In the culture of ancient civilizations, a special place belongs to the architecture of Antiquity, which includes the heritage of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Ancient architecture was formed in the Mediterranean, the Black Sea basin and neighboring countries until the 5th century AD. e. and became a model, a subject of admiration and inspiration for subsequent eras.

The architecture of Antiquity clearly reflects the aesthetics, tastes and morality of the ancient world, and the world of the ancient Greeks and Romans was holistic and harmonious.

The most important achievement of Antiquity was the emergence of geometry as a science and, as a consequence, the awareness of proportion as a measure of harmony. All this was reflected in the architecture of that time.

Architecture of Ancient Greece

It is curious that secular buildings in Ancient Greece were very primitive, while temple buildings became more and more complex and fanciful with each century. In place of palaces and fortresses, majestic temples appeared. They reflected the architectural heritage of the ancient Greeks.

Approximately in the 8th century BC. e. Two main directions in architecture were formed: Doric and Ionic. The Doric style was marked by a desire for perfect proportions, monumentality, and “masculinity.” The characteristic features of the direction are the significant excess of the length of the temple over the width and the large diameter of the columns, creating the impression of heaviness. An example of Doric art is Temple of Hera at Olympia.

The masters of the Ionic movement strived for lightness and grace. Ionian temples had richer decorations and were larger in size. The columns here act not only as a support, but also as a decorative element. If Doric columns seem to grow from the ground, then Ionic columns have a complex base and more subtle and rich decorations. An example of Ionic art is Temple of Hera on the island Samosa. Despite the rather transparent geographical names of the styles, Doric and Ionic buildings are in no way connected with the corresponding area.

Some architects sought to combine these two styles. So, Iktin And Callicrates achieved complete harmony of directions, combining tall columns with harmony and grace. The architect managed to achieve a harmonious combination of two styles Mnesiklos, creator of the Propylaea - the gate leading to the Acropolis.

A characteristic feature of Greek temples were columns, originating from a Mycenaean wooden pillar, devoid of any decorative elements. Stone replaced wood - this is how columns appeared.

Temples were always built on powerful stepped foundations. Inside the temples there was a statue of the deity; people did not enter the building, gathering in the squares in front of the temple.

Each Greek city had its own temple complex, sports facilities, and theater. The central part of the theater was a circular square. The slopes of the hill were equipped as an auditorium.

The temples were usually located close to each other; monumental gates with big amount altars and sculptures.

One of the most outstanding architectural complexes is the Athenian Acropolis, erected during the time of Pericles and becoming the compositional center of the city. The heart of the Acropolis is the Doric Parthenon.

The creations of ancient culture were not gloomy and faceless, as some believe, but juicy and bright, shining red, green, blue flowers under the hot southern sun.

The golden age of architecture in Ancient Greece was the construction in Athens under Pericles: in less than 20 years the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Temple of Athena the Victorious and the Erechtheion were built.

Architecture of Ancient Rome

The Romans, having adopted the rich Greek traditions, left an equally significant legacy in the history of architecture.

The beginning of the emergence of ancient Roman art covers the period from the end of the 6th to the middle of the 1st century BC. e. The Roman conquerors brought found works of art from the occupied territories, and therefore the first Roman temples and palaces were more like museums.

The architectural features of temples in Rome were influenced by construction material. So, until the 1st century. BC e. temples were built from volcanic tuff, since Italy did not have its own marble before the reign of Augustus. It was difficult to make openwork ornaments and strong beams from tuff, so architects created arches. Temples were decorated with plaster.

For the ancient Romans, symbolism was important, which was reflected in architecture: for example, the intertwining tendrils of acanthus in the patterns of the temple capitals symbolize the friendship of the Dioscuri twins, and the paired lambs remind of unity and harmony.

The golden age of the Roman Empire is considered to be the reign of Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD). The most outstanding masterpieces were created during this time. The names of the architect Veptruvl and the poets Virgil, Ovid, and Horace are associated with the period of Augustus's reign.

Rome began to change: bridges, aqueducts, and residential buildings were built. Surely everyone knows the saying that Augustus “took Rome as brick, but leaves it as marble.” The golden age of the Roman Empire was characterized by vast squares, majestic buildings, vaulted roofs, lavishly decorated pools and fountains.

The memory of the emperor has been preserved through the centuries by such creations as Temple of Mars the Avenger with numerous statues, Forum of Augustus, Corinthian columns Temple of Castor and Pollux.

After the reign of Augustus, the Roman Empire, having become a world power, changed its appearance. Architectural structures of paramount importance defensive walls are being created (for example, Aurelian's wall).

The architecture of the ancient Romans corresponded to the military spirit of the empire, strict discipline and the desire for pomp and entertainment. The most important thing in Ancient Rome was the construction of bridges, fortresses and defensive walls for the successful conduct of wars. At the same time, majestic colonnades, monuments and arches were erected on the streets of Roman cities.

Antiquity was of great importance for subsequent eras. Numerous archaeological excavations and research continue, and scientific works are written. Archaic art became the source of Renaissance culture and an undoubted standard for cultural scientists. Modern culture Europe is connected with thousands of threads to the era of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Antiquity is eternal. And more than one artist will draw boundless inspiration from the art of the ancient world.

Features of the town plan Ancient Egypt(Thebes, Kahuna, Giza, Akhetaton). Problems of the symbiosis of art and architecture.

In Egypt the most difficult stages in the development of European culture (artistic). Here, for the first time in the history of mankind, such problems as: the problem of the image of residential and public buildings, the problem of monumentality, the problem of proportion and rhythms, the problem of ensembles including works of architecture, sculpture and painting were solved. In Egypt back in the 20th century BC. There are picturesquely planned and regular cities with a geometrically regular grid of streets and distinct urban centers, including palace and temple complexes. The methods of planning these cities, their improvement and development, inclusive, were studied and creatively reworked by the Greeks and Romans, who created a solid foundation for the development of art in the future. The entire period of Egyptian history is divided into 3 kingdoms - Ancient (2780-2550 BC), Middle (2160-1788), New Kingdom (1590-725 BC). In the era of the ancient kingdom - pyramids, the middle - cave temples, the new - above-ground temples. Here is an idea of ​​the ways of development of the steel cities of Egypt: in each new reign, the pharaohs created new residences i.e. Thebes and Memphis had several centers. Thebes, unlike Kahun and Akhetaten, had an irregular layout as the city moved to a new location. Kahun had a regular layout and was more of a village than a city due to its small size. Akheteton (the temporary capital of Egypt) on the southern side has a chaotic layout: large houses of rich Egyptians alternate with residential buildings of the poor. But in all the cities of ancient Egypt, there was a main street that led through the entire city. zoning of city development based on social and property characteristics. Free type of layout. Summing up the millennium-long existence of Ancient Egypt, it should be noted the constancy and durability of urban planning traditions, explained by the natural and historical conditions of the development of this country. The improvement of the same architectural types over many centuries, be it pyramids, temple ensembles or entire cities, led to the fact that in certain periods Egyptian architects created true masterpieces, which to this day can serve as unsurpassed examples of world architecture. Pyramids, obelisks, pylons, sphinxes, the contours of which seemed to fit into the radii sun rays, testified to the deep relationship of architectural images with philosophical and religious ideas and scientific observations of the ancient Egyptians, while columns with capitals in the form of blossoming lotus flowers or papyrus inflorescences growing out of the ground spoke of a deep understanding and artistic interpretation of the surrounding natural reality. As for the typology of ancient Egyptian cities, there was a gradual development of cities of various types. If initially urban settlements were small and had a predominantly round shape in plan, then later fortified cities appeared not only round, but also rectangular in plan. Cities also appeared to accommodate construction workers and slaves, built according to regular plans, as well as sanctuary cities that had their own patterns of architectural and spatial development. Capitals occupied a special place in ancient Egyptian urban planning. Capital cities, usually consisting of the city itself and a vast necropolis, represented a complex conglomerate of palace, temple and residential buildings, which was based on the social hierarchy of the ancient Egyptian slave society.

