops to it?

The myth of the battle on ice and drowned knights

Let's disappoint right away: there are no descriptions of how the German knights fall through the ice in any of the early chronicles.

Moreover, in the Livonian Chronicle there is a rather strange phrase: "On both sides, the dead fell on the grass." Some commentators believe that this is an idiom meaning "fall on the battlefield" (version of the medievalist historian Igor Kleinenberg), others - that we are talking about thickets of reeds that made their way from under the ice in shallow water, where the battle took place (version of the Soviet military historian Georgy Karaev, displayed on the map).

As for the chronicles mentioning that the Germans were driven "on the ice", modern researchers agree that the Battle on the Ice could "borrow" this detail from the description of the later Battle of Rakovor (1268). According to Igor Danilevsky, reports that the Russian troops drove the enemy seven miles ("to the Subolichi coast") are quite justified for the scale of the Rakovor battle, but look strange in the context of the battle on Lake Peipsi, where the distance from coast to coast at the intended location of the battle is no more than 2 km.

Speaking of the "Raven Stone" (a geographical landmark mentioned in part of the annals), historians emphasize that any map indicating a specific battle site is nothing more than a version. Where exactly the massacre took place, no one knows: the sources contain too little information to draw any conclusions.

In particular, Klim Zhukov is based on the fact that during the archaeological expeditions in the area of ​​Lake Peipus not a single "confirming" burial was found. The researcher connects the absence of evidence not with the mythical nature of the battle, but with looting: in the 13th century, iron was highly valued, and it is unlikely that the weapons and armor of the dead soldiers could have been preserved to this day.

The myth of the geopolitical significance of the battle

In the view of many, the Battle on the Ice "stands apart" and is perhaps the only "action-packed" battle of its time. And it really became one of the most significant battles of the Middle Ages, "suspending" the conflict between Russia and the Livonian Order for almost 10 years.

Nevertheless, the XIII century is rich in other events.

From the point of view of the clash with the crusaders, these include the battle with the Swedes on the Neva in 1240, and the already mentioned battle of Rakovor, during which the combined army of the seven northern Russian principalities opposed the Livonian Landmaster and Danish Estland.

Also, the XIII century is the time of the Horde invasion.

Despite the fact that the key battles of this era (the Battle of the Kalka and the capture of Ryazan) did not directly affect the North-West, they significantly influenced the future political structure medieval Russia and all its components.

In addition, if we compare the scale of the Teutonic and Horde threats, then the difference is calculated in tens of thousands of soldiers. Thus, the maximum number of crusaders who ever participated in campaigns against Russia rarely exceeded 1000 people, while the alleged maximum number of participants in the Russian campaign from the Horde was up to 40 thousand (version of the historian Klim Zhukov).

TASS expresses gratitude for the help in preparing the material to the historian and specialist in Ancient Russia Igor Nikolaevich Danilevsky and the military medieval historian Klim Alexandrovich Zhukov.

© TASS INFOGRAPHICS, 2017

Materials worked on:

“The men did not hesitate for a long time, but they brought a few army to the frontiers. And the brothers could not muster a large army. But decided, trusting this overall strength, put on the Russian equestrian system, and a bloody battle began. And the Russian shooters boldly entered the game in the morning, but the banner detachment of the brothers broke through the front Russian row. And the clash of swords was heard there. And steel helmets were cut in half. The battle was going on - and it was clear how the bodies fell into the grass from two sides.

"The German detachment was surrounded by Russians - and their number was so much superior to the Germans that they fought with sixty of the brother-knights of any."

“Although the brothers fought stubbornly, they were defeated by the Russian rati. Some of the Derpets, seeking salvation, hurriedly left the battle: After all, twenty brothers bravely gave their lives in battle, and six were captured.

“Prince Alexander, they say, was very happy with the victory with which he was able to return. But he left many warriors here as a pledge - and none of them will go on a campaign. And the death of the brothers - what I just read for you, was mourned with dignity, Like the death of heroes - those who waged wars at the call of God and sacrificed a lot of courageous lives to fraternal service. Fighting the enemy for God's cause and heeding the knightly duty.

Battle of Chud - in German Schlacht auf dem Peipussee. Battle on the Ice - in German Schlacht auf dem Eise.

"Rhymed Chronicle"

Invasion of the Order

In 1240, the Germans crossed the borders of the Pskov Principality and on August 15, 1240, the crusaders captured Izborsk.
“The Germans took the castle, collected booty, took away property and valuables, took horses and cattle out of the castle, what was left was put on fire ... Nobody from the Russians was left who only resorted to protection, he was killed or taken prisoner. Screams spread throughout the land.”

News of the enemy invasion and the capture of Izborsk reached Pskov. All Pskovians gathered at the veche and decided to move to Izborsk. The 5,000th militia was assembled, led by the voivode Gavrila Ivanovich. But there were also traitorous boyars in Pskov, headed by the settler Tverdila Ivanokovich. They informed the Germans about the impending campaign. The people of Pskov did not know that the knightly army was twice as large as the Pskov army. The battle took place near Izborsk. Russian soldiers fought bravely, but about 800 of them fell in this battle, and the survivors fled to the surrounding forests.

The crusader army, pursuing the Pskovites, reached the walls of Pskov and made an attempt to break into the fortress. The townspeople barely had time to close the gates. Hot pitch poured on the Germans storming the walls, and logs rolled. The Germans could not take Pskov by force.

They decided to act through the traitorous boyars and the settler Tverdila, who persuaded the Pskovites to give their children as hostages to the Germans. The Pskovites let themselves be persuaded. On September 16, 1240, the traitors surrendered the city to the Germans.
Arriving in Novgorod in 1241, Alexander Nevsky found Pskov and Konoprye in the hands of the order and immediately began retaliatory actions.

Taking advantage of the difficulties of the order, diverted to fight the Mongols (the battle of Legnica), Alexander marched on Koporye, took it by storm and killed most of the garrison. Some of the knights and mercenaries from the local population were taken prisoner, but released, and traitors from among the Chud were executed.

Liberation of Pskov

“So for the great prince Alexander had a lot of brave ones, as in ancient times with Davyd, the king of strength and fortress. Likewise, the will of the Grand Duke Alexander will be filled with the spirit of our honest and dear prince! Now is the time for us to lay down our heads for you!” so wrote the author of the Life of the Holy and Blessed Prince Alexander Nevsky.

The prince entered the temple, prayed for a long time “Judge me, God, and judge my quarrel with the eloquent people (the Livonian Germans) and God help me, as You helped Moses defeat Amalek in ancient times, and helped my great-grandfather Yaroslav defeat the cursed Svyatopolk.” Then he approached his squad and the whole army and made a speech: “We will die for Saint Sophia and the free city of Novgorod! Let's die for the Holy Trinity and free Pskov! Zane, the Russians have no other fate than to harrow their Russian land, the Orthodox Christian faith!”
And all the warriors answered him with a single cry: “With you, Yaroslavich, we will win or die for the Russian land!”

In early January 1241, Alexander set out on a campaign. Secretly approached Pskov, sent reconnaissance, cut off all roads leading to Pskov. Then Prince Alexander delivered an unexpected and swift blow to Pskov from the west. "Prince Alexander is coming!" the people of Pskov rejoiced as they opened the western gates. Rusichi broke into the city and began a battle with the German garrison. 70 knights [the figure is not at all real, the Germans could not have so many knights left in the city. Usually in the captured cities there were 2-3 governors (brother-knights) and a small garrison] were killed, and ordinary warriors - Germans and knechts, without number. Several knights were taken prisoner and released: “Tell your people that Prince Alexander is coming and there will be no mercy for the enemies!” Six officials were tried. They were found guilty of bullying the Pskov population, and then they were immediately hanged. The boyar-traitor Tverdila Ivankovich did not run away either. After a short trial, he was also hanged.

Preface to the Battle of Chud

In the “Novgorod First Chronicle of the Senior and Junior Editions” it is said that, having freed Pskov from the knights, Nevsky himself went into the possession Livonian Order(chasing the knights to the west of Lake Pskov), where he let his soldiers live. (In the summer of 6750 (1242). Prince Oleksandr went with the people of Novgorod and with his brother Andrey and from Nizov to the Chud land on Nemtsi and Chyud and zaya all the way to Plskov; and expel the prince of Plskov, seize Nemtsi and Chyud, and shackle the streams to Novgorod , and go to Chud yourself.” The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle testifies that the invasion was accompanied by fires and the removal of people and livestock. Upon learning of this, the Livonian bishop sent troops of knights to meet them. The stopping place for Alexander's troops was somewhere halfway between Pskov and Derpt, not far from the confluence of the Pskov and Warm lakes. There was a traditional crossing near the village of Bridges.

And Alexander, in turn, having found out about the performance of the knights, did not return to Pskov, but having crossed to the eastern shore of the Warm Lake, he hurried northward to the Uzmen tract, leaving a detachment of Domish Tverdislavich Kerber in the rear guard (according to other sources, a reconnaissance detachment).

