History teaches us that the close proximity of several ambitious powers necessarily leads to conflict between them. When the Roman Republic began to claim absolute dominance in the Mediterranean basin, it had to face no less warlike states seeking to dominate the region. We have already written about the devastating Punic Wars that shook the ancient world for more than a century. But in addition to rich Carthage, the Republic coexisted with the heirs of the ancient Hellenic civilization, which significantly surpassed the "barbarian" Rome in terms of culture, education and had a rich and heroic history. But the eras succeed each other, from the archaic Greek policies and kingdoms, the military-political hegemony passed to the young and aggressive Roman state. This is what we will talk about this time.

Greece

By the 3rd century BC. Greece was a disparate land, united only by a common history and heritage of the Hellenic civilization. Social stratification grew, popular uprisings and conflicts between cities were brewing and flaring up. This is how the historian and philosopher Plutarch described the position of Sparta:

The strong began to profit without any restraint, pushing back the direct heirs, and soon wealth gathered in the hands of a few, and poverty took over the state ... There were no more than seven hundred Spartans, and among those only about a hundred owned land and hereditary property, and all the rest were poor and miserable crowd they sat in the city, sluggishly and reluctantly rising to defend Lacedaemon from enemies, but in constant readiness to take advantage of any opportunity to overthrow and change the existing order.

Throughout the third century before Christmas, the rulers of several states waged bloody wars for power in the region. The main participants in this game of thrones were Macedonia, the Aetolian and Achaean unions.

Achaean and Aetolian alliances

Macedonia, as you know, reached its historical dawn in the 4th century BC. under Tsar Alexander. Alexander the Great was able to reach as far as India, but he was not able to build a stable empire, nor was it possible for his followers to hold the conquered territories. In the III century, Macedonia for some time passed from the power of the Epirus king to the Thracian and vice versa, then it was subjected to a devastating raid by the Celtic tribes. In 221 BC The Macedonian throne was occupied by King Philip V, an experienced diplomat and a talented commander, trying to imitate his great predecessors: Philip II and Alexander.

The Aetolian union has been known since the 5th century BC. It originated as an association of three Aetolian clans, and by the 3rd century. became a major political entity, including even the Peloponnesian and Thessalian cities. Aetolia is a region of central Greece, bordering Acarania in the west, Locris and Dorida in the east, and the lands of the Dolops and Amphilochians in the north. In the south of Aetolia, according to the myths of the Peloponnesian War, the cities of Pleuron and Calydon were once located. At the head of the Aetolian Union was the chosen leader, who convenes the army by order of the union assembly - the Sanhedrin (the word is Greek, not Jewish - συνέδριον).

The Achaean Union is an association of Greek policies in the Peloponnese. It was formed in 279 BC. from the old association of Achaean cities. The ongoing civil and class war between the policies forced the rulers to unite in order not to be conquered by a stronger neighbor. Despite the absence of a central policy, the Achaean League had its own professional army. True, the Ptolemaic dynasty partially covered the costs of it, thus trying to influence the political life of Greece from Egypt.

Roman legion against the Macedonian phalanx. Drawing by Peter Connolly

Thus, if the Aetolian and Achaean unions historically claimed supremacy in the Hellenic lands, calling themselves the descendants of an ancient people, then Macedonia - by the right of the conquests of Tsar Alexander.

It is worth noting that the ongoing confrontation did not interfere with the development of production, trade, slaveholding and cultural relations between states. It must be assumed that the Greek kings were aware of the danger posed by their young neighbor - the aggressive and militarily very effective Roman Republic.

Relations between Rome and Greece were extremely hostile. The Greek lands were formally independent, but the aristocracy now and then turned to the Roman Senate to solve their problems, which gave rise to outside interference in the affairs of the country. As a result, the Senate came to the conclusion that there would be neither stable peace nor order in Greece until the cities came under the rule of Rome. The Greeks, for their part, very actively provoked Rome, not fully realizing how well-functioning, motivated and powerful the military machine they were dealing with.

Macedonian Wars

The Macedonian wars were fought for half a century and allowed Rome to gain control over the entire eastern part of the Mediterranean basin.

The first Macedonian war took place in 215-205. BC. While Rome was embroiled in a devastating conflict with Carthage, Philip V decided to get involved in the struggle for Greece and expand his territories to the west. According to the Greek historian Polybius, the Macedonian king was greatly influenced by Demetrius of Faros, the commander who ruled Illyrea and was defeated by the Romans during the Illyrian wars. Demetrius advised Philip to enter into an alliance with Carthage, and the Macedonian king was quickly seduced by the possible prospects - the elimination of Rome returned the monopoly of maritime trade to the Greeks. However, for the war with the Republic, the king needed to protect the rear and stop the war with the Aetolian and Achaean alliances.

Coin with the profile of Philip V

Peace was made with the Aetolians on the coast, not far from Nafpaktos. Polybius quotes the appeal of the Aetolians in favor of making peace:

... it should be most desirable for the Hellenes never to fight with each other, that they should offer great gratitude to the gods if, being in complete agreement, firmly holding hands, as happens when crossing a river, they will be able to repel the invasion of barbarians with common forces and save their lives and their cities."