1. Features of urban planning in Ancient Greece (Athens, Piraeus, Silenunta) Artistic and compositional techniques in solving the organization of spaces.

The history of ancient Greece is usually divided into 1) ancient (Homeric) 2) archaic 3) classical 4) Hellenistic. The settlement of the Balkan peninsula began in ancient times and was marked by the emergence of. Information about their urban planning is poor due to the fact that they were at the stage of decomposition of the ancestral layer. IN archaic era 8-6 centuries the aristocracy comes, which significantly expands the construction of temples. Cities of the Archaic era had an irregular layout and consisted of an acropolis and an agora. Back in the archaic era, the first orders were created - Ionic and Doric. The 5th century was characterized not so much by the construction of new cities as by the restoration of old ones after the war. Restoring cities such as Piraeus, the Greeks did not repeat irregular urban planning techniques; they began to use a new regular planning system (Hippodamian). In architecture classical period characterized by: 1) the perfection of proportions in temple architecture, 2) the synthesis of arts, 3) the flourishing of ensembles, for which agoras and acropolises (turned from fortresses into publicly accessible temple complexes) became the main architectural objects, and 4) the development of a regular (rectangular) city layout. Another major architectural event dates back to the classical period - the creation of the first Corinthian capital. Thus, already in the 5th century. BC e. There were three main architectural orders. Urban planning Hellenistic era combined the techniques and forms characteristic of the indigenous culture of ancient Greece with the archetypal heritage of the Ancient East. Plumbing, communications and street paving have become firmly established in construction practice. The layout received the most complete coverage later periods. A distinctive feature of Cretan cities was that they did not have defensive walls due to the presence of a fleet. Cities of the archaic era were characterized by an irregular, picturesque layout. The period of regular planning occurred at the time of the restoration of cities. The plan of Piraeus gives us an example of highlighting one compositional axis (the main street) against the backdrop of a rectangular network of urban streets. In Salenunt there was a crossroads of 2 direct highways, according to the location of the archaic temples that survived the Carthalenian invasion. Hood - compositional techniques: If the temples of Silenunta were located in the form of row buildings (they stood parallel to the coast), then in the Acropolis of Athens the temples stood at angles to each other.

Features of urban planning of Ancient Rome (Rome, Aosta, Pompeii, Lambesis, Timgad) 6-4 centuries BC. Spatial organization of the Roman forum. Roman culture in the light of the influence of Greek art and religion.

At the beginning of the republican era, Rome was a typical city state with an ordinary aristocracy in power (patricians) and plebeians making up the majority of the population. The economic basis of the Roman state was agriculture. Roman cities received one or another layout depending on the purpose of the city, its location and the territory occupied. In the composition of military camps and not big cities like Aosta or Timgad, a regular layout prevailed, but large cities and those that were located at the intersection of terrain did not have a correct layout. The plan of a Roman military camp was almost always a square or rectangle along the axes of which there were 2 main streets, one running from north to south, and the second from west to east (cardo and decumanus). These streets either crossed the entire camp, connecting opposing gates, or rested like a T. There are several stages in the history of the territorial development of Rome: “Roma of the square” - the first city enclosed within a hill, resembles a beveled square; The development of the outskirts of other left-bank hills is associated with the construction of the walls of Servia Gullia, which covered a significant territory that included 7 hills; Construction of suburban strategic roads Pompeii also does not have a geometrically ideal planning structure. Compositionally determined not geometric diagram, and the picturesqueness of the surrounding landscape. The centers of ancient Roman cities were forums (squares). In small towns, the forum was a miniature square that served for gatherings of military personnel and citizens. Trade was carried out either outside the city walls or on forums. In metropolitan cities, several forums were built and divided according to their purpose. The camp-type cities of Lambesis and Timgad were built like military camps. Such cities were characterized by a regular street layout, limited territory, and connections to main transit and strategic roads. Cities of recreation and entertainment - Pompeii. The coast of the Gulf of Naples has long been a favorite vacation spot for the Romans. The city walls, about 8 m high, date back to the pre-Roman period. The city had eight gates, of which the main ones were the Marine, Herculan, Stabian, Vesuvian, etc. Four main streets organized the city plan: the streets of Mercury and Stabian, directed towards Vesuvius, and the streets of Abundance (Abondanza) and Nola, perpendicular to them. Secondary streets duplicated the direction of the main ones. During the period of the Tarquin dynasty, immigrants from Etruria (616-510 BC), residential buildings with atriums and temples on high podiums became widespread in Rome. The Tuscan order began to form. During the period of further development of Roman urban planning, Hellenistic influences increased significantly. From the Greeks, the Romans borrowed such types of structures as the theater, stadium, palaestra, and peristyle of residential buildings. For many centuries the Romans followed in the footsteps of the Greeks. However, the time came when Roman culture acquired its original features, but even in this case, contact with the urban art of Greece did not stop. Absolutely special section Roman urban planning art consists of the additions by Roman architects of Greek ensembles, which were carried out by the Romans in almost all cities of Greece. In all cases, the Romans treated ancient Greek architecture with care and built not so much leading, but rather ordinary buildings, sincerely believing that they did not spoil, but improved the “unfinished” ensembles of the past. The desire for completeness and integrity of the architectural and planning composition was one of the main artistic principles of Roman urban planning. The significance of ancient Rome in the further development of urban culture was enormous. It is no coincidence that the revival ancient traditions in the XV-XVI centuries. happened first in Italy. Later, the ruins of ancient Rome turned out to be the breeding ground in which the urban planning principles of European classicism of the second century grew and were defined. half of the XVIII V. Besides, high level engineering art and improvement of urban areas subsequently served as an example for many cities in Western and Eastern Europe. All this suggests that ancient Roman urban planning laid down large potential opportunities, which were further developed in subsequent periods.

The planning difference between the cities of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom and the cities of Egypt (round, rhombic). Varieties of planning structure.

