What is the speed of electricity. What is the speed of the current in the conductor

Let us imagine a very long current circuit, for example, a telegraph line between two cities, separated from each other by, say, 1000 km. Careful experiments show that the effects of the current in the second city will begin to appear, i.e., the electrons in the conductors located there will begin to move, about seconds after their movement along the wires in the first city began. It is often said, not very strictly, but very clearly, that the current propagates through the wires at a speed of 300,000 km/s.

This, however, does not mean that the movement of charge carriers in the conductor occurs at this tremendous speed, so that the electron or ion, which was in our example in the first city, will reach the second in seconds. Not at all. The movement of carriers in a conductor is almost always very slow, at a speed of several millimeters per second, and often even less. We see, therefore, that it is necessary to carefully distinguish and not confuse the concepts of "current velocity" and "velocity of charge carriers".

In order to understand what, in fact, we mean when we speak of the "speed of the current", let us return again to the experiment with the periodic charging and discharging of the capacitor, shown in Fig. 70, but imagine that the wires on the right hand side of this figure, through which the capacitor is discharged, are very long, so that the lamp or current detecting device is, say, a thousand kilometers away from the capacitor. At the moment when we put the key to the right, the movement of electrons begins in the sections of wires adjacent to the capacitor. Electrons begin to drain from the negative plate; at the same time, due to induction, the positive charge on the plate must also decrease, i.e., electrons must flow to the plate from neighboring sections of the wire: the charge on the plates and the potential difference between them begins to decrease.

But the movement of electrons that occurred in the sections of wires directly adjacent to the capacitor plates leads to the appearance of additional electrons (in the area around ) or to a decrease in their number (in the area around ). This redistribution of electrons changes the electric field in neighboring sections of the circuit, and the movement of electrons also begins there. This process captures more and more new sections of the circuit, and when, finally, the movement of electrons begins in the hair of a remote light bulb, it will manifest itself in the incandescence of the hair, (flash). It is clear that completely similar phenomena occur when any current generator is turned on.

Thus, the movement of charges that began in one place through a change in the electric field propagates throughout the entire circuit. One after another, more and more distant charge carriers are involved in this movement, and this transfer of action from one charge to another occurs at an enormous speed (about 300,000 km / s). Otherwise, we can say that the electrical action is transmitted from one point of the circuit to another with this speed, or that a change in the electric field that has arisen at some point in the circuit propagates along the wires with this speed.

Thus, the speed that we call “current speed” for brevity is the speed of propagation of changes in the electric field along the conductor, and by no means the speed of movement of charge carriers in it.

Let us explain what has been said with a mechanical analogy. Let us imagine that two cities are connected by an oil pipeline and that a pump starts working in one of these cities, increasing the oil pressure in this place. This increased pressure will propagate through the liquid in the pipe at a high speed - about a kilometer per second. Thus, in a second, particles will begin to move at a distance of, say, 1 km from the pump, in two seconds - at a distance of 2 km, in a minute - at a distance of 60 km, etc. After about a quarter of an hour, oil will begin to flow out of the pipe in the second city. But the movement of the oil particles themselves is much slower, and it can take several days for any specific oil particles to reach the first city to the second. Returning to the electric current, we must say that the "velocity of the current" (the speed of propagation of the electric field) is analogous to the velocity of pressure propagation through the oil pipeline, and the "velocity of the carriers" is analogous to the velocity of the particles of the oil itself.

The speed of propagation of electric current .. The speed of movement of charge carriers in an electric field .. What determines the speed of drift of charge carriers? .. The thermal effect of current ..

When studying electric current, it is often difficult to understand the processes that occur at the atomic level and are inaccessible to our senses - electric current cannot be seen, heard or felt. This raises a number of questions, in particular: why do conductors get hot? What is the speed of electrons in a conductor and what does it depend on? Why does the light bulb turn on almost instantly when we press the switch? Let's try to figure it out together and answer these and other questions that interest you.

Why does the light bulb light up almost instantly?

First of all, it is necessary to distinguish and not confuse the concepts « speed of propagation of electric current" and " charge carrier speed' is not the same thing.

When we talk about the speed of propagation of electric current in the conductor, then we mean the speed of propagation of the electric field along the conductor, which is approximately equal to the speed of light (≈ 300,000 km/s). However, this does not mean that the movement of charge carriers in the conductor occurs at this tremendous speed. Not at all.