The Macedonians began to prepare for war. Winter 217-216 Philip devoted to the construction of the fleet. Not having enough resources to create heavy warships, the Macedonian king decided to rely on maneuverable landing craft - lembos. If necessary, the ships could evade the battle at sea, and the Romans were more concerned with the war with the fleet of Carthage.

When the Romans suffered a serious defeat at Cannae in 216, Philip sent ambassadors to the camp of the Carthaginian commander Hannibal with a proposal for an alliance. Hannibal understood that the opening of a second front in the east would further undermine the Republic, and Carthage had no plans to expand into Hellas itself. The alliance was concluded in 215, but the ambassadors of Philip and the ambassadors of Hannibal accompanying them were captured by the Romans on their way to Macedonia, and the plot was discovered.

The union of Carthage and Macedonia caused quite justified panic in Rome, and then indignation - it was absolutely not necessary to anger the stern leaders of the Republic and the patriotic Senate. The consul Publius Valerius Flaccus was charged with keeping an eye on the Macedonian fleet and keeping Philip within the borders of his kingdom. In 214, Philip tried to invade Illyria (the Balkan Peninsula) from the sea, captured Orik and besieged Apollonius.

The Roman legions quickly reacted to the military campaign of the Greeks and quickly drove Philip's army from the peninsula. Philip fled to Macedonia, leaving his army and fleet to the mercy of fate. This ended the First Macedonian War.

Second Macedonian War (200–196 years BC.)

As we remember, Rome successfully won the Second Punic War, after which the Senate decided to increase its influence in the Balkans. The reason for declaring war on Macedonia was the violation of the treaty of 205, according to which Philip V could not make alliances and fight with the allies of Rome.

The decisive moment was the appearance on the side of Rome, first the Aetolian, and then the Achaean unions. The war with Rome was extremely unpopular in Macedonia, and opposition against the king grew inside the country.

Scheme of the Battle of Cynoscephalae

In 197, Roman troops first encountered in open field combat the Macedonian phalanx at Cynoscephalae. Proconsul Titus Quincius Flamininus inflicted a crushing defeat on Philip, proving the tactical superiority of the chess formation of the legions against the ranks. The Macedonian phalanx was divided into two parts, forcing a hilly area. While the right wing moved forward, the left only lined up for battle. The war elephants of Flaminius pierced the left flank, after which the invincible legionnaires finally threw back the phalanx. 8,000 Macedonians and 721 Romans fell in the battle.

As a result of the defeat, Philip pledged to give Rome his fleet, withdrew the garrisons from the Greek cities. His army and political power were severely limited. Macedonia was nominally declared free, but in fact became a Roman colony with external control.

Third Macedonian War (171–168 years BC.)

Philip V died in 179, after which his ambitious and talented son Perseus took the Macedonian throne. The young ruler married the daughter of the Syrian king, entered into an alliance with Epirus and the tribes of Illyria and Thrace. He decided to restore the former power of Macedonia and intended to enlist the support of the Greek cities in the fight against Rome.

The Senate was extremely concerned about the strengthening of Macedonia, declared war on Perseus, the reason for which was the conflict between the young king and the ruler of Pergamum. Perseus was not ready for a war with a sharply strengthened Republic and did not have time to win all of Greece over to his side, and the Greek detachments remained auxiliary units of the Roman legions.

Schematic of the Battle of Pydna

At the beginning of the war, Perseus was successful - he defeated Publius Crassus at Larissa and forced the Roman army to retreat in Illyria and even offered peace to Rome as a winner. Of course, the Senate refused such a proposal.

In 168, troops under the command of Lucius Aemilius Paul began to push Perseus. On June 22, a decisive battle took place near the city of Pydna, in which the Roman legions defeated and put to flight the Macedonians. The Roman army consisted of 29,000 soldiers, of which 24,000 were infantry.

Aemilius Paul marked out the legions in the center of the field, and the allied troops on the flanks. The Macedonian army lined up in the usual phalanx, placing mercenaries and cavalry on the flanks. The armies clashed and the Romans began to break through the Macedonian ranks, taking advantage of the close combat: the legionaries were armed with shields and short swords against the Macedonian spears. In less than an hour, the phalanx was broken.

"King Perseus of Macedon before Lucius Aemilius Paul". Jean Francois Pierre Peyron, 1802

Perseus fled from the battlefield, but was overtaken by the Romans and taken prisoner. 20,000 Macedonian soldiers were killed and 11,000 wounded.

On this, Macedonia as an independent state was destroyed for many centuries. The territory was divided into different city-policies that completely regulated the life of citizens: it was possible to acquire property, marry only within the framework of one policy. All foreign policy was governed "in the name of the Senate and People of Rome". Thus, only the Achaean Union remained from the free Greek lands.