Compared to Egypt, the cities of Mesopotamia have been thoroughly studied, but their study is quite difficult, due to the fact that in Mesopotamia they were built from mud brick, and also as a result of destructive wars. A wide valley irrigated by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers stretches from the foothills of modern Kyrgyzstan and ends with the Persian Gulf. The settlement of Mesopotamia began simultaneously with the settlement of the Iil Valley. There were constant wars and civil strife. But periodically, the southern and northern half of the country united and during this period massive construction took place. Of the entire existence of Mesopotamia, 3 periods can be distinguished: 1) Sumerian-Akkadian 2) Assyrian 3) New Valonian. Excavations have proven that the cities, common in Mesopotamia, are divided into 2 parts: the citadel and the residential area. The existing Citadel included temples, palaces, court chambers and other general buildings. In contrast to the citadel, the residential area spread along the ground due to the fact that the buildings had 1 floor. Comparing the cities of Sumer and Akkad with ancient Egyptian cities, one cannot help but note the differences between them: the circular shape, unlike Egypt, of palaces and temples in old places, due to the fact that the buildings were denser. A characteristic feature is construction on terraces to avoid flooding. In Babylon, a regular layout, geometrically correct, was firmly established, just like in Egypt, but considering these 2 countries, it cannot be said that Babylon borrowed the planning structure from the Egyptians because there was no economic and cultural connection. The rectangular cities of Babylon differed in many ways from similar cities in Egypt: they were oriented according to the cardinal directions. As for the role of the cities of Mesopotamia in the development of world urban planning, it was very significant. Many generations of city builders in Assyria and Babylonia decided on such large urban planning for the main building of the city (in the form of a ziggurat ), the use of color as one of the compositional means in the formation of urban ensembles, the use of planning modules when dividing urban areas and much more. Summing up the millennium-long existence of Ancient Egypt, it should be noted the constancy and durability of urban planning traditions, explained by the natural and historical conditions of the development of this country. As for the typology of ancient Egyptian cities, there was a gradual development of cities of various types. If initially urban settlements were small and had a predominantly round shape in plan, then later fortified cities appeared not only round, but also rectangular in plan. Cities also appeared to accommodate construction workers and slaves, built according to regular plans, as well as sanctuary cities that had their own patterns of architectural and spatial development. Capitals occupied a special place in ancient Egyptian urban planning. Capital cities, usually consisting of the city itself and an extensive necropolis, were a complex conglomerate of palaces, temples and residential buildings, which was based on the social hierarchy of the ancient Egyptian slave society. A feature of capital cities was their enormous size, which suggests that the urban planning thinking of ancient architects was characterized by geographical scales. All this suggests that of all the ancient urban cultures, Egyptian culture was the most original and artistically rich, which is confirmed by its strong influence for the further development of urban planning in both European and Asian countries.

TOPIC: “Features of the emergence of cities of the East and ancient cities of Greece and Rome.”

1. Introduction.
2. The city and its features.
3. Features of the emergence of cities of the East and ancient cities of Greece and Rome.
4. Conclusion.

1. Introduction.

When studying local civilizations, a large role is given to the socially organized structures in which people live. Here priority belongs to the most complex conglomerate of human relationships - the city. The city is a transectoral formation. It arises during the period of decomposition of tribal relations; it constantly accompanies the history of people in the Western and Eastern Hemispheres.
Changing its character in time and space, the city in every civilization turns out to be surprisingly inherent in precisely the society in which it exists.
This applies not only to industrial society, which is inherently urban.
The city organically fits into the period of the oldest civilizations, mainly agricultural, where it included only a small part of the population and, in in a certain sense, opposed to the periphery.
In addition, the city reflects and embodies the level and forms of the general division of labor and social division, the degree and level of culture of a given civilization. This happens because the city at every time and in every territory acts as the organizer of the community of people of a given era. It concentrates the population, the number and density of which is much higher than in the surrounding rural settlements. All functions of society are concentrated in the city, gradually being separated from direct activities on the ground. These include trade exchange, industry, finance, transport, communications, construction, and defense. Administration is concentrated in the city (secular, church, civil, military, judicial, public and private institutions, seat of government, military and police agencies, educational and cultural institutions, etc.). The city provides an opportunity for different classes and groups, representatives of different ethnic groups, and other cultures that accumulate in cities to communicate with each other.
A large number of different associations are formed in the city. It can be said that city life is permeated by different communities. It consists of them, is realized in them. Each citizen finds himself at the center of the intersection of many societies. For example, in European society a burgher is often a member of almost a dozen different communities: a merchant guild, a ship's partnership, a church parish, a community of neighbors (together they fight fires, dirt and riots on the street), a municipality (as a councilor or mayor), a military militia, a burgher corporation, etc.
These associations played an outstanding role in obtaining all kinds of rights for citizens, consolidating their personal freedom, developing feelings self-esteem and self-esteem. Thus, the city played the role of an active center in the interaction of cultures at the individual and system levels.
So, if we take intersocial relations, we can see how the city organizes interaction between classes and groups, connecting society from the inside. Or territorial or ethnic cross-sections, thanks to which it becomes clear how the city communicates between different territories and ethnic groups, sometimes very distant and heterogeneous. The city was also a link between eras: from early class societies to antiquity, then to feudalism, capitalism. Then the early city became a necessary support for the emerging state and elite groups. It was the city that had a say in the formation of new societies. In old eras, the role of the city was not at all reduced to specific economic or administrative functions, the role of the city was of decisive importance for civilizations even then.
Another feature of the city is the dynamism of urban society. A special role belongs to cities and urban systems in the mechanism of social communication.
The richness and complexity of urban life, the size of cities and specific gravity city ​​dwellers in the country's population, the sphere of influence of cities on rural and semi-civilized areas, the participation of cities in the exchange of goods - all these indicators serve as an objective measure of the level achieved by domestic and international communication. On the other hand, cities are the historical core of the entire process of division of labor and the creator of various types and forms of communication. According to Marxists, the antithesis between city and countryside “runs through the entire history of civilization. The city is the core in which information and the state of civilization are collected.

2. The city and its features.

“The city is a closed (at least relatively) village, populated area, but, in any case, not one or several dwellings located separately from each other.”
In cities, houses are densely spaced; nowadays even wall to wall. A quantitative sign is a large village, constituting such a vast populated area that there is no mutual personal acquaintance of the inhabitants with each other. But this is not a decisive sign. There were villages in Russia that, with a large population, were much larger than other old cities.
From the point of view of a purely economic definition, a city can be called a populated place whose inhabitants, for the most part, live by trade and industry, and not by agricultural labor. Another feature is the versatility of the fishery. An urban and princely closed subsistence economy with a significant population cannot be called a city, although a significant part of cities arose from such settlements. A further feature of the city is the presence of a market, not in the form of a random, but a constant exchange of goods at the site of the settlement, which is an essential part of meeting the needs of the population. But not every settlement with a market can be a city. Every city is a market place, that is, it has a market as its economic center.
It happens that a city arises as a market settlement at a suitable transshipment point, or on the basis of the seizure of territory by outsiders, or as the seat of the owner of the land, the chief. Cities arose through an alliance of aliens, seafarers, and merchant settlers.
Most often, there is a unity between the economy of the prince, lord, etc., on the one hand, and the market, on the other.
The city is the place where consumers live: officials, aristocracy, proletarians, etc. The exact opposite phenomenon is also possible – the place where producers live is also a city.
Attitude of cities to agriculture was not homogeneous. There were and are agricultural cities that, in addition to the production of crafts and trade, also have a significant layer of residents who produce food. But, as a rule, urban residents have a smaller agricultural area. Sometimes land ownership was in the hands of large city corporations and local aristocrats. For example, the Chersonese possession of Miltiades.
“The relationship between the city, as the center of industry and trade, and the rural district, as a supplier of food supplies, constitutes a set of phenomena called urban economy.”
To regulate the conditions of exchange and production in cities, city authorities are created.
3. Features of the emergence of the cities of the East and the ancient cities of Greece and Rome.