The movement of charge carriers (in a conductor they are free electrons) is always quite slow, with the speed of directional drift from fractions of a millimeter before several millimeters per second, since electric charges, colliding with the atoms of matter, overcome more or less resistance to their movement in an electric field.

But the thing is that there are very, very many free electrons in the conductor (if each copper atom has one free electron, then there are as many mobile electrons in the conductor as there are copper atoms). There are free electrons everywhere in an electrical circuit, including, but not limited to, the filament of a light bulb, which is part of this circuit.
When a conductor is connected to a source of electrical energy, an electric field propagates in it (at a speed close to the speed of light), which begins to act on ALL free electrons almost simultaneously.

Therefore, we do not observe any delay between the closing of the switch contacts and the beginning of the glow of a light bulb located tens or hundreds of kilometers from the power plant. They turned on the voltage, free electrons began to move (in the entire circuit at the same time), transferred the charge, transferred kinetic energy to the atoms of tungsten (filament), the latter heated up to a glow - that's the light bulb.

In case of alternating current to obtain the required heat (power dissipation of the filament), the direction of the current does not matter. Free electrons oscillate in response to changes in the electric field and carry charge back and forth. In this case, the electrons collide with the atoms of the tungsten crystal lattice, transferring their energy to them. This causes the filament of the light bulb to heat up and glow.

What determines the drift velocity of charge carriers?

Directional drift speed charge carriers in an electric field proportional to the magnitude of the electric current : small current means slow charge flow rate, large current means b about more speed.

On the speed of charge carriers also affects conductor resistance . A thin conductor has more resistance, a large diameter conductor has less resistance. Accordingly, in a thin conductor, the flow rate of free electrons will be greater than in a thick conductor (at the same current).

The material of the conductor also matters: in an aluminum conductor, the electron flow velocity will be greater than in a copper conductor of the same cross section. This means, among other things, that the same current will heat the aluminum conductor more than the copper one.

Thermal effect of current

Consider the nature of the thermal effect of the current in more detail.
In the absence of an electric field, free electrons move randomly in a metal crystal. Under the action of an electric field, free electrons, in addition to chaotic movement, acquire an ordered movement in one direction, and an electric current arises in the conductor.

free electrons collide with the ions of the crystal lattice, giving them in each collision the kinetic energy acquired during the free path under the action of an electric field. As a result, the ordered motion of electrons in a metal can be considered as a uniform motion with a certain constant speed.
Since the kinetic energy of electrons, acquired under the action of an electric field, transferred to the ions of the crystal lattice in a collision, then when a direct current passes, the conductor heats up.

In case of alternating current the same effect takes place. The only difference is that the electrons do not move in one direction, but under the influence of an alternating electric field, they oscillate back and forth with the mains frequency (50/60 Hz), remaining practically in place.
In this case, the electrons also collide with the atoms of the crystal lattice of the metal, transfer their kinetic energy and this leads to heating of the crystal lattice. At sufficiently high current values, a highly heated lattice can even lose permanent bonds (the metal will begin to melt).

What is the speed of the current in the conductor?

A banal if not rhetorical question, isn't it? We all studied physics at school and remember well that the speed of an electric current in a conductor is equal to the speed of propagation of the front of an electromagnetic wave, that is, it is equal to the speed of light. But after all, at the same physics lessons, we were also shown a bunch of interesting experiments where we could see for ourselves everything. Let us recall at least remarkable experiments with an electrophore machine, ebonite, permanent magnets, etc. But experiments on measuring the speed of electric current were not shown even at the university, referring to the lack of necessary equipment and the complexity of these experiments. Over the past few decades, applied science has made a huge leap forward and now many amateurs have equipment at home that even scientific laboratories did not dream of a few decades ago. That is why the time has come to start showing the experience of measuring the speed of an electric current, so that the issue is closed once and for all in the best traditions of physics. That is, not at the level of mathematics of hypotheses and postulates, but at the level of experiments and experiments that are simple and understandable to everyone.
The essence of the experiment to measure the speed of an electric current is simple to disgrace. Let's take a wire of a certain length, in our case 40 meters, connect a high-frequency signal generator and a two-beam oscilloscope to it, one beam, respectively, to the beginning of the wire, and the other to its end. That's all. The time it takes an electric current to pass through a wire 40 meters long is about 160 nanoseconds. It is for this time that we should see the shift on the oscilloscope between the two beams. Now let's see what we see in practice

- there is a unit intensity of the electric field of the conductor (quantum of intensity), which, in physical essence, is the ratio of the longitudinal force of the electrino to its charge.

is the gyromagnetic constant of the electrino.

differs from the speed of light by only 3.40299%, but different. For the technology of the last century, this difference was elusive, therefore, was taken as the electrodynamic constant. However, 4 years after the publication of his famous article on electrodynamics, in 1868, J. Maxwell doubted this and, with the participation of Hawkin's assistant, measured its value. The result , which differs from the true electrodynamic constant by only 0.66885%, remained incomprehensible to anyone, including the author himself.