Achaean War

With the fall of Macedonia, Rome ceased to need the help of the Achaean League, and the Senate considered it unnecessary to have a separate political force in the Peloponnese. Moreover, the leadership of the Achaean League passes to parties hostile to Rome. The struggle for the lands of the Achaean Union was quite long and intense: Rome had to play on the social and economic contradictions of the Hellenic cities, undermining allied relations.

The reason for the start of the war itself was the conflict of allies with Sparta: the Achaean party of Democritus, Critolay and Day tried to join Sparta to the alliance, for which the Spartans turned to Rome for help. Consul Lucius Aurelius Orestes, who arrived in Corinth in 147, on behalf of the Senate, announced the exclusion from the union of the Achaean cities, unrelated to the Achaeans by blood, including Sparta and Argos. This decision of Rome reduced the Achaean Union to the level of a secondary state, incapable of serious foreign policy actions.

After the departure of the Roman ambassadors, the cities of the Achaean Union were swept by a series of uprisings and revolutions. The commander of the allied forces, Dei, took drastic measures. He mobilized all the forces of the country, announced a general conscription, introduced a war tax. Such a policy further undermined the precarious position of the Greek society. The Achaean oligarchy began to see in the Roman Republic a deliverance from an inefficient and outdated system of government.

However, the war between Rome and the Achaean Union was not long and bloody. The Greeks quickly lost Thermopylae, were defeated at Scarfeus in Locris. The general battle took place at Levkopetra in 146. The Achaean army, twice the size of the Roman one, was defeated, scattered and partially captured. As punishment for insolence towards the Republic, the Romans burned Corinth, the consul Mummius killed all the Corinthian men, sold women and children into slavery, and all movable property and works of art were taken to Rome. Thus, the Achaean Union repeated the fate of Macedonia, and for many, many years became part of the empire created by the Latins.

Corinth as it was before the coming of the Romans

The accession of the Aetolian Union was given to Rome with little bloodshed. During the Second Macedonian War, the Aetolians fought on the side of Rome. Aetolian warriors stood on the flanks during the Battle of Cynoscephalae, for which Locris, Phocis and Ambracia were transferred to the alliance. But the claims of the Aetolians turned out to be too great, and as a result of a conflict with Rome, the army of the Aetolian Union was defeated in 191 at Thermopylae. In 189, the Aetolians were forced to ask for peace, under the terms of which they paid Rome 500 talents of indemnity and recognized the supreme authority of the Senate.

The result of the wars of 201-146 BC was that Greece and Macedonia were finally turned into Roman provinces, headed by a governor appointed by the Senate; only Athens and Sparta (rather not out of mercy, but paying tribute to their former greatness) were allowed to keep their laws.

Greece disappeared from world political history for two millennia.

Having conquered Gaul (France), the Roman general Julius Caesar found it necessary to deprive the Celts, who were still resisting the Romans, of British support. Probably the Britons really helped the Veneti in Brittany. In addition, perhaps Caesar sought to add another victory to his glory and give the troops the opportunity to profit. In 55 and 54 years. BC e. he undertook campaigns in southern England, but faced unexpectedly strong resistance and sea storms. As a result, Caesar returned to Gaul.

Under his successors, Rome established commercial relations with Britain, but did not turn to hostilities until 43 AD. e., when the emperor Claudius invaded the country to gain the glory of the conqueror and at the same time protect the pro-Roman rulers of southern Britain. The Romans quickly captured southern England, despite considerable resistance, led at first by the Catavellaun tribe and their leader Caratacus - this is how their names sound in the Roman transmission, which we are forced to follow, since all our information about this era is borrowed from Roman written sources. In pursuit of Caratacus, the Romans invaded Wales.

In 60 AD e. Suetonius Peacock went on a campaign in north Wales against the Celtic priests-druids and their supporters, opposed to Roman rule. He was prompted to take this step by an uprising of the Iceni tribe in eastern England, led by Boudicca (Boadicea), which broke out due to outrage at the rude actions of the Romans and the cruel treatment of the ruling family - Boudicca was scourged and her daughters were raped. The rebels destroyed the main Roman settlements, but Peacock defeated the Iceni in battle and then "pacified" the rebels. Boudicca died, probably by suicide.

In the 70s, the Romans continued their offensive. In 71 - 74 years. the Brigantes were conquered, and then Wales. By 78 AD e. all of England and Wales were under Roman rule, and this situation remained until the severance of ties with Rome in 409. relatively numerous troops. As a result, Britain played an important role in the struggle for imperial power. Highland Scotland never submitted to the Romans: terrain conditions and good defenses were of no interest to the invaders. Agricola, Viceroy of Britain in 77-83, invaded Scotland, winning an important victory at Mount Graupia, but captured only the lowland part of the country. Although in the future he intended to conquer Ireland, the Romans did not take any action for this. Thus the Roman conquest, although uniting southern Britain into a single community for the first time in its history, also brought to light a central feature of British history: a lack of unity that partly reflected the diversity of local socio-economic systems stemming from differences in climatic and geographical conditions. In addition, both in Ireland and in most of Scotland there is a certain continuity with the Iron Age, although some changes appear due to contact with the Romans or otherwise.