Greek and Italian cities, in particular Rome itself, arose from synoism (the unification of several settlements into a single polis, caused by the development of crafts and trade) of landowning communities. What distinguished them from many early cities in Africa, pre-Columbian America, and Asia was the rather rapid and complete merging of the inhabitants of these settlements into one people, while preserving the communities only as economic and religious units. The cities of other continents remained a connection of communities with their own, forming a hierarchy of elders and leaders. In such cases, the ordinary citizen mattered in his primary community, but had nothing to do with the affairs of the larger union (city).
The history of the early cities of Greece and Italy followed a similar path, which determined the character of the ancient world: the elimination or limitation of primitive royal power, replaced by the dominance of the aristocracy. But as a result of the victories, the common people (demos, plebs) established democracy, as M. Fipli put it, on the basis of a rare phenomenon for antiquity - the inclusion of peasants in the urban community as equal citizens. Ancient democracy excluded the enslavement of fellow citizens and limited the possibility of their exploitation. Apparently, this is why it further determined the slavery of foreigners who stood outside of any urban communities and did not have any rights. Unlike the cities of the East, in ancient cities there were townspeople and slaves without any gradations or intermediate states.
The subsequent fate of Greek and Roman democracy was also similar - a split in urban society, a sharp aggravation of social contradictions and the emergence of large monarchies of the Hellenistic kingdoms and the Roman Empire, while maintaining the leading role of urban communities in them.
But at the same time, with population growth and land shortages, both the Greeks and Italians had to solve these problems in different ways.
The Greeks solved this problem by widespread colonization along the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Greek city-colonies arose.
The Romans solved the problems that arose differently. A way out of difficulties was sought in wars for the seizure of land and spoils. The first centuries of history the Romans spent in continuous wars with their neighbors, defeats and victories. As new territories were annexed along the paths of their advancement, new cities were built and captured ones were annexed. The Roman city community was the supreme owner of the entire territory; real relations combined public and private property. Communal ties were characteristic of development in Roman relations with everyone: in the family, in the countryside, in common work, in religion. The richer and more powerful Rome became, the more the number of citizens grew and their lives improved. The Romans obeyed the law. A city not subject to the law had no right to be considered civilized. Only if there is political and administrative management of the city, one has the right to talk about the settlement as a city.
In the distant past, in antiquity and the Middle Ages, the city was often a fortress and the location of a military garrison. Currently, this sign has lost its meaning. But oriental, ancient and medieval cities walls or a fortress were inherent. Such fortifications and the presence of noble persons at them were widespread. In Mesapotamia, judging by ancient sources, the development of kingdoms was facilitated by the princely power settled in fortresses, and this was also the case in Western India, Iran, and other places: the owner of the fortress was a prince, kshatriya, ruler, etc. Owning a fortress meant military domination over the district.
Thus, the fortress became the center of economic life and turned into a city.
In Rome, Italy and South India, the military camp was always close to the economic and political center. Apparently, therefore, where it was possible to easily establish control over trade, the following process was noticed: next to the monopoly right of the military leader, the prince, the desire for the right to participate in the profits from trade and in the presence of force grew among the soldiers. This led to the destruction of the monopoly of the prince, the military leader. The power of the monopoly was greatly limited, the rights of the prince were curtailed, and the power of the people was strengthened. These phenomena have been observed in ancient cities since the time of Homer. Similar processes took place in countries located in the upper reaches and estuaries of rivers, at the crossroads of caravan and river routes (for example, Babylon).
Not every city in the economic sense and not every fortress was a “community”. The urban community was known in Syria, Phenicia, and Mesopotamia.
In cities of a common structure, a class of citizens appears, possessing class privileges, rights, and had a court. Often shopping centers created special judicial districts. In China, Egypt, Western Asia, and India, they were also the seat of political associations. In Asian and Egyptian antiquity, cities were fortresses and residences of the king, but they did not have autonomy, communal structure, or a privileged class of citizens.
The first large estates are found on the banks of the Mediterranean and the Euphrates River. They have a patriciate, whose power is based on commercial capital and land ownership with slaves.
This patriciate for a long time maintained connections with the regions and alliances, having either the head of the city in the form of a king, or, as in Rome, a nobility with its consuls. Such power also existed in the cities of the Arab coast.
In the cities of Islam, tribal relations were strong. Such a city was not always a closed association. For example, the Arab city of Mecca to this day represents a tribal settlement, and there is no city representation. Instead of clans, in other cities (for example, in Constantinople) representatives of urban neighborhoods dominated, in Alexandria the “green” and “blue” parties.
Archaeological excavations modern historians have made it possible to discover and describe the ancient cities of the East, which reflect a high level of urban planning and indicate the presence of a strong centralized government.
In the excavated ancient cities of India Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, there is a complex of buildings that scientists consider as the residence of the ruler. These buildings stood on a hill and were heavily fortified. In such a citadel there were temples and dwellings of priests. In Mohenjo-Daro, a large pool 12 meters long and 7 meters wide, lined with baked bricks, was excavated in the citadel. The pool was supplied with water from deep well. The water was removed from it by a very well-designed sewer system. The layout of these cities is regular squares, separated by main streets, and intersected at right angles by narrower streets and alleys. The streets were lined with two- or three-story houses made of baked bricks. The lower floors of the houses had only doors, no windows. Light and sun came through a small hole at the top of the walls.
All buildings are stripped of decoration. This suggests that such decorations either did not exist at all, or they were made of wood, and therefore were not preserved.
In some houses, huge clay vessels were found that were used for storing food. Niches were found in the walls, which apparently contained wooden shelves. They were used as storerooms. These cities had the most advanced sewage system for ancient cities. Wastewater and sewage ended up in settling tanks. When the sump tank was filled to; , then the water from it flowed into the street canal, lined with baked bricks. There were such channels on all streets and even alleys. Wide main canals were covered with limestone slabs. The city had a large number of wells.
In China, as a result of archaeological excavations, they were also discovered big cities. Thus, the capital of the Yin state, Yinxu-Anyang, was a major political and economic center. The city covered an area of ​​more than six square kilometers. It was surrounded by a wooden wall and ditches filled with water. In the center of the city there was a temple, the roof of which rested on wooden columns mounted on bronze pedestals. Near the temple there was the palace of the ruler (van). On both sides of the palace there were craft quarters, with the quarters of foundries and jade craftsmen located closer to the palace, further from it were the quarters of stone crushers, merchants and carvers of bone products. Along with the dwellings of the aristocrats, there were pit dwellings and houses with a wooden frame, lined with damp and compacted earth, in which commoners and slaves lived. Archaeological excavations give reason to assume that a kind of water supply system operated in the city. Houses in the aristocratic quarter were connected by a system of wooden gutters, coated with clay and covered with boards along the entire length of the gutters. The water in them came from a reservoir located slightly above the city blocks. Cities in China, historians suggest, were the administrative and commercial centers of a certain region or region. Later, cities were built in China as strongholds and trading points along the entire length of the Great Silk Road.
Contemporaries were amazed by the city of Babylon, rebuilt under King Nebuchadnezzar, which he turned into an impregnable fortress. The whole system The canals were designed in such a way that it was possible to dam the entire Babylonian district, and Babylon itself could be turned into an inaccessible island. Herodotus tells the following in his “History”: “In Assyria (Herodotus calls Babylonia Assyria) there are many large cities, but the most famous and most fortified city, the capital of the king, was Babylon... It is built so beautifully. Like no other famous city. Babylon is first of all surrounded by a deep, wide and water-filled ditch. Following the ditch is a wall, 50 royal cubits wide and 200 cubits high (a cubit is about 0.5 m)... Single-tiered towers were placed on the wall along both edges, one opposite the other. In the middle. Between them there is a passage for four horses. The wall has 100 gates all around, made entirely of copper, with copper jambs and crossbars... The city itself, with many three- and four-story houses, is dissected by straight streets in different directions...”