And as if bysha on the earth (chud), let the whole regiment live; and Domash Tverdislavichi Kerbe bisha in dispersal, and I killed Nemtsi and Chud at the bridge and bisha that; and kill that Domash, the brother of the posadnich, the husband is honest, and beat him with him, and take them with his hands, and run to the prince in the regiment; the prince rushes back to the lake.

This detachment entered into battle with the knights and was defeated. Domis was killed, but some of the detachment managed to escape, and move after Alexander's army. The burial place of warriors from the detachment of Domash Kerbert is located at the southeastern outskirts of Chudskiye Zakhody.

Tactics of the battle of Alexander Nevsky from Soviet history

Alexander knew well the favorite method of German tactics - the offensive in battle formation in the form of a wedge or triangle, pointing forward. The point and sides of the triangle called the “pig” were well-armed mounted knights in iron armor, and the base and center were a dense mass of foot soldiers. Having driven such a wedge into the center of the enemy's location, and having upset his ranks, the Germans, as a rule, directed the next blow to his flanks, achieving final victory. Therefore, Alexander lined up his troops in three echeloned lines, and Prince Andrei's cavalry took refuge on the northern side of the Voronya stone.

According to modern researchers, the Germans did not adhere to such tactics. In this case, not a significant part of the soldiers, front and flank, would have participated in the battle. And what about the rest? “The wedge was used for a completely different purpose - rapprochement with the enemy. Firstly, the knightly troops were distinguished by extremely low discipline due to lack of time for serious training, so if the rapprochement was carried out by a standard line, then there would be no talk of any concerted actions - the knights would simply disperse all over the field in search of the enemy and mining. But in the wedge, the knight had nowhere to go, and he was forced to follow the three most experienced horsemen, who were in the front row. Secondly, the wedge had a narrow front, which reduced losses from archery. The wedge approached at a pace, as the horses are not able to gallop at the same speed. Thus, the knights approached the enemy, and for 100 meters they turned into a line, with which they struck at the enemy.
P.S. Whether the Germans were advancing like that no one knows.

Place of battle

Prince Alexander stationed his army between Uzmen and the mouth of the Zhelcha River, on the eastern shore of Lake Peipsi "on Uzmeni, at the Raven Stone", so it is said in the chronicle.

The attention of historians was attracted by the name of the Voronii Island, where they hoped to find the Voronii Stone. The hypothesis that the battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi near the island of Voronii was taken as the main version, although it contradicted chronicle sources and common sense (the old chronicles do not contain any mention of Voronii Island near the battlefield. They talk about the battle on the ground, on the grass (ice is mentioned only in the final part of the battle). But why did the troops of Nevsky, as well as the heavy cavalry of the knights, have to go through Lake Peipsi on spring ice to Voronii Island, where the water does not freeze in many places even in severe frosts? It should be noted that the beginning of April for these places is a warm period.

Testing the hypothesis about the location of the battle near Voronii Island dragged on for many decades. This time was enough for her to take a firm place in all textbooks. Given the low validity of this version, in 1958 a complex expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences was created to determine the true location of the battle. However, it was not possible to find the burial places of the soldiers who died in the Battle of Peipus, as well as the Vorony stone, the Uzmen tract and traces of the battle.

This was done by members of a group of Moscow enthusiasts - lovers of the ancient history of Russia, under the leadership of I. E. Koltsov, in a later period. Using methods and instruments widely used in geology and archeology (including dowsing), the group members marked the proposed places on the terrain plan. mass graves warriors of both sides who fell in this battle. These burials are located in two zones to the east of the village of Samolva. One of the zones is located half a kilometer north of the village Tabory and one and a half kilometers from Samolva. The second zone with the largest number of burials is 1.5-2.0 kilometers north of the village of Tabory and about 2 kilometers east of Samolva. It can be assumed that the knights were wedged into the ranks of Russian soldiers in the area of ​​the first burial, and in the area of ​​the second zone the main battle and encirclement of the knights took place.

Studies have shown that in those distant times, in the area south of the current village of Kozlovo (more precisely, between Kozlov and Tabory) there was some kind of fortified outpost of the Novgorodians. Presumably, here, behind the earthen ramparts of the fortification that no longer exists, there was a detachment of Prince Andrei Yaroslavich, hidden in an ambush before the battle. The group also managed to find the Raven Stone on the north side of Tabory village. Centuries have destroyed the stone, but its underground part still rests under the layers of the cultural layer of the earth. In the area where the remains of the stone were located ancient temple with underground passages that went to the Uzman tract, where there were fortifications.

Army of Alexander Nevsky

At Uzmen, Alexander's troops were joined by Suzdal troops under the leadership of Alexander's brother Andrei Yaroslavich (according to other sources, the prince joined before the liberation of Pskov). The troops opposing the knights had a heterogeneous composition, but a single command in the person of Alexander Nevsky. The “grassroots regiments” consisted of Suzdal princely squads, boyar squads, and city regiments. The army sent by Novgorod had a fundamentally different composition. It included the squad of Alexander Nevsky, the squad of the “lord”, the garrison of Novgorod, who served for a salary (gridi) and was subordinate to the mayor, the Konchan regiments, the militia of the settlements and the squads of the “freemen”, private military organizations of the boyars and wealthy merchants. On the whole, the army sent by Novgorod and the "grassroots" lands was a rather powerful force, distinguished by a high fighting spirit.

The total number of Russian troops could be up to 4-5 thousand people, of which 800-1000 people were on horseback princely squads (Soviet historians estimated the number of Russian soldiers at 17,000 people). The Russian troops were lined up in three echeloned lines, and on the northern side of the Voronya stone, in the Uzmen tract, Prince Andrei's cavalry took refuge.

order army

The number of troops of the order in the battle on Lake Peipus was determined by Soviet historians, usually at 10-12 thousand people. Later researchers, referring to the German Rhymed Chronicle, name 300-400 people. The only figures available in chronicle sources are the losses of the order, which amounted to about 20 “brothers” killed and 6 captured.
Considering that for one “brother” there were 3-8 “half-brothers” who did not have the right to booty, the total number of the order’s own army can be determined at 400-500 people. Also participating in the battle were Danish knights under the command of princes Knut and Abel, a militia from Dorpat, which included many Estonians and hired monsters. Thus, the order had a total of about 500-700 cavalry and 1000-1200 Estonian and Chud militia. The encyclopedia says that Hermann I von Buxgevden commanded the order army, but not a single name of the German commander is named in the chronicles.

Description of the battle from Soviet history

April 5, 1242, early in the morning, as soon as the sun rose, the battle began. The advanced Russian archers showered the advancing with a cloud of arrows, but the "pig" steadily moved forward, and, in the end, swept away the archers and the poorly organized center. Meanwhile, Prince Alexander strengthened the flanks, behind the first echelon he placed the best archers, who sought to shoot the slowly approaching crusading cavalry.

The advancing "pig", which was led into battle by the patrician of the Order Siegfried von Marburg, ran into the high shore of Lake Peipus, overgrown with willow and covered with snow. There was nowhere else to go. And then Prince Alexander - and he could see the entire battlefield from the Voronya stone - ordered the infantry from the flanks to attack the “pig” and, if possible, divide it into parts. The friendly offensive of the troops of Alexander Nevsky fettered the Germans: they could not rush to the attack, the cavalry had nowhere to go, and it began to back away, surviving and crushing its own infantry. Huddled in a small area, mounted knights in heavy armor pressed with their whole mass on the ice, which began to crack. Cavalry and foot soldiers began to fall into the formed polynyas.

The spearmen dragged the knights off their horses with hooks, and on the ice they were finished off by infantry. The battle turned into a bloody mess, and it was not clear where they were and where they were.

The chronicler, according to eyewitnesses, writes: “And be that slash of evil and great for the Germans and people, and the cowardly from the spears of breaking and the sound from the sword section, as if the frozen sea will move. And you can’t see the ice, everything is covered with blood.”

The decisive moment of the battle has come. Alexander took off his mitten and waved his hand, and then north side The crow of the stone left the Suzdal cavalry of Prince Andrei. At full gallop, she struck from the rear at the Germans and Chuds. The bollards were the first to fail. They fled, exposing the rear of the knightly army, dismounted at that moment. The knights, seeing that the military cause was lost, also rushed after the knechts. Some began to surrender, begging for mercy on their knees with their right hand raised.

The German chronicler writes with undisguised grief: Those who were in the army of knight brothers were surrounded. The knight brothers resisted quite stubbornly, but there they were defeated.

The poet Konstantin Simonov in his poem "Battle on the Ice" described the climax of the battle as follows:

And, retreating before the prince,
Throwing spears and swords
The Germans fell from their horses to the ground,
Lifting iron fingers
The bay horses got excited,
From under the hooves they raised dust,
Bodies dragged through the snow
Stuck in narrow streams.