The boundary was clearly marked by Hadrian's Wall, the construction of which began under the emperor Hadrian around 122. The wall followed the line of the Tyne Solway, the narrowest part of the island. He was supposed to protect England from invasions from the north and ensure control of the highlands, preventing free movement. The peace established in the south contributed to Romanization. Roman citizenship was not limited to Romans or Italians. Non-Romans could also have a successful career.

In England, Roman cults spread, mixing with local Celtic beliefs. In the 4th century, when Christianity was declared the state religion, even stronger cultural ties were established between England and the continent, in contrast to Scotland, which was not conquered by the Romans. The pre-Roman cults and the Druid priests destroyed by the Romans, as well as the cults of the Olympian gods introduced after the conquest, did not have a territorial organization and a clear dogma. However, it was the Roman gods that linked Britain to the continent even before Christianity. The same can be said about the cult of Mithras, which was of Persian origin and especially popular in the Roman army. Mitra was considered the messenger of the god of light, leading the eternal struggle against evil and darkness. Worshipers of Mithras usually gathered in underground or partially underground sanctuaries. Women were not allowed to these meetings.

In addition, pre-Roman pagan cults continued to exist. Roman influence was felt in the cities, but outside of them, Romanization was hardly noticeable.

In Roman Britain, a system of towns connected by roads and romanized farms or villas was established. Cities such as Londinium (London), Lindum (Lincoln) and Eboracum (York) became political, commercial, cultural, and finally Christian centers. Some cities arose around Roman fortresses, but along with them, settlements were built, which owed their origin to the local elite, who willingly adopted Roman culture and way of life. Strengthened ties with the continent caused an economic boom. Britain was a valuable source of minerals, especially silver, lead, gold and iron. Thus, she directly participated in the economic and financial life of the empire. Mining has taken on particular importance in Wales. Although ore mining was carried out here in pre-Roman times, it has now been significantly expanded. Gold was mined at Doleikoti, lead was mined at Holkin, and copper was mined at Anglesey.

Agriculture improved in Roman Britain. At the end of III - beginning of IV centuries. heavier plows appeared, to which a cutter was attached. Thanks to them, it was now possible to make deeper furrows and plow areas with difficult soil. With the advent of the two-handed scythe, hay began to be harvested faster and in greater volume, and this, in turn, made it possible to harvest more fodder for livestock for the winter. Furnaces for drying grain were built, crop rotation was introduced. Judging by the number of archaeological finds from the Roman period, the production of goods and trade increased many times over compared to the Iron Age. The prosperity of agriculture led to the construction of many villas - large houses of the nobility in the countryside, built in the Roman style and equipped with heating according to the Roman model. Further evidence of human impact on the environment is the disappearance of bears in England towards the end of the Roman era. Deforestation continued on the English plains.

In VI-V centuries. BC. Rome begins to conquer neighboring territories. The basis of the strength of Rome was the army - legions, consisting of all citizens - members of the policy. The Romans managed to repel the invasion of the Gauls (Celts), who rushed in the 4th century. BC. to Italy. They gradually conquered Italy and by the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. became its full masters.

The most difficult test for the early Roman Republic was 2nd Punic War with Carthage - Phoenician state in North Africa. Having been defeated in the hall of the long 1st Punic War (the Romans called the Carthaginians puns), having lost the fleet and possessions in Sicily and Sardinia, Carthage did not accept this. The Carthaginians captured part of Iberia (modern Spain). In 218 BC Carthaginian commander Hannibal made an unparalleled trip to Italy, crossing the Alpine mountains. He defeated the Romans in northern Italy, and in the spring of 217 BC. on the shores of Lake Trasimene again defeated them. However, the forces of Hannibal were fading, and the Roman army was growing stronger. In 216 BC The 87,000th Roman army met with the 54,000th army of Hannibal near the town of Cannes. The Romans hit Hannibal's weak center but were pulled into a sack between his strong flanks. The trapped Romans tried to resist, but soon the battle turned into a massacre.

It seemed. Rome cannot escape destruction. But emergency measures were taken and the war continued. The Romans began to win. Young talented commander of Rome Publius Cornelius stitched conquered the possessions of the Carthaginians in Iberia. In 204 BC Scipio landed in Africa. Hannibal was forced to leave Italy. In 202 BC Scipio defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama. Carthage made peace with Rome, accepting all the conditions of the victors. During 3rd Punic War in the 11th century BC. Carthage was destroyed, at the same time Macedonia and Greece, a number of other lands were captured.

The Romans turned the conquered lands into provinces -"the estates of the Roman people". They were headed by governors from among the officials of Rome. The local population was taxed, part of the land was taken from him. In an effort to divide the inhabitants of the provinces, the Romans used the "divide and conquer" method. Cities and communities loyal to them received benefits and benefits, the rest were deprived of them.