The electrino orbits in the section transverse to the axis of the conductor are located one above the other, forming an electrino vortex package or one electrino vortex. External and internal electrino in the package move with the same longitudinal speed.

Each particle develops a voltage;

(- electrical constant), and their combination in the package - line voltage. The magnetic flux quantum is the ratio of the voltage of one electrino to its circular frequency

Hence the line voltage.

The magnetic flux of a conductor.

– quantum of longitudinal voltage displacement.

Magnetic induction is the density of the magnetic flux, referred to the section of the elementary trajectory of the vortex

; .

– vortex step; distance between packages; the distance between the orbits - that is, the distance between the particles - electrino.

Maximum induction - with tightly compressed electrino, when - the diameter of the electrino,

technically never achievable, but is a benchmark, for example, for the Tokamak. The inaccessibility is explained by the strong mutual repulsion of the electrinos when they approach each other: for example, at , the mechanical stress in the magnetic flux will be , to which it is now impossible to compress the magnetic flux.

The magnetic field strength is the ratio of the ring current to the interorbital distance in the packet.

If is the frequency of passage of the electrino along the conductor through a given section at a unit current, then . The number of electrino particles taken per unit time will be (Franklin's constant). Then: the unit of current in is determined by the step transfer of an electrino set equal to the Franklin number. Also: the unit of the amount of electricity in is determined by the step transfer of the electrino set, equal to the Franklin number.

If the current flows in the same direction through parallel conductors, then the external vortex fields of the system of 2 conductors merge, forming a common vortex covering both conductors, and between the conductors, due to the opposite direction of the vortices, the magnetic flux density decreases, causing a decrease in the positive field voltage. The result of the voltage difference is the convergence of the conductors. With a countercurrent, the magnetic flux density and tension increase between the conductors, and they mutually repel each other, but not from each other, but from the interconductor space, which is more saturated with the energy of vortex fields.

For current, the leading role in conductors belongs to the atoms of the surface layer. Consider an aluminum conductor. Its feature is an oxide film. Both physicists and chemists consider this molecule to be electrically neutral on the grounds that the atoms of aluminum and oxygen mutually compensate for each other's valency. If this were the case, then aluminum could not conduct electricity, but it conducts, and conducts well, which means that it has an excess negative charge.

The analysis shows that the atom contains one excess electron with a deficit of electrino, which causes it a significant excess charge of a negative sign:

where is the missing number of electrinos in the aluminum atom;

is the atomic mass,

The atomic number of aluminum.

Every two molecules contains 3 bond electrons.

The lower radius of the overconductor part of the vortex can be taken equal to half the interatomic distance - the lattice period of the electrically conductive material:

( is the mass of an atom; is its density).

The circular frequency of the vortex is also determined by:

Here: – sectorial speed for ;

is the radius of the conductor;

is the electrostatic constant.

Similarly to Ohm's law, we write .

From it is clear that there is a population of one orbit by particles - electrino, following it one after another;

Let us illustrate the calculation of parameters for an aluminum conductor (radius ) with direct current at voltage .

Sectoral speed

Circular frequency of the vortex ()

Longitudinal electrino frequency

Voltage developed by one electrino trajectory:

Swirl pack pitch

Ring current of one electrino package

The total number of electrinos in the vortex packet

Orbital population by particles – electrino

Number of orbits of the vortex packet

Line voltage developed by one package - vortex element:

Line current

(or ).

Line power

(or )

Vortex thickness

Outer vortex radius

Longitudinal component of the magnetic field of the conductor

line induction

where is the magnetic constant;

– relative magnetic permeability .

The normal component of the vortex magnetic field of the conductor:

As you can see, the electric current and the magnetic field are properties of the vortex electric field.