In vain Vice-Master Andreas von Felven (in the German chronicles not a single name of the German commanders is mentioned) tried to stop the fleeing and organize resistance. Everything was in vain. One by one, battle order banners fell onto the ice. Meanwhile, the cavalry squad of Prince Andrei rushed to pursue the fugitives. She drove them across the ice for 7 miles to the Subolichsky coast, mercilessly beating them with swords. Some of the fugitives did not reach the shore. Where there was weak ice, on the “sigovice”, polynyas opened and many knights and knechts drowned.

Modern version Battle of Chud

Having learned that the order troops moved from Derpt to the army of Alexander, he led his troops to the ancient crossing near the village of Mosty in the south of the Warm Lake. Having crossed to the eastern shore, he retreated to the Novgorod outpost that existed at that time in the area south of the modern village of Kozlovo, where he expected the Germans. The knights also crossed over at the Bridges and gave chase. They were advancing from the south side (from the village of Tabory). Not knowing about the Novgorod reinforcements and feeling their military superiority in strength, they, without thinking twice, rushed into battle, falling into the “nets” placed. From here it can be seen that the battle itself was on land, not far from the shore of Lake Peipus.

Encirclement and defeat of the knights contributed to the additional troops of Prince Andrei Yaroslavich, who were in ambush for a while. By the end of the battle, the knightly army was driven back to the spring ice of the Zhelchinskaya Bay of Lake Peipsi, where many of them drowned. Their remains and weapons are now located half a kilometer northwest of the church of the Kobylye Gorodische at the bottom of this bay.

Losses

The question of the losses of the parties in the battle is controversial. The losses of the knights are indicated in the "Rhymed Chronicle" with specific figures, which cause controversy. Some Russian chronicles, followed by Soviet historians, say that 531 knights were killed in the battle (there were not so many of them in the entire order), 50 knights were taken prisoner. The Novgorod First Chronicle tells that 400 “Germans” fell in the battle, and 50 Germans were taken prisoner, and the “Chud” is even discounted: "beschisla". Apparently, they suffered really heavy losses. The Rhymed Chronicle says that 20 knights died and 6 were taken prisoner. So it is possible that 400 German soldiers really fell in the battle, of which 20 were real brother knights (after all, according to modern ranks, a brother knight is equated to a general), and 50 Germans, of which 6 were brother knights, were taken prisoner. In the Life of Alexander Nevsky, it is written that, as a sign of humiliation, the captive knights took off their boots and forced them to walk barefoot on the ice of the lake near their horses. Russian losses are said vaguely: “many brave warriors fell." Apparently, the losses of the Novgorodians were really heavy.

The meaning of the battle

According to the point of view traditional in Russian historiography, along with the victories of Alexander over the Swedes on July 15, 1240 on Narva and over the Lithuanians in 1245 near Toropets, near Lake Zhiztsa and near Usvyat, the Battle of Chud had great importance for Pskov and Novgorod, holding back the pressure of three serious enemies from the west - at a time when the rest of Russia was suffering heavy losses from princely strife and the consequences of the Tatar conquest.

The English researcher J. Fannel believes that the significance of the Battle of the Ice is greatly exaggerated: „ Alexander did only what the numerous defenders of Novgorod and Pskov did before him and what many did after him - namely, they rushed to protect the long and vulnerable borders from the invaders.

The memory of the battle

In 1938 Sergei Eisenstein removed Feature Film"Alexander Nevsky", in which the Battle on the Ice was filmed. The film is considered one of the most prominent representatives of historical films. It was he who, in many ways, shaped the modern viewer's idea of ​​​​the battle. Phrase “Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword” put by the authors of the film into the mouth of Alexander has nothing to do with reality, given the realities of that time.

Filmed in 1992 documentary"In memory of the past and in the name of the future."
In 1993, on Mount Sokolikha in Pskov, almost 100 kilometers away from the actual place of the battle, a monument was erected to the “Druzhinas of Alexander Nevsky”.

In 1992, on the territory of the village of Kobylye Gorodishche, Gdovsky District, in a place as close as possible to the alleged site of the Battle on the Ice, near the Church of the Archangel Michael, a bronze monument to Alexander Nevsky and a bronze worship cross were erected. The cross was cast in St. Petersburg at the expense of patrons of the Baltic Steel Group.

findings

April 18th another day is celebrated military glory Russia - Victory Day of Russian soldiers of Prince Alexander Nevsky over the German knights on Lake Peipus (Battle on the Ice, 1242). The holiday was established by Federal Law No. 32-FZ of March 13, 1995 "On the days of military glory and memorable dates in Russia."

According to the definition of all modern historical reference books and encyclopedias,

Battle on the Ice(Schlacht auf dem Eise (German), Prœlium glaciale (Latin), also called ice battle or Battle on Lake Peipsi- the battle of Novgorodians and Vladimirians led by Alexander Nevsky against the knights of the Livonian Order on the ice of Lake Peipus - took place on April 5 (in terms of the Gregorian calendar - April 12) 1242.

In 1995, Russian parliamentarians, taking the federal law, especially did not think about the dating of this event. They simply added 13 days to April 5 (as is traditionally done to recalculate events of the XIX centuries from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar), completely forgetting that the Battle of the Ice did not happen at all in the 19th, but in the distant 13th century. Accordingly, the "correction" for the modern calendar is only 7 days.

Today, any person who studied in high school is sure that the Battle on the Ice or the Battle of Lake Peipus is considered the general battle of the conquest campaign. Teutonic Order 1240 -1242 years. The Livonian Order, as you know, was the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order, and was formed from the remnants of the Order of the Sword in 1237. The order waged wars against Lithuania and Russia. The members of the order were "brothers-knights" (warriors), "brothers-priests" (clergy) and "serving-brothers" (squires-artisans). The Knights of the Order were given the rights of the Knights Templar (templars). Distinguishing mark its members wore a white robe with a red cross and a sword on it. The battle between the Livonians and the Novgorod army on Lake Peipus decided the outcome of the campaign in favor of the Russians. It also marked the actual death of the Livonian Order itself. Each student will enthusiastically tell how during the battle famous prince Alexander Nevsky and his comrades killed and drowned almost all the clumsy, ponderous knights in the lake and freed the Russian lands from the German conquerors.

If we abstract from the traditional version set forth in all school and some university textbooks, then it turns out that about famous battle, which went down in history under the name of the Battle on the Ice, practically nothing is known.

Historians to this day break spears in disputes about what were the reasons for the battle? Where exactly did the battle take place? Who took part in it? And was she at all?

Further, I would like to present two not entirely traditional versions, one of which is based on an analysis of well-known chronicle sources about the Battle of the Ice and concerns the assessment of its role and significance by contemporaries. Another was born as a result of the search by amateur enthusiasts for the immediate place of the battle, about which neither archaeologists nor specialist historians still have an unambiguous opinion.

Imagined battle?

"Battle on the Ice" is reflected in the mass of sources. First of all, this is a complex of the Novgorod-Pskov chronicles and the "Life" of Alexander Nevsky, which exists in more than twenty editions; then - the most complete and ancient Laurentian chronicle, which included a number of chronicles of the XIII century, as well as Western sources - numerous Livonian chronicles.

However, analyzing domestic and foreign sources for many centuries, historians have not been able to come to a consensus: do they tell about a specific battle that took place in 1242 on Lake Peipsi, or are they about different ones?

Most domestic sources it is recorded that on April 5, 1242, some kind of battle took place on Lake Peipus (or in its area). But to establish reliably its causes, the number of troops, their formation, composition - on the basis of annals and chronicles is not possible. How did the battle develop, who distinguished themselves in the battle, how many Livonians and Russians died? There is no data. How, finally, did Alexander Nevsky prove himself in battle, who is still called the “savior of the fatherland” today? Alas! There are still no answers to any of these questions.

Domestic sources about the Battle of the Ice

The obvious contradictions that are contained in the Novgorod-Pskov and Suzdal chronicles telling about the Battle of the Ice can be explained by the constant rivalry between Novgorod and the Vladimir-Suzdal lands, as well as the difficult relationship between the Yaroslavich brothers - Alexander and Andrei.

The Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, as you know, saw his youngest son, Andrei, as his successor. In Russian historiography, there is a version that the father wanted to get rid of the elder Alexander, and therefore sent him to reign in Novgorod. The Novgorod "table" at that time was considered almost a block for the Vladimir princes. political life the city was ruled by the boyar "veche", and the prince was only a governor, who, in case of external danger, should lead the squad and the militia.

According to the official version of the Novgorod First Chronicle (NPL), for some reason the Novgorodians expelled Alexander from Novgorod after the victorious Battle of the Neva (1240). And when the knights of the Livonian Order captured Pskov and Koporye, they again asked the Vladimir prince to send Alexander to them.