The consequence of long wars, which enriched some of the Romans and ruined others, was the weakening of the army: impoverished citizens could no longer arm themselves at their own expense, and many rich people did not want to shed blood in battles. Roman General Consul Guy Mariy at the end of the 2nd century. BC. the first began to recruit volunteers for the service in the legions - Roman citizens and allies of Rome. The soldiers received weapons, pay for the service, and after its completion they were promised land. The fighting capacity of the Roman army again increased sharply. But having lost direct contact with the Roman community, the soldiers turned into executors of the will of their commanders-generals.

End of work -

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Features of the culture and religious beliefs of the Ancient East
Culture is understood as the achievements of people, the fruits of their activities. These are tools of labor, and the ability to work with them. This and everything created by man - fields, cities, buildings, sculptures and paintings, ska

Features of culture and religious beliefs of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome
The ancient Greeks left the deepest mark in all areas of culture. Suffice it to say that Greek writing underlies most modern alphabets. Their huge impact

Barbarians and Rome. Causes of the Great Migration
The death in 476 of the Western Roman Empire is considered the line between the history of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages. The fall of the empire is connected with the invasion of its territory by barbarian temen. barbarians ri

Formation of barbarian kingdoms
In 410, the Visigoths (Western Goths), led by Alaric, took Rome. A few years later, Rome provided land in the south of Gaul for the settlement of the Visigoths. So in 418, the first var appeared

barbaric truths
Much can be learned about the life of the barbarian kingdoms from the records of their laws of the 5th-9th centuries. These laws were called barbaric truths. Barbarian truths were records of customary law. However

The rise of Islam. Arab conquests
Arab tribes. The homeland of the Arabs is the Arabian Peninsula. The nomadic tribes of the Arabs - the Bedouins - were engaged in cattle breeding. A special role in the religious life of the Arabs

Fall of the Caliphate
From the beginning of the ninth century The Arab Caliphate entered a period of disintegration. Its territory was too large, very different peoples lived there with different levels of development. The emirs gradually turned into masters of their

Attempt to restore the Roman Empire
The Byzantine Empire reached its peak during the reign of Emperor Justinian (527-565). He was born in Macedonia to a poor peasant family. His uncle Emperor Justin was elevated to the

Slavicization of the Balkans
From the middle of the VI century. Slavic tribes living in Central Europe east of the Germans moved from raiding Byzantium to settling the Balkan Peninsula. According to the Byzantine author, the Slavs "

Empire of Charlemagne and its collapse. Feudal fragmentation in Europe
Kingdom of the Franks. Military reform of Charles Martel. Under the sons and grandsons of King Clovis, the Franks conquered the Kingdom of Burgundy, subjugated many Germanic tribes to

Carolingian revival
The rise of culture during the time of Charlemagne and his first successors - the Carolingian revival - is associated with the desire to use art and education to create an ideal Christian state.

The collapse of the empire. Reasons for fragmentation
In 814 Charlemagne died. His son and heir, Louis, was distinguished by great piety, for which he received the nickname the Pious. He. like his father, he patronized education. However, unlike the

Many other European states were born in the early Middle Ages.
So. in Britain, the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms eventually united. In 1066, these lands were conquered by the Duke of Normandy (region in northern France) William the Conqueror, who became the king of England.

The main features of Western European feudalism
What is feudalism. The classical Middle Ages in Europe ". - XIII centuries) was the heyday of feudalism. The word "feudalism" comes from the word "feud" - inherited

Peasants
Peasants in the Middle Ages, in addition to farming and cattle breeding, hunted, fished, collected honey and wax from forest bees. They sewed their own clothes and shoes, built dwellings and baked bread, paved roads and

Feudal lords
Near the village there was a fortified dwelling of her lord - a castle. Castles were built simultaneously with the folding of feudalism itself. In IX-X iv. they were erected to protect against the Normans, Arabs and

Medieval city
The phenomenon of the medieval city. In the Middle Ages, the vast majority of the population lived in the countryside. There were few townspeople, their role in society far exceeded their number

Cluniac reform. Monastic orders
The monasteries enjoyed enormous authority. The life of the monastery was determined by the charter. The monks prayed together several times a day. The rest of the time was devoted to work. They worked for the

Struggle of Popes and Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire
In the 10th century, the rulers of the East Frankish kingdom (Germany) led the fight against the Hungarian raids and created a powerful knightly army. Initially, Germany did not have a clear

Hundred Years War
In the XIV-XV centuries. (late Middle Ages) great changes are taking place in Europe. One of the largest conflicts of that time was the Hundred Years War between England and France, which had a long history.