The beginning of the destruction of the power line is the appearance of a corona glow. As the mechanical stress of the vortex approaches the value of the Young's modulus of the conductor, the oscillation amplitude of external atoms increases to a critical value, upon reaching which excess electrons begin to be released from them, which immediately turn into generator electrons and begin HRTF, accompanied by light emission in the visible region of the spectrum. The basis of the corona glow of the conductor and the glow of the filament of an incandescent lamp is the same phenomenon - RPVR, triggered by the collisional interaction of the vortex with the atoms of the filament and the conductor.

The specific resistance of a conductor is determined by its parameters: lattice period and globule diameter:

Interatomic channel width.

This is confirmed by the calculation based on the photograph of gold, which coincides with the actual value. Part of the electrino is scattered by collisions with the atoms of the conductor, which determines the efficiency of the power line. Efficiency is proportional to temperature: .

This is already achieved in superconductivity, but full superconductivity cannot be due to electrino scattering. Superconductivity is explained by an abrupt decrease in the zero vibration of atoms (by a factor of 85 for ) and a rearrangement of the crystal lattice (the interatomic channel increases by a factor of 4), so the resistivity decreases by 5 orders of magnitude. The undamped superconductivity current is explained by the Earth's magnetic field. Since the resistance is still greater than zero, then without the Earth's magnetic field, the current decays.

A somewhat exotic illustration of electric current is laser radiation, although its radiation is considered optical. For example, in a neodymium laser with pulse energy and duration , pulse length ;

number of vortex packets per impulse ;

the number of orbits of the vortex packet ;

beam structural resistance ;

the population of one orbit (~3 orders of magnitude greater than in ). These calculations are made according to the new theory without contradictions with the facts. What happens in a laser?

The rays of light in the active element are repeatedly reflected, which leads to the complete destruction of the white light beam. A large number of electrinos are formed, which are included with the beam by photons. At the same time, a part of the axial fields of elementary rays, after also multiple reflections, forms a combined axial field of the resonator and escapes into space through the output mirror at an infinite speed. Free electrino rush to the axial negative field. At the beginning, around the axial field, they move randomly; then they acquire rotation in one direction, and a normal vortex is formed. The fact of adding the modules of similar electric fields is confirmed by the total charge of the axial field of the laser of this setup. As you can already see, laser radiation is an electric current through an ideal superconductor - an electron beam. But there are a few more examples that distinguish a laser beam from a light beam. Thus, the speed of propagation of a laser beam along an optical fiber is an inverse function of frequency, that is, a high-frequency beam propagates along an optical fiber at a lower speed than a low-frequency one; for natural light, the picture is reversed.

The laser beam, like the wire current, is easily modulated; light - no. The laser beam propagates at the speed of an electric current ; light at its own speed (purple) .

The efficiency of traditional lasers will never be high due to the multi-stage process and losses: first you need to produce light, then destroy it, then collect an axial electron field from the debris and string the rest of the photons on it. It is proposed to transfer the electric current from a metal conductor directly to a superconducting conductor - an axial electronic field created by some device, for example, a magnetron. Then the laser efficiency will be at least 90%. Since the electrino vortex easily passes back and forth (a metal conductor is an axial electronic field), it is possible to implement, for example, a wireless power line and other installations that use this property, including electric generators with FPVR, which are excited by an electric discharge, chemical reaction, combustion, electron beam, etc.

End of work -

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1. During normal combustion, for example, carbon 12C, the carbon chains of the fuel are destroyed into separate elements so that for each carbon atom there is one electron of their bond, which

The nature of superconductivity
Superconductors can and do work at ordinary temperatures. Modern ideas /1/ about physical processes make it possible to better understand the nature of superconductivity and obtain practical

The structure of the first chemical elements of the periodic table
Above, information was given that the atoms of chemical elements are exactly spherical in shape, starting with 12C carbon, or ovaloid. Naturally, atoms smaller than carbon are not m

Vehicle movers
Historically, various types of inercoids were developed as a means of unsupported movement. They moved, crawled, rode, but did not fly. Why? The authors, calling them unsupported

Magnetic electrical installations
Everything that was written above about magnets can be implemented on the basis of resonance and atomic drive. Unlike mechanical, electrical drives and the absence of resonance, the efficiency of devices with p

Catalysts with resonance
Catalysis is Greek for “destruction”. Catalysts break down large molecules into small fragments, which makes it easier to carry out chemical reactions, including energy ones, such as

Ball lightning
Being fragments of direct lightning or specially created, they are folded into a sphere (analogous to a drop) for the same reasons of uniform impact from all sides. Ball lightning is as luminous as ever

Physical mechanism of phase transitions
The most familiar processes of phase transitions for us are the condensation and evaporation of water as the most common substance. However, phase transitions also apply - the formation of things

Nature of radioactivity
Metals with a large atomic mass, which have large electrino vortices around each atom, inevitably, due to the uneven movement and concentration, replenish the vortices of neighboring atoms, neutralizing their charge.