In addition to the stories of Greek historians, unique guides to the city, deciphered by scientists, testify about Babylon.
In plan, Babylon was a regular rectangle, divided across by Euphrates. Babylon was surrounded by a double ring of fortress walls, in which there were eight gates, which bore the name of one of the Babylonian gods. It was a powerful defense system. The space between the double ring of walls has not been built up, it should serve as a shelter for rural population and livestock in case of siege. Behind the gate on the right rose the fortress walls of the royal palace with protruding towers, then there were city and commercial districts and, finally, a massive white wall rose, enclosing the main sanctuary of Babylon Esagila, dedicated to the god Marduk.
In the center of the huge palace stood an amazing structure - the Tower of Babel, created by the Assyrian architect Aradakhheshu during the time of King Esarhaddon. The tower, 90 meters high, consisted of seven tiers. Each ledge was dedicated to a different deity. The first, lower ledge was black, the second was red, the third was white. The last, seventh, was lined on the outside with turquoise glazed tiles and decorated with golden horns. The upper temple served as the “dwelling” of the god Marduk.
But most of all, travelers were attracted by stories about wonderful hanging gardens, defeated in the palace of King Nebuchadnezzar.
These famous gardens, given by Nebuchadnezzar to his wife, a Median princess, were located “on a four-tiered tower. Inside each tier, strong brick vaults were made, supported by powerful high columns. The platforms of the terraces were made of massive stone blocks. On top they were covered with a layer of reeds made from a double row of bricks cemented with gypsum. The bricks were covered with lead plates on top to prevent water from penetrating into the lower floors of the garden. On top of this entire complex environment was a thick layer of fertile soil, sufficient for the largest trees to grow here. The tiers of the gardens rose in ledges, connecting each other with wide staircases laid out with smoothly polished pink and white slabs.”
Such towers, ziggurats, were built in Babylon in every city near the temple of the main deity. Some researchers believe that the invention of such architectural forms as the “arch” and “vault” belonged to Babylonian architects, but they were found in the Sumerian kingdom in the 3rd millennium BC.
As we see, cities arose a long time ago in the Ancient East. These were developed formations, with a high level of development. Cities arose with the development of tribal relations, the location of administrative, judicial, religious, and military authorities in landowning areas. Features of the development of Eastern cities are the formation of an aristocratic nobility in places of developed land ownership. Community administrations arose in cities; councils of elders, which included representatives of the richest clans. The ancient clan traditions were very strong and passed on from generation to generation.
Architecturally, cities were fortified fortresses. In addition, cities arose along all trade routes to protect trade caravans. During wars, new capitals appeared, which became strongholds of the conquered territories with strong garrisons and unlimited power of the rulers.
In Ancient Greece and Rome, different relationships arose in cities.
The city-state of Sparta was the center of Laconia. The Spartans were conquerors who conquered it in time immemorial. The Spartans called part of the local population perieki, who lived around Sparta and in other cities, engaged in trade and craft. Perieks had no rights. In an even more difficult situation were the raft peasants, who not only had no rights, but were actually in the position of slaves. The Spartans brutally exploited the labor of the helots, while they themselves were engaged in hunting and war. There were few Spartans; they had to keep not only the conquered states in obedience, but also the population of their own country. Therefore, all life was subordinated to the cultivation of discipline, courage, and endurance. The power of kings in Sparta was limited, there was a national assembly, as well as elected positions. However, Sparta was an aristocratic republic. The main role in it was played by the gerousia, where the most noble citizens who were not related to each other were elected. All government in Sparta, between national assemblies, was held in the hands of five ephors. Every month the kings swore an oath to the ephors to reign according to the laws of the state. If the kings resisted, the ephors expelled the kings they disliked, and some could be sentenced to death.
In another Hellenic city, Athens, governance was more democratic. The People's Assembly elected the highest and state body - the Council of Five Hundred and the People's Court. All government positions were elected. The people's assembly met frequently, in which all free Athenians took part: aristocrats, poor people, nobles, artisans, peasants, merchants.
The most important affairs of the state were led by elected strategists.
Athens, participating in defensive wars, was a fortress city. They reached particular prosperity under Pericles. The best sculptors and artists decorated the city. The most famous scientists and philosophers opened their own schools. The Athens theater became the best in Hellas.
The center of Athens - the Acropolis - has turned into a kind of museum. The entrance to the Acropolis was through the Propylaea. It was a marble colonnade, on both sides there were open galleries, the walls of which were decorated with the works of famous artists. The pride of the Athenians was the temple on the Acropolis - the Parthenon, which was dedicated to the goddess Athena. Another remarkable building was the Odeon, a building designed for poetry and music competitions. Ancient Greek architecture by that time had developed the basic styles that architects still use today. The simplest and most ancient was the Doric style. Doric columns are simple and have no decorations. The Ionic style suggests columns that are slimmer and more elegant. Their top part– capital, decorated with graceful curls. The most magnificent and elegant was the Corinthian style. The Corinthian style columns end with a capital that looks like a blossoming flower.
In Ancient Rome, the main role was played by the patricians - the indigenous inhabitants of the city. They conquered the surrounding inhabitants and turned them into disenfranchised sections of the population, who were called plebeians. They could serve and own land, but did not participate in the national assembly.
At the head of Rome was a rex (leader of the tribal union) and a senate (Council of Elders). Supreme power belonged to the People's Assembly. Rex (king) did not have unlimited power, power was not inherited, and power was limited by the People's Assembly and the Council of Elders. With the strengthening of the nobility. The patricians stopped putting up with Rex's power. In 510 BC. the last Rex Tarquin the Proud was expelled and a republic was established in Rome. The patricians began to choose two consuls from among themselves for a period of one year. The main content of the history of Rome was the struggle between patricians and plebeians.
Rome is located on seven hills, which were approximately 25 kilometers up from the mouth of the Tiber River. This place was convenient for protection from attack and the development of trade with other areas of Italy. The most ancient inhabited hill is Palantine. Due to the growth of the population, other hills were settled - Esquiline, Caelius, Viminal, Quirinal, Capitoline and Aventine.
The palace of the founder of the Roman Empire, Octavian Augustus, Palatium, was built on Palantine. This palace was so famous that the English word “palace”, the French “palais”, and the Russian “chambers” came from the word “palace”.
During the Republic, the center of Rome became the Capitoline Hill, which was the most impregnable. Here was the temple of Juno Moneta. Metal money “coins” were named after the temple, since the state mint was located here.
The main temple of the city was the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus - which was located on the Capitol. With the growth of the population, the marshy area between the Capitol and the Palatine was drained and turned into a market square - the Forum, which gradually began to be built up. The most large building– Basilica Julia served for legal proceedings and transactions. Here was the temple of the two-faced Janus, behind it was the Colosseum - a place for public meetings. In the middle of the Colosseum there were rostra - stands for speakers.
The vast building of the Tabularium, the State Archive, closed the rear. In front of the Tabularium stood the temple of the goddess of Concord, in which the Roman Senate met. To the right of the Temple of Concord stood the city prison - Carcer.
The Forum was everything to the Romans. Here transactions were made, government affairs were decided, friends met, dates were made. The most ancient building in Rome was the Circus, intended for various competitions and solemn festive processions. It occupied the valley between the Palatine and the Aventine hill, which was an abode for the poor.
There were wells on the streets of Rome, fountains gurgled, and running water worked in the houses of wealthy Romans. The Romans did not know pumps. To create water pressure, they used the law of communication of vessels. The source was chosen high in the mountains. Along the water supply route, it was necessary to build powerful stone bridges on arches, which were called aqueducts.
For military parades in Rome, they used the Campus Martius, which had almost no buildings. Only after the death of Augustus did the Mausoleum appear in which he was buried. During the Empire, a huge amphitheater, the Colosseum, was built in Rome.
The Romans in ancient times were skilled landowners, they were mainly peasant people. For them, owning land was a matter of life and death. Their whole story is the story of the struggle for land. Ancient Rome was populated primarily by farmers who had a communal structure. Therefore, a feature of the emergence of Rome was the settlement of landowners in Rome, however, due to the fact that several communities were populated, the management of the city was joint, and the king did not have any real power, being limited to the People's Assembly and the Council of Elders.