Hussite wars
Hussite wars became an important event of the late Middle Ages. Their center was the Czech Republic, which was part of the Holy Roman Empire, being one of its most developed parts. Your name

Beginning of the Ottoman conquests. Fall of Byzantium
In the late Middle Ages, Byzantium fell, and a new aggressive power of the Turks, the Ottomans, appeared in its place. The Ottoman Empire arose in the west of Asia Minor from the possessions of Sultan Osman (1258-1324). AT

The formation of centralized states in Fraction and England
In France, a decisive step towards strengthening the central power was taken by King Louis X! (146! - 1483). In the course of long wars, the king defeated the mighty Kir-lom.

medieval culture. Beginning of the Renaissance
Science and theology. Social thought in the Middle Ages developed within the framework of the Christian faith. The Bible was the supreme authority. However, this did not rule out heated debate on

Architecture. Sculpture
With the growth of cities, urban planning and architecture developed intensively. Dwelling houses, town halls, guild scrap, shopping arcades and merchant warehouses were erected. In the center of the city there was usually

Early Renaissance
In the XIV-XV centuries. in the culture of Europe there are great changes associated with the unprecedented rise of science. literature, art. This phenomenon was called the Renaissance (Renaissance). Figures in

Features of the formation of civilization among the Eastern Slavs
From the 6th century, Slavic tribes settled over the vast lands of Central and Eastern Europe. During this resettlement, the Slavs were divided into three branches - western, southern and eastern.

Prerequisites for the emergence of statehood
The development of the economy led to changes in the life of the Eastern Slavs. For thousands of years, the main unit of society was the community. Several communities made up a tribe. All wa

The first Russian princes
After being approved in Kyiv, Oleg repeatedly fought with the Khazars and other nomadic people - the Pechenegs. He freed a number of Slavic tribes from tribute to the Khazars. In 907, Oleg, having gathered all the militia

Activities of Svyatoslav
The son of Igor and Olga Svyatoslav became famous as one of the largest Russian commanders. From the moment of his maturity, he spent his whole life in campaigns. At first, he: Subjugated the Vyatichi to Kyiv, who before that

The beginning of the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. Protection of Russia from nomads
After the death of Svyatoslav in Kyiv, strife began between his sons. During it, Oleg and Yaropolk died, and in 980 Vladimir seized power, who had previously ruled in Novgorod. Vladimir

Society of Ancient Russia
Control system. The central place in the system of government of the Russian state was occupied by the prince. He was the chief ruler and supreme judge, the leader of the army. Separately

Causes and consequences of fragmentation
The period of fragmentation is a natural stage in the development of all medieval states. With the economic development of individual lands of Russia, their inhabitants gradually ceased to feel the need

Conditions for the development of culture
For a long time, paganism was decisive in the spiritual life of the Slavs. After the adoption of Christianity, it was replaced by another, in many respects the opposite worldview. paganism was based on

Mongol invasion
In the XIII century. in the steppes of Central Asia, the Mongol tribes living there began the transition from primitive to early statehood: the nobility stood out, towering over their fellow tribesmen. Like all n

Threat from the West
Russia's western neighbors intended to take advantage of its defeat. Even at the beginning of the 111th century. German crusader knights appeared in the Baltic States, members of various spiritual and chivalric orders. Under the pretext of

Strengthening new political centers
In the XIV century. two centers emerged, around which the unification of Russian lands began. One of them was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Under the princes Gediminas and Olgerd, in his sphere of influence, not without help

Reasons for the rise of Moscow. Ivan Nalita
With the reign of Ivan Kalita, a new stage in the history of Russia begins - the stage of collecting lands. Historians have been arguing for a long time why exactly Moscow turned out to be the capital of a united Russia. Pointed Lens

The beginning of the struggle against the Horde yoke. Dmitry Donskoy
Ivan Kalita died in 1340. His sons Semyon Proud (1340-1353) and Ivan Krasny (1353-1359) continued their father's policy: loyal relations with the Horde, relying on it, strengthening their position in Russia,

Further strengthening of the Moscow principality
After the death in 1389 of Dmitry Donskoy, his eldest son Vasily /.|0n took the Moscow throne and annexed Nizhny Novgorod to the principality. City and. Meshcher, Tarus and Murom. In 1408 the hordes

The final unification of the Russian lands. Wars with Kazan, the Livonian Order, Lithuania, Sweden
In 1485, the Tver principality was annexed. In the summer of 1486 clashes took place in Kazan between supporters and opponents. In 1487 a new campaign against Kazan began. Russian troops

Political Development of India in the Middle Ages
In V-VI! centuries On the territory of India there were about 50 states at war with each other. In the middle of the VIII century. The northern, attacking part of Central India was conquered by the Rajputs - a descendant of

China in III - XIII centuries
After the collapse of the Han state in China, an almost 400-year period of unrest and internecine wars followed? accompanied by attacks by nomads. The unity of the country was restored only in 589 of the dynasty

Ming dynasty
Having ascended the throne, Zhu Yuanzhang did a lot to strengthen the central government and the country's economy. The distribution of land to the landless and landless had a beneficial effect on the life of China. Were lowered

New in Economics
At the turn of the Middle Ages and the New Age in Europe, the demand for handicrafts began to increase, which led to the accelerated development of manufactory production. At manufactories

Price Revolution»
The great geographical discoveries led to profound changes in the economic life of Europe. The importance of Mediterranean trade and Italian cities decreased. In the XVI century. the role of steel intermediaries

Discovery of America
The Europeans sought to find a sea route to rich India by circumnavigating the globe; on August 3, 1492, Christopher Columbus headed west on three Spanish ships. For more than a month the ships sailed on the sea