Annealing of metals and magnetism
When annealing (heating) of any substance, the frequency of vibrations of atoms increases. Negatively charged atoms, having electrino vortices around them, throw them off due to increased centrifugal forces.

Flux concentrators
Sometimes magnetic flux concentrators are used to increase the force of attraction of the poles of magnets or to increase the magnetic induction in the gap between the poles. The most common hub is

Unity and the possibility of strengthening the magnetic and catalytic treatment of substances
Catalysis is the destruction (in Greek) of large objects (molecules, atoms ...) into smaller fragments, which the modern science of catalysis does not understand and therefore, instead of a clear physical mechanism, it gives f

Selecting materials and designing an air treatment optimizer
Omitting the description of the stages of the search for initiating influences, let us say that, in the end, we settled on the magnetic and catalytic influences as the most convenient, accessible and sufficient for

Carburetor setting
I, as a non-car enthusiast who is not familiar with the carburetor device, was surprised by its primitiveness and complexity. In fact, up to 9 private carburetors are combined in one common carburetor (for each mode

Ignition adjustment
Here we come to the intra-cylinder air treatment for fuel-free combustion. Of course, the laser would solve everything: both pre- and intra-cylinder processing, as it provides an air explosion, but suitable

Starting, warming up and idling
The need for the absence of fuel in the autothermal mode of air combustion in the combustion chambers of the cylinders of an automobile carburetor engine requires tuning to an extremely lean mixture at start-up

Transitional modes, regassing
If you think that there are no surprises in these modes, then in vain. There is. Linking in the carburetor all 8 ... 9 basic and the corresponding number of transition modes at once leads to the fact that the EU

Seasonal Features
Seasonal features of the operation of automobile engines and their settings for autothermal fuel-free operation are primarily related to starting and warming up. First the fact itself: tuned to

Amphibians and off-road vehicles based on vortex propulsion
Brief comments on the (far from complete) list of areas of natural energy. Of course, in all directions, the main thing is the lack of consumption of organic or nuclear

Social aspects of energy
In the world, a large number of individual scientists, engineers, specialists in various industries, inventors, practitioners, small and large enterprises and organizations locally solve tactical problems of

Description of inventions
16.1. Method for preparing a fuel-air mixture and a device for its implementation Application 2002124485 dated 06.09.

Air-fuel mixture treatment device
Application 2002124489 dated 09/06/2002 F 02 M 27/00 (RF patent No. 2229620 obtained) The invention relates to energy, thermal power plants and engines, including

A way to increase the energy of the working environment to obtain useful work
Patent No. 2179649 dated July 25, 2000 F 02 G 1/02, F 02 M 27/04 The invention relates to power engineering, power plants and engines operating on hot gases, and power plants, and

Combustion
1. Natural processes of fuel-free energy In traditional energy, organic and nuclear fuels are used in fission processes, as well as such renewal.

The physical mechanism of energy exchange
It is known that there are no monotonic processes, but only oscillatory processes. The main reason for fluctuations in the environment and parameters of metabolic processes is blocking, shielding, lower potential

Tesla Secrets
Tesla is known as one of the first innovators - researchers who received the energy of the environment (free energy) successfully and in large quantities. About his research, Tesla published open

Electrical transformers
The principle of operation of the transformer (Tesla) described above using the energy of the environment in the form of a pulsed high-frequency flow of electrino is also suitable for conventional industrial transformers.

Electric motors
When an electric motor (inductance) and specially selected capacitors (capacitance) were connected to the electrical network, Melnichenko /15/ managed to obtain 10 ... 15 times more power on the motor shaft than

Electric generators with permanent magnets
A number of magnetic electric generators (MEGs) have already been described in /2/: Searl, Roshchin-Godin, Floyd generators. All of them not only gave out excess energy, but also worked autonomously. There is a possibility to know

Sound Wave Acceleration Algorithm
1. The distance of the critical (normal) approach of the gas (air) oscillator to its neighbors, including the wall (end of the rod - sound generator):

Effect of cavity structures
Article by V.S. Grebennikova, published around 1980 about how he flew over Novosibirsk, then made a great impression, especially with a detailed description of sensations and events down to the smallest detail.