4. Conclusion.

Thus, the emergence of cities in the Ancient East and the ancient cities of Greece and Rome have common features. Cities arose as administrative, political and commercial centers along the routes of conquest and trade. Most of them were fortified fortresses with military garrisons, the possessions of large landowners and rulers.
Characteristic features of cities: large territory and population, division of labor - handicraft production, small peasantry, development of trade - emergence retail space, warehouse premises. The appearance of fortified palaces of rulers, religious temples, science and art developed. A settlement became a city when a management system appeared. The cities of the countries of the East and the ancient cities of Rome and Greece were distinguished by their governance. In the countries of the East, despotic power was formed, which was passed on by inheritance and was unlimited. Eastern power relied on ancient customs and traditions. Despotism is a form of government in the East.
In the ancient cities of Greece and Rome, citizens fought for their rights. The power of rulers was limited by democratic institutions. People's assemblies and elected positions played a major role. The form of government of the ancient cities of Greece and Rome was aristocratic or democratic republic, which were based on laws adopted as a result collective discussion at meetings. Self-government extended only to the finishing areas of the city, streets, blocks, classes of citizens.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bushen. History of urban planning art. M.: Art. 1992
2. Weber Max. History of the economy. City. M.: Kanon-press-ts, “Kuchkovo Pole”. 2001
3. Vorobyov-Desyatovsky V.S., Its R.F., Lipin L.N., Petrovsky N.S. Essays on the history of the Ancient East. L.: Educational and pedagogical publishing house. 1956
4. German M.Yu., Seletsky B.P., Suzdalsky Yu.P. On seven hills. L.: Educational and pedagogical publishing house. 1960
5. Kruse M. General history of civilizations. M.: Science. 1991
6. Lyubimov L. The Art of the Ancient World. M.: Enlightenment. 1980
7. Neihard A.A., Shishova I.A. Seven wonders of the world. M.: Educational and pedagogical publishing house. 1963
8. Utchenko S.L., Kallistova D.P. Ancient Greece. M.: Educational and pedagogical publishing house. 1954

URBAN PLANNING IN THE ERA OF ANTIQUE.

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	URBAN PLANNING IN THE ERA OF ANTIQUE.
Rubric (thematic category)	Architecture

URBAN PLANNING OF ANCIENT GREECE

The history of Ancient Greece is divided into three periods:

a) archaic VIII-VI centuries BC. b) classical V-IV centuries BC.

c) Hellenistic (second half. IV middle.
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I in BC)

Natural conditions varied. Urban development areas are isolated from each other mountain ranges. The main factor is the Mediterranean Sea. The Greek city-polis consisted of an urban settlement and a rural area.

Forms of management:- oligarchic (Sparta) - democratic Athens

Policy sizes different: Sparta - 8,400 sq. km Athens - 5,550 sq. km

6 policies on the island of Euboea 3,700 sq. km 22 policies of Phocis 1,650 sq. km (every 75 sq. km)

Social composition:

1) hereditary - clan nobility: landowners, traders, artisans

2) foreigners (did not enjoy the right of citizenship): – metics

From the nearest villages - Perithecus

3) slaves up to 1/3 of the inhabitants

Cities of the Archaic period consisted of a fortified acropolis and located at its foot lower city with the public (market) square Agora.

in the VIII - VII centuries. BC. the cities did not yet have external fortress walls (ᴦ.Selinunte on the island of Sicily. The city was located on a flat rock, bounded on the west by a river valley, and on the east by a sea bay.

On the acropolis, the main temples were located parallel to each other (VI century BC). The regular layout of the acropolis dates back to the Archaic era, when two intersecting streets were laid in a north-south and west-east direction. The width of the north-south street = 9 m, it was fronted by blocks 30 m long with cross passages of 3.6 - 3.9 m.

Archaic ensembles had polychrome (red metopes) gold shields.

Pan-Greek cult centers: Olympia and Delphi.

Olympia. First Olympic Games, associated with the cult of Olympian Zeus occurred in 776 ᴦ. BC. every 4 years. During the Olympic Games, internecine wars stopped and the entire male population went to Elis, where a sanctuary (Altis) was located at the foot of the wooded Mount Kronos. The main temple of the sanctuary was the Temple of Zeus (460 BC), decorated with a statue of Zeus (sculptor Phidias) with an altar in which fire was maintained during the Olympic Games. Opposite the temple of Zeus and the altar there was a multi-columned portico - stoa - ʼʼEchoʼʼ. The space surrounded by these buildings was a prototype of future city squares - agoras.

Next to the sanctuary there was a stadium with a capacity of 40 thousand spectators. It is important to note that gentle slopes of the hill were used for seating. In the valley of the Alfea River there was a hippodrome for equestrian competitions.

The sanctuary was surrounded by numerous buildings: a gymnasium, a palaestra, etc. and public buildings - bouleuterium.

The size of the city is small. Residents: priests and judges, and artisans.

Slaves were not allowed at the Olympic Games.