Road to India
After the discoveries of Columbus, the Spaniards proved to be dangerous competitors to the Portuguese. To prevent clashes, both states, after long negotiations, concluded in Dmitrieva Olga Vladimirovna

Roman conquest of Italy

Roman conquest of Italy

The formation of the Roman slave republic, accompanied by internal political clashes, took place against the backdrop of an almost continuous struggle with external enemies. The Roman Senate in the V-III centuries. BC e. persistently pursued a policy of military expansion throughout the Apennine Peninsula. Rome was an agrarian polis located in a densely populated area where land was of great value. The desire to seize the territories of neighbors, in which both patricians and plebeians were interested, determined at first the expansionist nature of Roman foreign policy. The aggressive wars of the Romans in order to subjugate the territories of other Italic peoples lasted more than two hundred years.

There are three stages in the process of conquest of the Apennine Peninsula by the Roman civil community. The events of the first stage of the struggle, which lasted almost 150 years, are characterized by the expansion of Rome in central Italy, southern Etruria, and Latium. The first enemy of the Romans was the Etruscans, who attacked Rome after the expulsion of Tarquinius the Proud. By 506 BC. e. The Romans dealt with their enemies, but in the V century. BC e. they had to face the Etruscan city of Veii and some Latin tribes. Ultimately, the Veii were wiped off the face of the earth, the Volscian tribes were either destroyed or sold into slavery. The Romans took possession of significant territories on the right bank of the Tiber. However, in 390 BC. e. Rome was attacked by the Gauls - warlike tribes living north of the Apennines. After enduring a difficult siege, the Romans agreed to pay a huge ransom. Only after that the Gauls left. The Romans quickly recovered from the defeat, the city was surrounded by new defensive walls. The result of the struggle at this stage was the establishment of the Romans in the center of the Apennine Peninsula.

The struggle for the capture of mountainous Italy (Samnia) and fertile Campania, which lasted almost 50 years, is the content of the second stage of the Roman conquests. The Romans had to face the warlike Samnite tribes. During the Samnite Wars (343-341, 327-304, 298-290 BC), the opponents of the Romans (the Etruscans, Umbrians, Gauls joined the Samnites) were defeated and vast areas of Central Italy - Samnia, were in the hands of the winners, Northern Etruria and Umbria.

The third stage of the Roman conquest of Italy falls on 281-272. BC e., when the Greek colonies of the south of the Apennine Peninsula, who did not want any subjugation, became the main opponents of Rome. Feeling the inevitability of capture, the Greek colonists turned for help to a talented commander - the Epirus king Pyrrhus. At the head of a well-trained army, he landed in Italy and inflicted two serious defeats on the Romans (in 280-279 BC). After crossing to Sicily, he managed to capture almost all the Carthaginian fortresses. Pyrrhus returned to the Apennine Peninsula in 275 BC. e., where, near the city of Benevente, he faced the Romans in a pitched battle. He was defeated and left Italy. Thus, by the middle of the III century. BC e. all of Italy, from the Rubicon River in the north to the Strait of Messina in the south, was subject to Rome.

From a small community on the Tiber River, Rome has become one of the powerful states of the Western Mediterranean. It was not unified: Rome remained a policy, in relation to which the peoples it conquered were in varying degrees of dependence and subordination. According to its structure, it was a Roman-Italian confederation, an alliance under the leadership of the Roman policy. The dominant policy ruled the allies on the principle of "divide and rule." Those Italian communities, mainly in the territory of Latium, which for a long time became under the control of Rome, were called municipalities. They retained self-government, had their own magistrates, their own courts. The inhabitants of the municipalities soon became equal in rights with the Roman citizens.

so-called. "no vote" cities enjoyed some restrictions. Their inhabitants had full rights in respect of property, but were not allowed to participate in comitia and could not be elected magistrates. Residents of cities with the right of "Latin citizenship", while maintaining their self-government, had an even smaller amount of rights. "Allies" constituted the most numerous category of communities subject to Rome. Formally, they were considered independent, but they were completely deprived of the right to conduct an independent foreign policy. The cities that surrendered to Rome found themselves in the most difficult situation. Deprived of autonomy, they were ruled by Roman commissioners. Their inhabitants did not have the right to bear arms and did not have any civil rights.

Consciously pursuing such a policy in relation to the conquered, Roman diplomacy believed that it was precisely this character that would be able to ensure the strength of the alliance formed by force of arms. The main guarantee of Rome's victory in these conquests was that the completion of the struggle between the plebeians and patricians allowed the Romans to achieve greater cohesion among their fellow citizens and, accordingly, their army. In addition, the tribes and peoples that became the object of conquest were distinguished by disunity. Their protests against Roman expansion took place at different times and had a local character. The Romans tried to beat their opponents one by one, avoiding the threat of creating military-political associations. As a result, all of Italy came under Roman rule. The way to further conquests was open.