Yaroslav, on the contrary, intended to send for permission difficult situation Andrei, whom he trusted more, but the Novgorodians insisted on the candidacy of Nevsky. There is also a version that the story of the "expulsion" of Alexander from Novgorod is fictional and later. Perhaps it was invented by the "biographers" of Nevsky to justify the surrender of Izborsk, Pskov and Koporye to the Germans. Yaroslav was afraid that Alexander would open the Novgorod gates in the same way to the enemy, but in 1241 he managed to recapture the fortress of Koporye from the Livonians, and then take Pskov. However, some sources attribute the date of the liberation of Pskov to the beginning of 1242, when the Vladimir-Suzdal army, led by his brother Andrei Yaroslavich, had already arrived to help Nevsky, and some - to 1244.

According to modern researchers, based on the Livonian chronicles and other foreign sources, the Koporye fortress surrendered to Alexander Nevsky without a fight, and the Pskov garrison consisted of only two Livonian knights with their squires, armed servants and some militiamen from local peoples who joined them (Chud, water, etc.). The composition of the entire Livonian Order in the 40s of the XIII century could not exceed 85-90 knights. That is how many castles at that moment existed on the territory of the Order. One castle, as a rule, put up one knight with squires.

The earliest domestic source that has come down to us mentioning the Battle on the Ice is the Laurentian Chronicle, written by a Suzdal chronicler. It does not mention the participation of the Novgorodians in the battle at all, but as the main actor Prince Andrew speaks:

“Grand Duke Yaroslav sent his son Andrei to Novgorod to help Alexander against the Germans. Having won over Pskov on the lake and taking many prisoners, Andrei returned with honor to his father.

The authors of numerous editions of the "Life" of Alexander Nevsky, on the contrary, argue that it was after "Battle on the Ice" the name of Alexander became famous "in all countries from the Varangian Sea and to the Pontic Sea, and to the Egyptian Sea, and to the country of Tiberias, and to the mountains of Ararat, even to Rome the Great ...".

According to the Laurentian Chronicle, it turns out that even his closest relatives did not suspect Alexander's worldwide fame.

Most detailed story about the battle is contained in the Novgorod First Chronicle (NPL). It is believed that in the earliest list of this chronicle (Synodal), the record of the "Battle on the Ice" was made already in the 30s of the XIV century. The Novgorod chronicler does not mention in a word about the participation in the battle of Prince Andrei and the Vladimir-Suzdal squad:

“Alexander and the Novgorodians built regiments on Lake Peipus on Uzmen near the Raven Stone. And the Germans and Chud ran into the regiment, and made their way like a pig through the regiment. And there was a great slaughter of the Germans and Chudi. God helped Prince Alexander. The enemy was driven and beaten seven versts to the Subolichi coast. And countless Chudi fell, and 400 Germans(later scribes rounded this figure to 500, and in this form it entered the history books). Fifty prisoners were brought to Novgorod. The battle took place on the fifth of April on Saturday.

In later versions of the "Life" of Alexander Nevsky ( late XVI centuries) deliberately eliminated discrepancies with the annalistic news, adding details borrowed from the NPL: the place of the battle, its course and data on losses. The number of killed enemies increases from edition to edition up to 900 (!). In some editions of the "Life" (and there are more than twenty of them in total), there are reports of participation in the battle of the master of the Order and his capture, as well as an absurd fiction that the knights drowned in the water because they were too heavy.

Many historians, who have analyzed in detail the texts of the "Life" of Alexander Nevsky, noted that the description of the massacre in the "Life" gives the impression of a clear literary borrowing. V. I. Mansikka (“The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, St. Petersburg, 1913) believed that the description of the battle between Yaroslav the Wise and Svyatopolk the Accursed was used in the story about the Battle on the Ice. Georgy Fedorov notes that the "Life" of Alexander "is a military heroic story inspired by Roman-Byzantine historical literature (Paleia, Josephus Flavius)", and the description of the "Battle on the Ice" is a tracing of Titus's victory over the Jews at the Lake of Gennesaret from the third book of the "History of the Jewish War" by Josephus Flavius.

I. Grekov and F. Shakhmagonov believe that "the appearance of the battle in all its positions is very similar to the famous battle of Cannes" ("The World of History", p. 78). In general, the story about the "Battle on the Ice" from the early edition of the "Life" of Alexander Nevsky is just common place, which can be successfully applied to the description of any battle.

In the 13th century, there were many battles that could become a source of “literary borrowing” for the authors of the story about the “Battle on the Ice”. For example, ten years before the expected date of writing the "Life" (80s of the XIII century), February 16, 1270, there was a major battle between the Livonian knights and the Lithuanians at Karusen. It also took place on ice, but not on the lake, but on the Gulf of Riga. And his description in the Livonian rhymed chronicle, like two drops of water, is similar to the description of the “Battle on the Ice” in the NPL.

In the Battle of Karusen, as in the Battle of the Ice, the knightly cavalry attacks the center, where the cavalry "gets stuck" in the carts, and bypassing the flanks the enemy completes their defeat. At the same time, in neither case, the winners do not try to somehow take advantage of the result of the defeat of the enemy army, but calmly go home with booty.

Version of the Livonians

The Livonian rhymed chronicle (LRH), telling about a certain battle with the Novgorod-Suzdal army, tends to present not the knights of the order as aggressors, but their opponents - Prince Alexander and his brother Andrei. The authors of the chronicle constantly emphasize the superior forces of the Russians and the small number of knightly troops. According to LRH, the loss of the Order in the Battle of the Ice amounted to twenty knights. Six were taken prisoner. This chronicle does not say anything about the date or place of the battle, but the minstrel's words that the dead fell on the grass (ground) allow us to conclude that the battle was fought not on the ice of the lake, but on land. If "grass" (gras) the author of the Chronicle does not understand figuratively (German idiomatic expression- “fall on the battlefield”), but literally, it turns out that the battle took place when the ice on the lakes had already melted, or the opponents fought not on ice, but in coastal reeds:

“In Derpt they learned that Prince Alexander had come with an army to the land of knight brothers, fixing robberies and fires. The bishop ordered the men of the bishopric to hasten to the army of the brother-knights to fight against the Russians. They brought too few people, the army of knight brothers was also too small. However, they agreed to attack the Russians. The Russians had many shooters who courageously accepted the first onslaught. It was evident how a detachment of knight brothers defeated the shooters; there was the sound of swords, and helmets could be seen splitting. On both sides, the dead fell on the grass. Those who were in the army of knight brothers were surrounded. The Russians had such an army that perhaps sixty people attacked each German. The knight brothers stubbornly resisted, but they were defeated there. Some of the Derptians escaped by leaving the battlefield. Twenty knight brothers were killed there, and six were taken prisoner. That was the course of the battle."

The author of LRH does not express the slightest admiration for Alexander's military talents. The Russians managed to encircle part of the Livonian army, not thanks to the talent of Alexander, but because there were much more Russians than Livonians. Even with an overwhelming numerical superiority over the enemy, according to LRH, the troops of the Novgorodians could not surround the entire Livonian army: part of the Derptians escaped by retreating from the battlefield. Only a small part of the "Germans" - 26 brothers-knights, who preferred death to a shameful flight, got into the environment.

A later source, The Chronicle of Hermann Wartberg, was written one hundred and fifty years after the events of 1240-1242. It contains, rather, an assessment by the descendants of the defeated knights of the significance that the war with the Novgorodians had on the fate of the Order. The author of the chronicle tells about the capture and subsequent loss of Izborsk and Pskov by the Order as major events of this war. However, the Chronicle does not mention any battle on the ice of Lake Peipus.

Ryussov's Livonian Chronicle, published in 1848 on the basis of earlier editions, says that during the time of Master Konrad (Grand Master of the Teutonic Order in 1239-1241, he died from wounds received in the battle with the Prussians on April 9, 1241) in Novgorod was king Alexander. He (Alexander) learned that under Master Herman von Salt (Master of the Teutonic Order in 1210-1239), the Teutons captured Pskov. With big army Alexander takes Pskov. The Germans fight hard, but are defeated. Seventy knights died with many Germans. Six brother knights are captured and tortured to death.

Some domestic historians interpret the messages of the Ryussov Chronicle in the sense that seventy knights, whose death he mentions, fell during the capture of Pskov. But it's not right. In the Ryussov Chronicle, all the events of 1240-1242 are combined into one whole. This Chronicle does not mention such events as the capture of Izborsk, the defeat of the Pskov army near Izborsk, the construction of a fortress in Koporye and its capture by the Novgorodians, the Russian invasion of Livonia. Thus, "seventy knights and many Germans" is total losses Orders (more precisely, Livonians and Danes) for the entire time of the war.

Another difference between the Livonian Chronicles and the NPL is the number and fate of the captured knights. Ryussov's chronicle reports six prisoners, and the Novgorod chronicle reports fifty. The captured knights, whom Alexander proposes to exchange for soap in Eisenstein's film, were "tortured to death" according to LRH. The NPL writes that the Germans offered peace to the Novgorodians, one of the conditions of which was the exchange of prisoners: “what if we captured your husbands, we will exchange them: we will let yours in, and you will let us in.” But did the captured knights live to see the exchange? There is no information about their fate in Western sources.