The sanctuary of Olympia was formed in the archaic era, but it already had features inherent in ensembles of a later time.

1. lack of strict symmetry,
2. picturesque balance of architectural volumes,
3. harmonious unity of architecture with surrounding nature,
4. co-scale with a harmoniously built (monumentalized) person.

In progress Greek colonization methods were developed for locating cities: 1) the proximity of a convenient sea bay for parking and repairing trade and warships,

2) availability of clean drinking water,

3) the presence of fertile lands,

4) favorable conditions for the defense of the city and wind conditions,

5) the presence of natural rainwater flow

In the 5th century BC. In ᴦ.Miletus lived Hippodamus, a theoretician and practical urban planner who developed urban planning concepts of a regular plan with new functional and aesthetic principles.

New and common characteristics (Miletus and Piraeus)

1) Zoning of the territory (commercial, public, residential)

2) Orientation of main streets from southwest to northeast

3) harmonious proportions of quarters, 7: 6; 7:4

4) street width: secondary. streets – 3.5 m; main streets - 7m, leading road 15m, ᴛ.ᴇ. The width of the streets was successively doubled.

5) streets, squares and large public buildings organically fit into the planning grid of the plan.

The center of Miletus developed along two spatial coordinates. Along one there was a gymnasium with a stadium and a city park, along the other there were shopping and public squares.

These squares consisted of a southern agora, intended for trade, with shops located around the perimeter and porticoes. The southern agora had three entrances (size 166 x 128 m). The northern agora (smaller) was intended for trade in luxury goods. Between the agoras was located civic center urban community: bouleuterium – ᴛ.ᴇ. city ​​council building. In front of the bouleuterium there was an altar for the taking of the oath by the citizens of the community.

The planning composition was “open” in nature.
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The fortress walls did not have geometrically correct outlines and did not hinder the growth of the city.

The main planning unit was a block consisting of 2, four or more houses. The city developed by increasing residential units from the center to the periphery.

The Rise of Greek Culture and Architecture (Classics) coincides with the rise of Athens. Length ᴦ. Athens from west to east – 1.5 km. On the territory of the city there was a ridge of hills, among which the most massive was the Acropolis hill, 300 m long and 150 m wide, 60 m above sea level.

In the 5th century BC. Construction of the Athens Acropolis began. The first structure is the statue of Athena the Warrior (sculptor Phidias). A year later, the architects Ictinus and Callicrates began construction of the temple of Athena - the Virgin - Parthenon (447 - 438 ᴦ.ᴦ. BC) on the highest point of the hill. The dimensions of the Parthenon are 30.89 x 69.54 m.

At 437 ᴦ. BC. the architect Mnesicles began the construction of the Propylaea (finished in 432 BC). In 421 ᴦ. BC. - construction of the Erechtheion, at the same time there was a small Ionic temple of Nike (Wingless Victory, architect Kallicrates).

The large-scale and figurative contrast between the Parthenon and the Erechtheion suggests that there were different compositional plot zones on the acropolis. The Parthenon area, which was conceived not as a receptacle for a deity, but as a monument to the military and civil glory of Athens, addressed the entire Greek world. The northern zone, facing the agora, appealed to Attica and Athens. The compositional role of the Propylaea was to combine two plot-compositional principles.

Artistic unity was achieved due to: a single proportional structure of the architectural orders of the Parthenon, Erechtheion and Propylaea, as well as due to the unity of architecture and sculpture.

Each of the sculptures: Athena the Warrior, Athena the Virgin (in the Parthenon),

Athens patroness of the city (in the Erechtheion), Athens Hygeia (patron of health), Athens Ergana (patron of crafts)

had its own scale and was located in a certain place.

The Athenian Acropolis was designed to be perceived as it moved along a certain trajectory, which was associated with the famous Panathenaic holidays. The order of the solemn procession was captured by Phidias on the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon. The procession moved synchronously with the movement of the sun across the sky.

On other hills of Athens, temples were later built (Temple of Theseus).

The city was supplied with water, which was delivered by an aqueduct (VI century BC). The city was surrounded by fortified walls with gates. The Athenian agora was landscaped along the contour with plane trees. Separate residential areas were identified: Limny, Melite, Keramik.

Residential buildings are built of wood and mud brick. The dwellings were very modest, which corresponded democratic principles that time.

The Classical period is associated with the rise of Athens.

Hellenism is associated with the rise of Macedonia.

in the 6th and 5th centuries. BC. Macedonia was the outskirts of the Greek world.

Hellenism is associated with the name of Alexander the Great (356 – 323 ᴦ.ᴦ. BC). This is the period when, with the merging of Greek culture with the local traditions of the peoples of the East, a qualitatively new art was born.

The purpose of the campaigns of Alexander the Great was the desire to expand the borders of the state, colonize vast spaces, turning them into sources of slaves, seize the wealth of eastern cities, find markets for constant trade and turn the conquered countries into a colossal multilingual monarchy.

All campaigns of Alexander the Great were accompanied by active urban planning activities. Alexander the Great either built new fortified settlements, or provided funds for the restoration of destroyed cities, or made contributions to the construction of local sanctuaries.

The first city to which Alexander the Great granted funds for the construction of public buildings was the small Ionian city of Priene. Priene is located on the southern slope of the Mykalian Mountains, which terraced down to the valley of the winding Meander River.
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The city was convenient for people to live. The mountains protected him from the northern winds. Water from mountain springs was distributed throughout the city through ceramic pipes. The city is surrounded by a fortress wall, which covered the territory taking into account further growth. The size of the community center and numerous entertainment facilities are designed for a larger city.

The city plan was regular. The only passable street (west - east) was called Western Gate Street. The remaining streets parallel to it were pedestrian. The streets (north-south) were stairs. The main street had a width of 7.36 m, the rest 3-4.4 m. The city is divided into residential quarters, the sides of the quarters were in a ratio of 3: 4. In many buildings and spaces, the proportions of the “golden section” were used. Each block consists of four residential buildings. Each house consisted of a small paved courtyard surrounded by residential and service premises. In some cases there was a small garden behind the house. Only the walls of houses and fences with entrance openings faced the street.

The public buildings of Priene were located on three terraces.

At the lower level there was a large gymnasium with a square internal peristyle and a stadium. On the second terrace– the main social and shopping center.
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The center consisted of a food market agora and a sanctuary of Zeus. The agora itself consisted of a southern trading part, surrounded by a columned one, behind which there were shops, and a public part facing the Sacred Stoa. The sacred stoa (Orophernes stoa) was a gallery with two rows of external and internal columns that supported the roof. Behind the gallery were located city institutions, among which the ecclesiasterium (hall for public meetings) and the prytany stood out for their size.

On the third terrace the main sanctuary of the city was located - the temple of Athena Polyada, the patroness of the city (architect Pytheas). The Ionic peripter of the Temple of Athena is clearly visible from the agora, especially along the diagonal, which was typical of the best ensembles of the classical period.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, Priene is a unique example of Hellenistic urban planning, united two directions in the development of urban planning art in Greece: an improved regular spatial system and the ability to create monumental ensembles located in different levels.

During the campaigns of Alexander the Great, over 70 Alexandrias were founded.