From the book The Roman Republic [From Seven Kings to Republican Rule] author Asimov Isaac

CHAPTER 3 THE CONQUEST OF ITALY Latium and its Neighbors Let's stop for a moment and look at how the face of the world has changed in the four centuries that have passed since the founding of Rome. In the east, the forgotten kingdom of Assyria has long ceased to exist. In its place arose

From the book The Greatness and Fall of Rome. Volume 1. Building an Empire author Ferrero Guglielmo

X The conquest of Armenia and the financial crisis in Italy The crisis of the people's party at the end of 70 - Enmity between Crassus and Pompey. - Lucullus conquers Armenia. - Battle of the Tigris. - Lucullus and Alexander the Great. - Budget of the Roman Republic. - Passion for speculation in Italy. -

From the book History of the Middle Ages. Volume 1 [In two volumes. Under the general editorship of S. D. Skazkin] author Skazkin Sergey Danilovich

The conquest of Italy by the Lombards of Byzantium, however, failed to maintain its dominance over all of Italy for a long time. In 568, the Lombards (a Germanic tribe that previously lived on the left bank of the Elbe, and then moved to the Danube in Pannonia) under the leadership of King Alboin

From the book History of Rome (with illustrations) author Kovalev Sergey Ivanovich

author Gibbon Edward

CHAPTER XLV The reign of Justin the Younger.- The embassy from the Avars.- Their settlement on the Danube.- The conquest of Italy by the Lombards.- The adoption of Tiberius and his reign.- The reign of Mauritius.- The position of Italy under the rule of the Lombards and the Ravenna exarchs.

From the book The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire author Gibbon Edward

CHAPTER XLIX Introduction, veneration and persecution of icons.- Revolt of Italy and Rome.- Secular power of the popes.- Conquest of Italy by the Franks.- Worship of icons restored.- Character of Charlemagne and his coronation.- Restoration and decline of Roman rule in the West.-

From the book Legions of Rome on the Lower Danube: A Military History of the Roman-Dacian Wars (late 1st - early 2nd century AD) author Rubtsov Sergey Mikhailovich

Roman conquest of the lands between the Balkans and the Danube. Formation of the province of Moesia The clashes between the Romans and the Lower Danubian tribes began almost immediately after the creation in 148 BC. e. province of Macedonia. Already in 117 and 114 years. BC e. Scordisci, Dardani along with the Thracians

From the book History of Rome author Kovalev Sergey Ivanovich

Conquest of Southern Italy. War with Pyrrhus At the beginning of the III century. in southern Italy, a difficult situation arose. Greek cities experienced a difficult time in their history. The era of their prosperity is far behind. As early as the beginning of the 4th c. many of them were weakened by the struggle with Syracuse

From the book History of Rome author Kovalev Sergey Ivanovich

The final conquest of Italy The victory over Pyrrhus untied the hands of Rome. The final conquest of southern Italy was no longer a difficult problem. In the year of Pyrrhus' death, Tarentum was besieged by Roman troops. Discord began between the Epirus garrison and the citizens. Pro-Roman

From the book of Barbara and Rome. The collapse of the empire author Bury John Bagnell

Chapter 11 The Conquest of Italy by the Ostrogoths The Early Years of Theoderic of the Ostrogoths After the collapse of the Hunnic empire in the fields of Nedao in 454, the Ostrogoths, who were one of the main members of the empire, settled in Pannonia. Now they were inside the Roman frontier for the first time. This became possible by

From the book Italy. Country history author Lintner Valerio

Conquest of Italy The socio-political structure of the Republic was undoubtedly innovative. It is clear that later civilizations, both inside and outside Italy, were profoundly influenced by it. However, the fundamental and most lasting achievement of the Republic was

author

Section I Early Slave Society in Italy. Roman conquest of the Apennine Peninsula (510–265 BC)

From the book History of the Ancient World [East, Greece, Rome] author Nemirovsky Alexander Arkadievich

Chapter IV The conquest of Italy by Rome and the formation of the Roman-Italian alliance (VI-III centuries BC) The wars of Rome in the V century. BC e Formation of Roman statehood was accompanied by continuous wars with neighbors - Latins, Etruscans and Italics. During the royal period, the Roman civitas

From the book History of the Ancient World [East, Greece, Rome] author Nemirovsky Alexander Arkadievich

Conquest of southern Italy by Rome At the beginning of the 3rd century. BC e. the Greek cities of southern Italy were torn apart by internal strife and were subjected to raids by the Apuli, Lucani, and Bruttii tribes. Unable to withstand the onslaught of the Lucans, the city of Thurii turned to Rome for help.

From the book General History [Civilization. Modern concepts. Facts, events] author Dmitrieva Olga Vladimirovna

The system of Hellenistic states. Their conquest by Rome From the time of the campaigns of Alexander the Great to the east for the peoples of a significant part of the Mediterranean, Egypt, Asia Minor and Asia Minor and adjacent regions, the southern parts of Central and part of Central Asia to the lower

From the book of Constantine the Great. First Christian Emperor by George Baker

Chapter 6 The Conquest of Italy The swiftness of the offensive is directly proportional to the degree of preparedness for war. Six years have passed since Constantine left York. If we need any proof that his Italian campaign was conceived and prepared