Judging by the Livonian chronicles, the clash with the Russians in Livonia was a secondary event for the knights of the Teutonic Order. It is reported only in passing, and the death of the Livonian Laidmastership of the Teutons (Livonian Order) in the battle on Lake Peipsi does not find any confirmation at all. The order continued to exist successfully until the 16th century (it was destroyed during Livonian War in 1561).

Place of battle

according to I.E. Koltsov

Until the end of the 20th century, the places of burial of soldiers who died during the Battle of the Ice remained unknown, as well as the place of the battle itself. Landmarks of the place where the battle took place are indicated in the Novgorod First Chronicle (NPL): "On Lake Peipsi, near the tract Uzmen, near the Raven Stone." Local legends specify that the battle was just outside the village of Samolva. In the ancient chronicles, there is no mention of the Voronii Island (or any other island) near the place of the battle. They talk about the battle on the ground, on the grass. Ice is mentioned only in later editions of Alexander Nevsky's Life.

The past centuries have weathered from the history and memory of people information about the location of mass graves, the Raven Stone, the Uzmen tract and the degree of population of these places. For many centuries, the Raven Stone and other buildings have been wiped off the face of the earth in these places. Elevations and monuments of mass graves were leveled with the surface of the earth. The attention of historians was attracted by the name of the Voronii Island, where they hoped to find the Voronii Stone. The hypothesis that the massacre took place near the island of Voronii was taken as the main version, although it contradicted chronicle sources and common sense. The question remained unclear which way Nevsky went to Livonia (after the liberation of Pskov), and from there to the site of the upcoming battle at the Vorony stone, near the Uzmen tract, outside the village of Samolva (it must be understood that with opposite side from Pskov).

Reading existing interpretation The battle on the ice, the question involuntarily arises: why did the troops of Nevsky, as well as the heavy cavalry of the knights, have to go through Lake Peipsi on spring ice to Voronii Island, where the water does not freeze in many places even in severe frosts? It should be taken into account that the beginning of April for these places is a warm period of time. Testing the hypothesis about the location of the battle near Voronii Island dragged on for many decades. This time was enough for it to take a firm place in all history textbooks, including military ones. Our future historians, military men, commanders gain knowledge from these textbooks... Given the low validity of this version, in 1958 a comprehensive expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences was created to determine the true location of the battle on April 5, 1242. The expedition worked from 1958 to 1966. Large-scale studies were carried out, a number of interesting discoveries were made that expanded knowledge about this region, about the presence of an extensive network of ancient waterways between Chudskoye and Ilmen lakes. However, it was not possible to find the burial places of the soldiers who died in the Battle of the Ice, as well as the Raven Stone, the Uzmen tract and traces of the battle (including the Voronii Island). This is clearly stated in the report of the complex expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The secret remained unsolved.

After that, allegations appeared that in ancient times the dead were taken with them for burial in their homeland, therefore, they say, burials cannot be found. But did they take all the dead with them? How did they deal with the dead enemy soldiers, with the dead horses? A clear answer was not given to the question why Prince Alexander went from Livonia not under the protection of the walls of Pskov, but to the region of Lake Peipsi - to the place of the upcoming battle. At the same time, for some reason, historians paved the way for Alexander Nevsky and the knights through Lake Peipsi, ignoring the presence of an ancient crossing near the village of Bridges in the south of Lake Warm. The history of the Battle on the Ice is of interest to many local historians and lovers of national history.

For many years, a group of Moscow enthusiasts-lovers of the ancient history of Russia with the direct participation of I.E. Koltsov. The task before this group was, it would seem, almost insoluble. It was necessary to find burial places hidden in the ground related to this battle, the remains of the Raven Stone, the Uzmen tract, etc., hidden in the ground in a large area of ​​the Gdovsky district of the Pskov region. It was necessary to "look" inside the earth and choose what was directly related to the Battle of the Ice. Using methods and instruments widely used in geology and archeology (including dowsing, etc.), the group members plotted on the terrain plan the alleged sites of the mass graves of the soldiers of both sides who fell in this battle. These burials are located in two zones to the east of the village of Samolva. One of the zones is located half a kilometer north of the village of Tabory and one and a half kilometers from Samolva. The second zone with the largest number of burials is 1.5-2 km north of the village of Tabory and about 2 km east of Samolva.

It can be assumed that the knights were wedged into the ranks of Russian soldiers in the area of ​​the first burial (the first zone), and in the area of ​​the second zone the main battle and encirclement of the knights took place. The encirclement and defeat of the knights was facilitated by additional troops from the Suzdal archers, who arrived here the day before from Novgorod, led by A. Nevsky's brother, Andrei Yaroslavich, but who were in ambush before the battle. Studies have shown that in those distant times in the area south of the village of Kozlovo (more precisely, between Kozlov and Tabory) there was some kind of fortified outpost of the Novgorodians. It is possible that there was an old "gorodets" (before the transfer, or the construction of a new gorodets on the site where Kobylye Gorodishe is now located). This outpost (gorodets) was located 1.5-2 km from the village of Tabory. He was hidden behind the trees. Here, behind the earthen ramparts of the fortification that no longer exists, was the detachment of Andrei Yaroslavich, hidden in an ambush before the battle. It was here, and only here, that Prince Alexander Nevsky sought to unite with him. At a critical moment in the battle, an ambush regiment could go behind the knights, surround them and ensure victory. This was repeated later during the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.

The discovery of the burial area of ​​the dead soldiers made it possible to draw a confident conclusion that the battle took place here, between the villages of Tabory, Kozlovo and Samolva. The place is relatively flat. Troops of Nevsky from the northwestern side (according to right hand) were protected by the weak spring ice Lake Peipus, and on the eastern side (along left hand) - a wooded part, where fresh forces of Novgorodians and Suzdalians, who settled in a fortified town, were in ambush. The knights advanced from the south side (from the village of Tabory). Not knowing about the Novgorod reinforcements and feeling their military superiority in strength, they, without hesitation, rushed into battle, falling into the "nets" set up. From here it can be seen that the battle itself was on land, not far from the shore of Lake Peipus. By the end of the battle, the knightly army was driven back to the spring ice of the Zhelchinskaya Bay of Lake Peipsi, where many of them died. Their remains and weapons are now located half a kilometer northwest of the Church of Kobylye Gorodische at the bottom of this bay.

Our research also determined the location of the former Raven Stone on the northern outskirts of the village of Tabory - one of the main landmarks of the Battle of the Ice. Centuries have destroyed the stone, but its underground part still rests under the layers of cultural layers of the earth. This stone is represented on the miniature of the Chronicle of the Battle on the Ice in the form of a stylized statue of a raven. In ancient times, it had a cult purpose, symbolizing wisdom and longevity, like the legendary Blue Stone, which is located in the city of Pereslavl-Zalessky on the shores of Lake Pleshcheyevo.

In the area where the remains of the Raven Stone were located, there was an ancient temple with underground passages that also went to the Uzmen tract, where there were fortifications. Traces of former ancient underground structures testify to the fact that there were once also ground-based religious and other structures made of stone and brick.

Now, knowing the burial places of the soldiers of the Battle of the Ice (the place of the battle) and again referring to the chronicle materials, it can be argued that Alexander Nevsky with his troops went to the area of ​​the upcoming battle (to the Samolva area) from the south side, on the heels of which the knights followed. In the "Novgorod First Chronicle of the Senior and Junior Editions" it is said that, having freed Pskov from the knights, Nevsky himself went to the possessions of the Livonian Order (pursuing the knights to the west of Lake Pskov), where he let his soldiers live. The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle testifies that the invasion was accompanied by fires and the removal of people and livestock. Upon learning of this, the Livonian bishop sent troops of knights to meet them. The stopping point of Nevsky was somewhere halfway between Pskov and Derpt, not far from the border of the confluence of the Pskov and Warm lakes. There was a traditional crossing near the village of Bridges. A. Nevsky, in turn, having found out about the performance of the knights, did not return to Pskov, but, having crossed to the eastern shore of the Warm Lake, hurried northward to the Uzmen tract, leaving a detachment of Domash and Kerbet in the rear guard. This detachment entered into battle with the knights and was defeated. The burial place of warriors from the detachment of Domash and Kerbet is located at the southeastern outskirts of Chudskiye Zahody.

Academician Tikhomirov M.N. believed that the first skirmish between the detachment of Domash and Kerbet and the knights took place on the eastern shore of the Warm Lake near the village of Chudskaya Rudnitsa (see "Battle on the Ice", ed. of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, series "History and Philosophy", M., 1951, No. 1 , vol. VII, pp. 89-91). This area is much south of vil. Samolva. The knights also crossed over at the Bridges, pursuing A. Nevsky to the village of Tabory, where the battle began.