Superfluidity
Superfluidity must be possessed by a liquid devoid of mechanical interaction of its parts by friction and viscosity (according to the traditional theory), as well as any other, in particular, electrical

Air burning
8. Resume. Optimization of combustion processes It is traditionally believed that fuel burns. It is endowed from above with this property - calorific value. According to her, they make a

Processes with air and oxygen
Consider cases of fire or explosion without the presence of fuel. There are already quite a lot of such cases: 1. An explosion of air at the focus of a laser beam; 2. An explosion of pure oxygen

Processes with fuel
Consider, for example, methane CH4. The traditional structural image of a methane molecule contains four single ordinary bonds of a carbon atom with hydrogen atoms: H |

Air combustibility limits
Consider first the usual combustion of air mixed with fuel. When pulsed fuel is sprayed into the air in the form of an aerosol, the simplest initiating action that provides ignition and combustion

Targeted microdosing of fuel
The goal is to facilitate ignition in the internal combustion engine cylinder with minimal fuel consumption. In fuel-free mode, fuel is needed mainly to facilitate the ignition of a lean mixture: then

Priority activities for ICE
Despite the fact that the use of fuel in a small amount facilitates the operation of the engine in a fuel-free mode, including starting, warming up, ignition, transients, but it is better to immediately

Pre-cylinder air treatment
1. Installation of magnetic optimizers. 2. Strengthening the effect of optimizers with the help of: - magnetic flux concentrators; - catalysts placed in a magnetic field.

Intra-cylinder processing
6. Use, if possible, the same methods as in pre-cylinder processing (items 1-5). 7. Engine tuning: - fuel (if necessary): mixture re-leaning;

Use of catalysts
The amplification of catalysts in a magnetic or electric field occurs as follows. The main accelerating organ of projectiles - electrino - is their vortex, rotating around the atoms of the crystalline

Ignition adaptation
Now for the ignition. The reason why lightning cannot blow up the atmosphere has already been explained above. Similarly, a spark of an electric charge cannot independently blow up clean air in an engine cylinder. One hundred

RPM increase
Practice shows that an increase in speed contributes to the onset of a nitrogen cycle, which is not completely fuel-free, but already with the participation of not only oxygen, but also nitrogen in combustion. external visual recognition

High voltage overlay
The electric field between the electrodes is the initiating effect for catalysis - the process of air combustion. It increases the density of the electrin gas in this space, partially neutralizes

Burners and combustion chambers
Burners of boiler furnaces and combustion chambers of gas turbines (GTP) and other power plants differ from combustion chambers of internal combustion engines in the absence of a piston and a system of aerodynamic pressure waves, shock and detonation

Catalysis and combustion of water
Water is self-sufficient for combustion: it does not need fuel and oxidizer. According to modern concepts of natural energy /1, 2, 3/ combustion is a process of electrodynamic interaction

Getting energy by electrolysis
Electrolysis without other external influences is an energy-consuming process, in the sense that how much energy, taking into account the efficiency, was spent, so much was received later. Such torches, for example, for cutting

Cavitation in a liquid arises as a preboiling mode when its continuity is violated (ruptured). Steam, in particular water, enters the formed caverns. Steam bubbles due to the small curvature of the surface

Increasing pressure with the energy of nature
Let's say right away that this is a well-known phenomenon: water hammer and hydraulic ram (see for example / 31 /). There is no clear physical explanation, although in the Zhukovsky formula for the increase in pressure, ΔР =

Self-rotation in hydraulic power engineering
Coriolis forces lead to self-rotation in any media, including water. It has been noted that, for example, in Potapov's vortex heat generators, the pump drive power decreases with an increase in speed.

Some features of human energy
From the theory and practice of physics and energy presented in the book, a simple scheme of the circulation of matter and energy follows. Primary matter such as an ideal fluid that cannot exist on its own

On the benefits of non-traditional knowledge
Over time, non-traditional knowledge becomes traditional, familiar, if they are confirmed and used in practice. The rest is postponed until the next round of development of science and technology

P.S
In the past year since the writing of the fourth section of the book, a new understanding of some facts has emerged that may be important, and therefore is given below in the form of a list with brief explanations.