The place of the Battle of the Ice in our time is located away from busy roads. You can get here on the overhead, and then on foot. This is probably why many authors of numerous articles and scientific works we have never been to Lake Peipus about this battle, preferring the silence of an office and a fantasy far from life. It is curious that this area near Lake Peipus is interesting in historical, archaeological and other terms. In these places there are ancient burial mounds, mysterious dungeons, etc. There are also periodic appearances of UFOs and the mysterious Bigfoot (north of the Zhelcha River). So, an important stage of work has been carried out to determine the location of the mass graves (burials) of the soldiers who died in the Battle of the Ice, the remains of the Raven Stone, the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe old and new settlements and a number of other objects associated with the battle. More detailed studies of the battle area are now needed. It's up to the archaeologists.

The tenth century in densely populated - by medieval standards, of course - Western Europe was marked by the beginning of expansion. In the future, from century to century, this expansion expanded, taking the most diverse forms.

The European peasant, bent under the burden of obligations to the seigneur, dared to invade the unruly forests. He cut down trees, cleared the land of bushes, and drained the swamps to produce additional arable land.

The Europeans pressed the Saracens (the Arabs who captured Spain), there was a reconquista ("reconquest" of Spain).

Inspired by the lofty idea of ​​the liberation of the Holy Sepulcher and overwhelmed by a thirst for wealth and new lands, the crusaders stepped into the Levant - that was the name in the Middle Ages of the territories located along the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

The European "onslaught to the east" began; villagers, skilled urban craftsmen, experienced merchants, knights en masse appeared in the Slavic countries, for example, in Poland and the Czech Republic, began to settle and settle down there. This contributed to the rise of the economy, social and cultural life of the Eastern European countries, but at the same time created problems, creating rivalry and confrontation between the newcomer and the indigenous population. A particularly large wave of immigrants poured in from the German lands, where the rulers of the German Empire (following Emperor Frederick Barbarossa) supported the "onslaught on the East."

Soon the eyes of Europeans were riveted to the Baltic states. It was perceived as a forest desert, slightly populated by wild Letto-Lithuanian and Finno-Ugric pagan tribes who did not know state power. Russia and the Scandinavian countries have been expanding here since ancient times. They colonized the border regions. Tribute was imposed on the local tribes. Back in the time of Yaroslav the Wise, the Russians built their fortress Yuryev behind Lake Peipus in the land of the Finno-Ests (named after the given Yaroslav the Wise at the baptism of the name George). The Swedes advanced into the possessions of the Finns until they reached the borders of the Karelian land controlled by Novgorod.

AT late XII - early XIII centuries, people from the west of Europe appeared in the Baltic states. Catholic missionaries bearing the word of Christ came first. In 1184, the monk Meinard unsuccessfully tried to convert the Livs (ancestors of modern Latvians) to Catholicism. The monk Berthold in 1198 preached Christianity already with the help of the swords of the crusader knights. Bremen canon Albert, sent by the Pope, seized the mouth of the Dvina and founded Riga in 1201. A year later, on the Livonian lands conquered around Riga, an order of monk-knights was created. He called Order of the Sword in the form of a long cross, more like a sword. In 1215-1216 the swordsmen captured Estonia. This was preceded by their struggle with the Russians and Lithuanian princes, as well as enmity with Denmark, which from the beginning of the XII century claimed Estonia.

In 1212, the sword-bearers came close to the borders of the Pskov and Novgorod lands. Mstislav Udaloy, who reigned in Novgorod, successfully resisted them. Then, during the reign of father Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in Novgorod, the swordsmen were defeated near Yuryev (modern Tartu). The city remained with the crusaders, provided that tribute was paid to Novgorod (Yuriev tribute). By 1219, Denmark had conquered Northern Estonia, but after 5 years the swordsmen regained it.

The activity of the Crusaders pushed the Lithuanian tribes (Lithuania, Zhmud) to unite. They, the only of the Baltic peoples, began to form their own state.

In the land of the Baltic tribe of the Prussians, which was located near the Polish border, another order of the crusaders, the Teutonic Order, was founded. Previously, he was in Palestine, but the Polish king invited the Teutons to the Baltic states, hoping for their help in the fight against the pagan Prussians. The Teutons soon began to seize Polish possessions. As for the Prussians, they were exterminated.

But the defeat in 1234 from the father of Alexander Nevsky Yaroslav, and in 1236 from the Lithuanians led to the reform of the Order of the Sword. In 1237 it became a branch of the Teutonic Order, and it became known as Livonian.

The Batu invasion gave rise to the hope among the crusaders that expansion could be expanded to the northern lands of the Orthodox, who in the West had long been considered heretics after the split of the churches in 1054. Lord Veliky Novgorod was especially attractive. But not only the crusaders were seduced by the Novgorod land. She was also interested in the Swedes.

Mr. Veliky Novgorod and Sweden fought more than once when their interests in the Baltics clashed. In the late 1230s, news was received in Novgorod that the son-in-law of the Swedish king, Jarl (the title of the Swedish nobility), Birger, was preparing a raid on Novgorod possessions. Alexander, the 19-year-old son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, was then the prince in Novgorod. He ordered the Izhorian elder Pelgusius to watch the coast and report the invasion of the Swedes. As a result, when the Scandinavian boats entered the Neva and stopped at the place where the Izhora River flows into it, Prince Novgorodsky was notified in time. July 15, 1240 Alexander arrived at the Neva and, with the forces of a small Novgorod detachment and his squad, unexpectedly attacked the enemy.

Against the backdrop of the devastation of northeastern Russia by the Mongol Khan Batu, this battle opened a circle that was difficult for contemporaries: Alexander brought victory to Russia and, along with it, hope, faith in one's own strength! This victory brought him honorary title Nevsky.

Confidence that the Russians are capable of winning victories helped to survive in the difficult days of 1240, when a more dangerous enemy, the Livonian Order, invaded Novgorod. The ancient Izborsk fell. The Pskov traitors opened the gates to the enemy. The crusaders scattered over the Novgorod land and plundered in the vicinity of Novgorod. Not far from Novgorod, the Crusaders built a fortified outpost, carried out raids near Luga and Sabelny Pogost, which was located 40 versts from Novgorod.

Alexander was not in Novgorod. He quarreled with independent Novgorodians and left for Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Under the pressure of circumstances, the Novgorodians began to ask the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav for help. The Novgorodians wanted to see Alexander Nevsky at the head of the Suzdal regiments. Grand Duke Yaroslav sent another son, Andrei, with a cavalry detachment, but the Novgorodians stood their ground. In the end, Alexander arrived, brought his Pereyaslav squad and the Vladimir-Suzdal militia, which consisted mainly of peasants. Gathered regiments and Novgorodians.

In 1241, the Russians launched an offensive, recapturing Koporye from the crusaders. The fortress erected by the knights in Koporye was destroyed. In the winter of 1242, Alexander Nevsky unexpectedly appeared near Pskov and liberated the city.

Russian troops entered the Order, but soon their vanguard was defeated by the knights. Alexander led the regiments to the eastern shore of Lake Peipus and decided to give battle.

April 5, 1242 of the year there was a great battle on the melted ice. The Russians stood in the traditional "eagle": in the center a regiment consisting of Vladimir-Suzdal militia, on the sides - regiments of the right and left hands - heavily armed Novgorod infantry and princely cavalry squads. The peculiarity was that a significant mass of troops was located precisely on the flanks, usually the center was the strongest. Behind the militia was a steep bank covered with boulders. On the ice in front of the shore they put the sleigh of the convoy, fastened with chains. This made the coast completely impassable for knightly horses and was supposed to keep the cowardly in the Russian camp from fleeing. At the islet of Voronii Kamen, an equestrian squad stood in ambush.

The knights moved on the Russians "boar head". It was a special system, more than once bringing success to the crusaders. In the center of the "boar's head" walked, closing ranks, foot soldiers-bollards. On the sides of them and behind them in 2-3 rows rode riders clad in armor, their horses also had shells. Ahead, tapering to a point, moved the ranks of the most experienced knights. "Boar's head", nicknamed by the Russians "pig", rammed the enemy, broke through the defense. Knights with spears, battle axes, swords destroyed the enemy. When he was defeated, infantry bollards were released, finishing off the wounded and fleeing.

The chronicle story about the battle on the ice reports "the speed of the cutting of evil, and the crackling from the spears, and the breaking, and the sound from the sword cut."

The knights crushed the Russian center and spun on the spot, breaking their own formation. They had nowhere to move. From the flanks, the “regiments of the right and left hands” pressed on the knights. As if they were squeezing the “pig” with ticks. There were many casualties on both sides of the fighting. The ice turned red with blood. The enemy suffered mainly infantry. It was difficult to kill a knight. But if he was pulled off his horse, he became defenseless - the weight of the armor did not allow him to stand up and move.

Suddenly the April ice cracked. The knights mingled. Those who fell into the water went like a stone to the bottom. The troops of Alexander Nevsky struck with redoubled energy. The crusaders ran. Russian horsemen pursued them for several kilometers.

The ice slash was won. The Crusaders' plan to establish themselves in Northern Russia failed.