- there is a unit intensity of the electric field of the conductor (quantum of intensity), which, in physical essence, is the ratio of the longitudinal force of the electrino to its charge.

is the gyromagnetic constant of the electrino.

It differs from the speed of light by only 3.40299%, but it is different. For the technology of the last century, this difference was elusive, therefore, was taken as the electrodynamic constant. However, 4 years after the publication of his famous article on electrodynamics, in 1868, J. Maxwell doubted this and, with the participation of Hawkin's assistant, measured its value. The result , which differs from the true electrodynamic constant by only 0.66885%, remained incomprehensible to anyone, including the author himself.

Each particle develops a voltage;

( - electrical constant), and their combination in the package is the line voltage. The magnetic flux quantum is the ratio of the voltage of one electrino to its circular frequency

Hence the line voltage.

The magnetic flux of a conductor.

– quantum of longitudinal voltage displacement.

Magnetic induction is the density of the magnetic flux, referred to the section of the elementary trajectory of the vortex

– vortex step; distance between packages; the distance between the orbits - that is, the distance between the particles - electrino.

Maximum induction - with tightly compressed electrino, when - the diameter of the electrino,

The magnetic field strength is the ratio of the ring current to the interorbital distance in the packet.

If - the frequency of passage of the electrino along the conductor through a given section at a unit current, then. The number of electrino particles taken per unit time will be (Franklin's constant). Then: the unit of current in is determined by the step transfer of an electrino set equal to the Franklin number. Also: the unit of the amount of electricity in is determined by the step transfer of the electrino set, equal to the Franklin number.

The analysis shows that the atom contains one excess electron with a deficit of electrino, which causes it a significant excess charge of a negative sign:

where is the missing number of electrinos in the aluminum atom;

is the atomic mass,

The atomic number of aluminum.

Every two molecules contains 3 bond electrons.

The lower radius of the overconductor part of the vortex can be taken equal to half the interatomic distance - the lattice period of the electrically conductive material:

( is the mass of an atom; is its density).

The circular frequency of the vortex is also determined by:

Here: – sectorial speed for ;

is the radius of the conductor;

is the electrostatic constant.

Similarly to Ohm's law, we write .

It can be seen that there is a population of one orbit by particles - electrino, following it one after another;

Let us illustrate the calculation of parameters for an aluminum conductor (radius ) with direct current at voltage .

Sectoral speed

Circular frequency of the vortex ()

Longitudinal electrino frequency

Voltage developed by one electrino trajectory:

Swirl pack pitch

Ring current of one electrino package

The total number of electrinos in the vortex packet

Orbital population by particles – electrino

Number of orbits of the vortex packet

Line voltage developed by one package - vortex element:

Line current

Line power

Vortex thickness

Outer vortex radius

Longitudinal component of the magnetic field of the conductor

line induction

where is the magnetic constant;

– relative magnetic permeability .

The normal component of the vortex magnetic field of the conductor:

As you can see, the electric current and the magnetic field are properties of the vortex electric field.

The specific resistance of a conductor is determined by its parameters: lattice period and globule diameter:

Interatomic channel width.

A somewhat exotic illustration of electric current is laser radiation, although its radiation is considered optical. For example, in a neodymium laser with pulse energy and duration , pulse length ;

number of vortex packets per impulse ;

the number of orbits of the vortex packet ;

beam structural resistance ;

the population of one orbit (~3 orders of magnitude greater than in ). These calculations are made according to the new theory without contradictions with the facts. What happens in a laser?

The laser beam, like the wire current, is easily modulated; light - no. The laser beam propagates at the speed of an electric current; light with its own speed (purple).

Electric battery

An electric, for example, lead-acid battery is just such a device in which the RPVR is excited by a chemical reaction.

In the near-wall layer of the lead plate-anode, which has a negative excess charge, the reaction occurs

Hydrogen peroxide immediately dissociates, forming a near-wall plasma:

Three electron-generators for 4 positive ions immediately start the RPVR. It is formed on the order of electrino per electron. They interact with the negative potential of the plate and go into orbital movement around the anode, then through the terminals on the conductor to the consumer. Part of the unused current is returned to the cathode, the other part is dissipated from the consumer into space, mainly in the form of thermal photons. The voltage of the anode vortex is higher than the cathode one (there is no plasma there), which ensures the movement of the electrino - from a high voltage to a lower one.

H atoms turn into neutrons and are out of the game. Oxygen atoms that have experienced a mass defect can no longer form a molecule due to the loss of 82% of their positive charge. These atoms combine with spent electron generators to form ions. The remaining electron generators bind positive water molecules in () - . Negative ions , , at the anode plate with positive electrino form a barrier. Elektrinos break into vortices around negative ions as around atoms in metal conductors and follow the ion path - current conductor from the cathode to the anode. When charging the battery, the picture is reversed. The lion's share of the charging current is spent on neutralizing negative ions.

As you can see, the source of electrino is water, it is consumed; and is kept unchanged. However, when the electrolyte is changed, acid is also thrown out. When charging, complete neutralization does not occur, which ensures the ionic electrical conductivity of the solution. But there is a danger of complete neutralization and failure of the battery.

The structure of the atom

An atom is made up of neutrons with slightly unbalanced charges. The neutron is described above in §2. There are no protons, just as there are no orbital electrons, so the serial number of the element does not carry a semantic load. Neutrons and atoms are electrostatic systems, nothing moves in them. As mentioned above, the atomic masses of the elements and atomic numbers have been refined, which are rounded to the nearest integer number of neutrons.

The prevailing ideas about valency do not correspond to the facts. So, the valency of the alkali metal group is considered the same and equal to +1. But it is well known that these metals do not have the same chemical activity; their reactivity increases from lithium to cesium. The opposite picture is observed for halogens: the reactivity decreases sharply from fluorine to astatine at, as they say, a single group valency equal to –1.

As shown above, there are no interactions other than electrostatic and electrodynamic, and chemical reactions are also included in this class of interactions. And it is the magnitude and sign of the excess charge that determine the chemical activity of the element and its relation to other reagents. As shown by the example of carbon and other elements, valency is determined by the properties of these elements using simple formulas. The sign of the charge is determined by the compounds of the element and by its participation in reactions.

The establishment of the nature of the electric current and the electrical conductivity of metals at the atomic and subatomic level unequivocally confirmed the electronegativity of metal atoms and the electropositivity of dielectrics. Semiconductors change these properties when changing conditions (temperature) due to the bond electrons, which in this case go beyond the crystal lattice.

It became clear that all electropositive atoms combine into molecules with the help of bond electrons, and these electrons must be taken into account in terms of balance in the formulas of chemical reactions. In this case, as was pointed out in Section 6, the surface of electropositive fields exceeds the surface of electronegative fields by five orders of magnitude. Therefore, the connecting link between atoms in molecules can only be electronegative particles - bond electrons. This is also facilitated by the fact that the electric fields of structural electrons are occupied, firstly, inside neutrons by building and holding their structure and, secondly, inside atoms by binding neutrons together. That is, there is very little charge left on external electric fields, and even that, as can be seen, is distributed over a meager area of the outer surface of atoms. The overwhelming predominance of the electropositive surface leads to the fact that the combination of atoms into molecules is carried out only with the help of bond electrons.

The valency of the subgroup of the first group of alkali metals of the periodic system is shown in Table 1. It confirms the facts of the reactivity of these elements established by practice. The valency of the elements of the 2nd period is also given in Table 1.

In addition, as it turned out, noble gases do not have a violation of the electronic composition - this is their main feature; but the electrical composition is broken. Only in krypton and xenon does the excess charge reach the value when they are able to enter into chemical interaction with the most electropositive elements - oxygen and fluorine.

Each period begins with strongly electronegative metals (in the beginning - alkali metal). Electronegativity gradually decreases and typical metals, towards the end of the period, are replaced by semiconductor elements, and the period ends with one of the halogens - an electropositive element, a typical non-metal.

Table 1

Valency of the elements

Little epilogue

To a very difficult and important question: where does the energy come from? - now, as you can see, we can give an unambiguous answer: energy - from a substance, which, in principle, is an energy accumulator.

At the same time, energy, participating in the circulation of matter, only changes its form: the kinetic or potential energy of elementary particles. The substance changes only the phase state: from elementary particles to composite bodies, without changing the total mass.

Task: to learn how to receive this energy without damage to nature and man. This will be the subject of the next part of the monograph.

PART TWO

PROCESSES AND INSTALLATIONS
NATURAL ENERGY