In 1243, ambassadors of the Order arrived in Novgorod. Peace was signed. The crusaders recognized the borders of the Lord Veliky Novgorod as inviolable, promised to regularly pay tribute to St. George. The conditions for the ransom of several dozen knights who were captured were agreed. Alexander led these noble captives from Pskov to Novgorod near their horses, bare-shod, bare-headed, with a rope around their necks. It was impossible to think of a greater insult to knightly honor.

In the future, between Novgorod, Pskov and the Livonian Order there were more than once military skirmishes, but the border of the possessions of both sides remained stable. For the possession of Yuryev, the Order continued to pay tribute to Novgorod, and from the end of the 15th century - to the Moscow united Russian state.

In political and moral terms, the victory over the Swedes and the knights of the Livonian Order was very important: the scale of the Western European onslaught on the northwestern borders of Russia decreased. The victories of Alexander Nevsky over the Swedes and the Crusaders interrupted the series of defeats of the Russian troops.

For Orthodox Church especially important was the prevention of Catholic influence in the Russian lands. It is worth remembering that the crusade of 1204 ended with the capture by the crusaders of Constantinople, the capital of the Orthodox empire, which considered itself the Second Rome. For more than half a century, the Latin Empire existed on Byzantine territory. The Orthodox Greeks "huddled" in Nicaea, from where they tried to win back their possessions from the Western crusaders. The Tatars, on the contrary, were allies of the Orthodox Greeks in their struggle against the Islamic and Turkish onslaught on the eastern Byzantine borders. According to the practice that has developed since the 10th century, most of the highest hierarchs of the Russian Church were Greek or southern Slavs coming to Russia from Byzantium. The head of the Russian church - the metropolitan - was appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Naturally, the interests of the universal Orthodox Church were above all for the leadership of the Russian Church. The Catholics seemed much more dangerous than the Tatars. It is no coincidence that before Sergius of Radonezh (second half of the 14th century), not a single prominent church hierarch blessed the fight against the Tatars and did not call for it. The invasion of Batu and the Tatar rati were interpreted by the clergy as the "scourge of God", the punishment of the Orthodox for their sins.

It was church tradition that created around the name of Alexander Nevsky, canonized after death, the halo of an ideal prince, warrior, "sufferer" (fighter) for the Russian land. So he entered the popular mentality. In this case, Prince Alexander is in many ways a "brother" of Richard the Lionheart. The legendary "twins" of both monarchs obscured their real historical images. In both cases, the "legend" is far removed from the original prototype.

Meanwhile, in serious science, disputes about the role of Alexander Nevsky in Russian history do not subside. The position of Alexander in relation to the Golden Horde, his participation in the organization of the Nevryuev rati of 1252 and the spread of the Horde yoke to Novgorod, the cruel reprisals characteristic of Alexander in the fight against his opponents, even for that time, cause conflicting judgments regarding the results of the activities of this undoubtedly bright hero of Russian history. .

For Eurasians and L.N. Gumilyov Alexander is a far-sighted politician who correctly chose an alliance with the Horde, turning his back on the West.

For other historians (for example, I.N. Danilevsky), the role of Alexander in Russian history is rather negative. This role is the actual conductor of the Horde dependence.

Some historians, including S.M. Solovieva, V.O. Klyuchevsky, does not at all consider the Horde yoke "a union useful for Russia", but notes that Russia did not have the strength to fight. Supporters of continuing the fight against the Horde - Daniil Galitsky and Prince Andrei Yaroslavich, despite the nobility of their impulse, were doomed to defeat. Alexander Nevsky, on the contrary, was aware of the realities and was forced, as a politician, to seek a compromise with the Horde in the name of the survival of the Russian land.

Taking advantage of the fact that after the devastation of North-Eastern Russia by the Mongols, Novgorod and Pskov had nowhere to wait for help, the Swedish and German knights stepped up their expansion into Northwestern Russia hoping for an easy win. The Swedes were the first to make an attempt to seize Russian lands. In 1238 swedish king Erich Burr received permission ("blessing") from the Pope for a crusade against the Novgorodians. All who agreed to take part in the campaign were promised absolution.
In 1239, the Swedes and Germans were negotiating, outlining the plan of the campaign: the Swedes, who had captured Finland by that time, were to advance on Novgorod from the north, from the Neva River, and the Germans - through Izborsk and Pskov. Sweden allocated an army for the campaign led by Jarl (Prince) Ulf Fasi and the king's son-in-law, Jarl Birger, the future founder of Stockholm.
Novgorodians knew about the plans of the Swedes, as well as that the Swedes were going to baptize them, as if they were pagans, in the Catholic faith. Therefore, the Swedes, who went to plant an alien faith, seemed to them more terrible than the Mongols.
In the summer of 1240, the Swedish army under the command of Birger "in great strength, puffing with the spirit of the military", appeared on the Neva River on ships that stopped at the mouth of the Izhora River. The army consisted of Swedes, Norwegians, representatives of the Finnish tribes, who intended to go straight to Ladoga in order to go down to Novgorod from there. Catholic bishops were also in the conquering army. They walked with a cross in one hand and a sword in the other. Having landed on the shore, the Swedes and their allies pitched their tents and tents at the confluence of the Izhora with the Neva. Birger, confident in his victory, sent a statement to Prince Alexander: "If you can resist me, then I'm already here, fighting your land."
Novgorod borders at that time were guarded by "watchmen". They were also on the sea coast, where local tribes served. So, in the area of ​​the Neva, on both banks of the Gulf of Finland, there was a "sea watchman" of the Izhora, who guarded the routes to Novgorod from the sea. The Izhorians had already converted to Orthodoxy and were an ally of Novgorod. Once, at dawn on a July day in 1240, the elder of the Izhos land, Pelgusy, while on patrol, discovered the Swedish flotilla and hastily sent Alexander to report everything.
Having received news of the appearance of the enemy, the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavovich decided to suddenly attack him. There was no time to muster the troops, and the convening of a veche (people's assembly) could drag out the matter and lead to a disruption of the suddenness of the impending operation. Therefore, Alexander did not wait until the squads sent by his father Yaroslav came, or the warriors from the Novgorod lands gathered. He decided to oppose the Swedes with his squad, reinforcing it only with Novgorod volunteers. According to the old custom, they gathered at the Cathedral of St. Sophia, prayed, received a blessing from their master Spiridon and set out on a campaign. They walked along the Volkhov River to Ladoga, where a detachment of Ladoga residents, allies of Veliky Novgorod, joined Alexander. From Ladoga, Alexander's army turned to the mouth of the Izhora River.

The Swedish camp, set up at the mouth of the Izhora, was not guarded, since the Swedes did not suspect the approach of Russian troops. The enemy ships rocked, tied to the shore; tents were white all along the coast, and between them was Birger's golden-domed tent. On July 15, at 11 am, the Novgorodians suddenly attacked the Swedes. Their attack was so unexpected that the Swedes did not have time to "gird their swords on their loins."
Birger's army was taken by surprise. Deprived of the opportunity to line up for battle, it could not offer organized resistance. With a bold onslaught, the Russian squad passed through the enemy camp and drove the Swedes to the shore. The foot militias, advancing along the banks of the Neva, not only cut down the bridges that connected the Swedish ships with land, but even captured and destroyed three enemy ships.
Novgorodians fought "in the fury of their courage." Alexander personally "beat up countless Swedes and stamp the king himself on his face with your sharp sword." The prince's lieutenant, Gavrilo Oleksich, chased Birger all the way to the ship, broke into the Swedish boat on horseback, was thrown into the water, remained alive and again entered the battle, laying down the bishop and another noble Swede named Spiridon. Another Novgorodian, Sbyslav Yakunovich, with only one ax in his hand, boldly crashed into the very thick of the enemies, mowed them right and left, clearing the path, as if in a forest thicket. Behind him, the princely hunter Yakov Polochanin brandished his long sword. These fellows were followed by other warriors. The princely youth Savva, having made his way to the center of the enemy camp, cut down the high pillar of the tent of Birger himself: the tent fell down. A detachment of Novgorod volunteers sank three Swedish ships. Remains broken army Birger fled on the surviving ships. The losses of the Novgorodians were insignificant, amounting to 20 people, while the Swedes loaded three ships with the bodies of only noble people, and left the rest on the shore.
The victory over the Swedes had a great political significance. She showed all the Russian people that they have not yet lost their former prowess and can stand up for themselves. The Swedes failed to cut off Novgorod from the sea, capture the coast of the Neva and the Gulf of Finland. Repelling a Swedish attack from the north, Russian army disrupted the possible interaction of the Swedish and German conquerors. To combat German aggression, the right flank and rear of the Pskov theater of operations are now reliably secured.
In tactical terms, the role of the "watchman" should be noted, which discovered the enemy and promptly informed Alexander of his appearance. Of great importance was the surprise factor in the attack on Birger's camp, whose army was taken by surprise and could not offer organized resistance. The chronicler noted the extraordinary courage of Russian soldiers. For this victory, Prince Alexander Yaroslavich was called "Nevsky". At that time he was only twenty-one years old.

Battle on Lake Peipus ("Battle on the Ice") in 1242.

In the summer of 1240, German knights from the Livonian Order, created from the Orders of the Sword and the Teutonic Order, invaded the Novgorod land. Back in 1237, Pope Gregory IX blessed the German knights to conquer native Russian lands. The conquering army consisted of Germans, Medvezhans, Yuryevites and Danish knights from Revel. With them was a traitor - the Russian prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich. They appeared under the walls of Izborsk and took the city by storm. The people of Pskov rushed to help their countrymen, but their militia was defeated. Some of the killed were over 800 people, including the voivode Gavrila Gorislavich.
In the footsteps of those who had fled, the Germans approached Pskov, crossed the Velikaya River, set up their camp under the very walls of the Kremlin, set fire to the city and began to destroy churches and surrounding villages. For a whole week they kept the Kremlin under siege, preparing for an assault. But things did not come to this: a resident of Pskov, Tverdilo Ivanovich, surrendered the city. The knights took hostages and left their garrison in Pskov.
The appetite of the Germans increased. They have already said: "Let's reproach the Slovenian language ... to ourselves," that is, we will subdue the Russian people. In the winter of 1240-1241, the knights again appeared as uninvited guests in the Novgorod land. This time they seized the territory of the Vod (Vozhan) tribe, to the east of the Narva River, "they fought everything and laid tribute on them." Having captured the "Vodskaya Pyatina", the knights took possession of Tesovo (on the Oredezh River), and their patrols appeared 35 km from Novgorod. Thus, a vast territory in the region of Izborsk - Pskov - Sabel - Tesov - Koporye was in the hands of the Livonian Order.
The Germans had already considered the Russian border lands to be their property; the pope "handed over" the coast of the Neva and Karelia under the jurisdiction of the bishop of Ezel, who concluded an agreement with the knights: he negotiated for himself a tenth of everything that the land gives, and left everything else - fishing, mowing, arable land - to the knights.
Novgorodians again remembered Prince Alexander, already Nevsky, who left after a quarrel with the city boyars in his native Pereslavl-Zalessky. The Metropolitan of Novgorod himself went to ask the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to let his son go, and Yaroslav, realizing the danger of the threat emanating from the West, agreed: the matter concerned not only Novgorod, but all of Russia.
Alexander organized an army of Novgorodians, Ladoga, Karelians and Izhors. First of all, it was necessary to resolve the question of the method of action.

In the hands of the enemy were Pskov and Koporye. Alexander understood that the simultaneous performance in two directions would scatter forces. Therefore, having identified the Koporye direction as a priority - the enemy was approaching Novgorod - the prince decided to strike the first blow at Koporye, and then free Pskov from the invaders.
In 1241, the army under the command of Alexander set out on a campaign, reached Koporye, captured the fortress "and ejected the city from the base, and beat the Germans themselves, and bring others with you to Novgorod, and let others go, be more merciful than measure, and the leaders and I hanged (hung) the people of peretniks (i.e. traitors)". Vodskaya Pyatina was cleared of the Germans. The right flank and rear of the Novgorod army were now safe.
In March 1242, the Novgorodians again set out on a campaign and were soon near Pskov. Alexander, believing that he did not have enough strength to attack a strong fortress, was waiting for his brother Andrei Yaroslavich with the Suzdal squads, who soon approached. The Order did not have time to send reinforcements to their knights. Pskov was surrounded, and the knightly garrison was taken prisoner. Alexander sent the order's governors in chains to Novgorod. In the battle, 70 noble order brothers and many ordinary knights were killed.
After this defeat, the Order began to concentrate its forces within the Derpt bishopric, preparing an offensive against the Russians. The order gathered a great force: almost all of its knights were here with the master at the head, with all the bishops, a large number of local warriors, as well as the soldiers of the Swedish king.
Alexander decided to move the war to the territory of the Order itself. The Russian army marched on Izborsk. Forward, Prince Alexander Nevsky sent several reconnaissance detachments. One of them, under the command of the mayor's brother Domash Tverdislavich and Kerbet, ran into German knights and Chuds (Ests), was defeated and retreated; while Domash died. Meanwhile, reconnaissance found out that the enemy sent insignificant forces to Izborsk, and his main forces were moving towards Lake Peipus.
The Novgorod army turned to the lake, "the Germans and the Chud followed them." The Novgorodians tried to repel the roundabout maneuver of the German knights. Having reached Lake Peipus, the Novgorod army found itself in the center of possible enemy movement routes to Novgorod. Now Alexander decided to give battle and stopped at Lake Peipsi to the north of the Uzmen tract, near the island of Voronii Kamen. The forces of the Novgorodians were little more than the knight's army. According to various data available, it can be concluded that the army of German knights was 10-12 thousand, and the Novgorod army - 15-17 thousand people. According to L. N. Gumilyov, the number of knights was small - only a few dozen; they were supported by foot mercenaries armed with spears, and the allies of the Order - Livs.
At dawn on April 5, 1242, the knights lined up in a "wedge" or "pig". The wedge consisted of horsemen clad in armor and its task was to crush and break through the central part of the enemy troops, and the columns following the wedge were to crush the enemy flanks with coverage. In chain mail and helmets, with long swords, they seemed invulnerable. Alexander Nevsky countered this stereotypical tactics of the knights, with the help of which they won many victories, with a new formation of Russian troops, directly opposite to the traditional Russian system. Alexander concentrated the main forces not in the center ("chela"), as the Russian troops always did, but on the flanks. Ahead was the advanced regiment of light cavalry, archers and slingers. The battle formation of the Russians was facing the rear towards the steep, steep eastern shore of the lake, and the prince's cavalry squad hid in an ambush behind the left flank. The chosen position was advantageous in that the Germans, advancing along open ice, were deprived of the opportunity to determine the location, number and composition of the Russian troops.
Putting out long spears and breaking through the archers and the advanced regiment, the Germans attacked the center ("chelo") of the Russian battle formation. The center of the Russian troops was cut, and part of the soldiers retreated back and to the flanks. However, having stumbled upon the steep shore of the lake, the inactive, armored knights could not develop their success. On the contrary, the knightly cavalry crowded together, as the rear ranks of the knights pushed the front ranks, which had nowhere to turn around for battle.
The flanks of the Russian battle order ("wings") did not allow the Germans to build on the success of the operation. The German wedge was caught in pincers. At this time, Alexander's squad struck from the rear and completed the encirclement of the enemy. Several ranks of knights covering the wedge from the rear were crushed by the blow of the Russian heavy cavalry.
Warriors who had special spears with hooks pulled the knights off their horses; warriors armed with special knives disabled horses, after which the knight became easy prey. And as it is written in The Life of Alexander Nevsky, "there was a slash of evil, and a crack from spears of breaking, and a sound from a sword cut, as if a frozen lake would move. And it was impossible to see the ice: it was covered with blood."
Chud, who made up the bulk of the infantry, seeing his army surrounded, ran to his native shore. Some knights, together with the master, managed to break through the encirclement, and they tried to flee. The Russians pursued the fleeing enemy for 7 versts to the opposite shore of Lake Peipus. Already at the western coast, the runners began to fall through the ice, since the ice is always thinner near the coast. Pursuit of remnants broken enemy outside the battlefield was a new phenomenon in the development of Russian military art. Novgorodians did not celebrate the victory "on the bones", as was customary before.
German knights suffered a complete defeat. The question of the losses of the parties is still controversial. It is vague about Russian losses - "many brave warriors fell." In Russian chronicles it is written that 500 knights were killed, and Chudi countless, 50 noble knights were taken prisoner. In all the first crusade knights participated much less. In the German chronicles, the figures are much more modest. Recent research suggests that about 400 German soldiers actually fell on the ice of Lake Peipus, of which 20 were knight brothers, 90 Germans (of which 6 were "real" knights) were captured.
In the summer of 1242, the Order concluded a peace treaty with Novgorod, returning all the lands seized by him from him. The prisoners on both sides were exchanged.
"Battle on the Ice" was the first time in the history of military art, when a heavy knightly cavalry was defeated in a field battle by an army consisting mostly of infantry. The new battle order of the Russian troops, invented by Alexander Nevsky, turned out to be flexible, as a result of which it was possible to encircle the enemy, whose battle order was a sedentary mass. The infantry at the same time successfully interacted with the cavalry.
The death of so many professional soldiers greatly undermined the power of the Livonian Order in the Baltics. The victory over the German army on the ice of Lake Peipsi saved the Russian people from German enslavement and was of great political and military-strategic importance, delaying the further offensive Germans to the East, which was the main line of German policy from 1201 to 1241. This is the great historical significance of the Russian victory on April 5, 1242.

References.

1. Life of Alexander Nevsky.
2. 100 great battles / resp. ed. A. Agrashenkov and others - Moscow, 2000.
3. The World History. Crusaders and Mongols. - Volume 8 - Minsk, 2000.
4. Venkov A.V., Derkach S.V. Great generals and their battles. - Rostov-on-Don, 1999