The largest was city ​​of Alexandria Egypt(331 ᴦ. BC).

The city is oriented almost exactly according to the cardinal points. The main street ran parallel to the sea, its length was 7 km, width 30 m. The street had colonnades along its entire length. The building height is 20 m. The city had extensive parks. Particularly famous were the Museion garden, the sacred grove at the Dicasterion pipe production building and the Paneion park, in the center of which there was an artificial hill with a temple at the very top.

After the death of Alexander the Great (323 ᴦ. BC), the empire broke up into a number of separate Hellenistic states: kingdom of the Ptolemies, kingdom of the Seleucids; Greco - the Bactrian kingdom, the Pergamon kingdom and Macedonia.

Followers of Alexander the Great continued to found new cities. King Ptolemy founded 75 new cities, one of them was city ​​of Ptolemyada(near ᴦ.Thebes).

Among the cities kingdom of the Seleucids stood out ᴦ. Dura – Europos on the river
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Euphrates. It was oriented according to the cardinal points, like most cities of Mesopotamia, the city was surrounded by fortress walls, had three gates, and a citadel in the northeastern part. In the center is the agora. Street system- rectangular. The width of the main street is 12.65 m, 2 transverse ones are 8.45 m, the rest are 6.35 m.

City blocks occupied areas of 70.5 x 35.2 m, ᴛ.ᴇ. had proportions of 1:2.

Capital The kingdom of Pergamon was ᴦ. Pergamum. It did not have a regular layout, but developed freely at the foot of the Acropolis. Streets 10 m wide

had stone paving and gutters. The city was surrounded by walls on several sides, the main one being the southern gate. The city had two squares - the Upper and Lower Markets, three gymnasiums, and a library. The main street from the South Gate led to the Acropolis. Having passed the market of the lower city and the gymnasium, located on three terraces, it rose to a height of 250 m to the upper agora, then, after a rise of 40 m, it approached the entrance to the acropolis and led along the royal gardens.

By left side From the road there was a sanctuary of Athena with a monumental entrance in the form of propylae. The Library of Pergamon adjoins the sanctuary of Athena to the north.

Sanctuary of Athena with three sides surrounded by two-tiered white marble porticoes, open to the city on the fourth side. The Temple of Athena (Doric order) is moved to the edge of the sanctuary terrace. Below the relief to the north was the Great Altar of Zeus (1st half of the 2nd century BC). A sculptural frieze 120 m high, 2.5 m depicting the battle of the gods with the giants (dedicated to the victory of the Pergamon troops over the Galatian tribes). From the sanctuary of Athena one could get into a theater carved into the rock. Later, a gallery was added to the theater stage.

However, the Pergamon Acropolis consists of several ensembles isolated from each other, but due to the possibility of viewing, the illusion of spatial integrity of these ensembles was created. The western façade of the acropolis from the sea side was especially impressive. A fan-shaped composition unfolded - picturesque and balanced.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, urban planning of the 4th – late 2nd centuries. BC. characterized by the following main features:

1) urban spaces become an independent architectural theme;

2) the use of colonnades, porticoes, galleries in the formation of spaces in city squares to give them geometric correctness and uniformity;

3) the increasing role of the peristyle in residential architecture, sanctuaries, gymnasiums and other public buildings;

4) the development of a tendency towards closed urban spaces;

5) development of techniques for creating unified architectural and spatial compositions at different levels of complex terrain;

6) high level of improvement: paving of streets and squares, water pipelines;

7) experience in the construction of multi-storey buildings for renting out premises;

8) construction of villas;

9) an attempt to develop a cosmopolitan artistic language:

Entering into greek art oriental elements;

Scaling up architectural ensembles;

Increasing the formal-compositional side to the detriment of the ideological-artistic

Lush decoration of buildings.

URBAN PLANNING IN THE ERA OF ANTIQUE. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "URBAN PLANNING IN ANTIQUE." 2017, 2018.

URBAN PLANNING OF ANCIENT GREECE

The history of Ancient Greece is divided into three periods:

a) archaic VIII-VI centuries BC. b) classical V-IV centuries BC.

c) Hellenistic (second half of IV middle I in BC)

Natural conditions are varied. Urban development areas are isolated from each other by mountain ranges. The main factor is the Mediterranean Sea. The Greek city-polis consisted of an urban settlement and a rural district.

Forms of management:- oligarchic (Sparta) - democratic Athens

Policy sizes different: Sparta - 8,400 sq. km Athens - 5,550 sq. km

6 policies on the island of Euboea 3,700 sq. km 22 policies of Phocis 1,650 sq. km (every 75 sq. km)

Social composition:

1) hereditary - clan nobility: landowners, traders, artisans

2) foreigners (did not enjoy the right of citizenship): – metics

From the nearest villages - Periethecus

3) slaves up to 1/3 of the inhabitants

The cities of the Archaic period consisted of a fortified acropolis and a lower city with a public (market) square, the Agora, located at its foot.

in the VIII - VII centuries. BC. the cities did not yet have external fortress walls (the city of Selinunte on the island of Sicily. The city was located on a flat rock, bounded on the west by a river valley, and on the east by a sea bay.

On the acropolis, the main temples were located parallel to each other (VI century BC). The regular layout of the acropolis dates back to the Archaic era, when two intersecting streets were laid in a north-south and west-east direction. The width of the north-south street = 9 m, it was fronted by blocks 30 m long with cross passages of 3.6 - 3.9 m.

Archaic ensembles had polychrome (red metopes) gold shields.

Pan-Greek cult centers: Olympia and Delphi.

Olympia. The first Olympic Games associated with the cult of Olympian Zeus took place in 776 BC. every 4 years. During the Olympic Games, internecine wars ceased and the entire male population went to Elis, where a sanctuary (Altis) was located at the foot of the wooded Mount Kronos. The main temple of the sanctuary was the Temple of Zeus (460 BC), decorated with a statue of Zeus (sculptor Phidias) with an altar in which fire was maintained during the Olympic Games. Opposite the temple of Zeus and the altar there was a multi-columned portico - stoa - “Echo”. The space surrounded by these buildings was a prototype of future city squares - agoras.

Next to the sanctuary there was a stadium for 40 thousand spectators. The gentle slopes of the hill were used for seating. In the valley of the Alfea River there was a hippodrome for equestrian competitions.

The sanctuary was surrounded by numerous buildings: a gymnasium, a palaestra, etc. and public buildings - bouleuterium.

The size of the city is small. Residents: priests and judges, and artisans.

Slaves were not allowed at the Olympic Games.

The sanctuary of Olympia was formed in the archaic era, but it already had features inherent in ensembles of a later time.

1. lack of strict symmetry,
2. picturesque balance of architectural volumes,
3. harmonious unity of architecture with the surrounding nature,
4. co-scale with a harmoniously built (monumentalized) person.

During the process of Greek colonization, methods were developed for the placement of cities: 1) the proximity of a convenient sea bay for parking and repairing merchant and military ships,

2) availability of clean drinking water,

3) the presence of fertile lands,

4) favorable conditions for the defense of the city and wind conditions,

5) the presence of natural rainwater flow

In the 5th century BC. In the city of Miletus lived Hippodamus, a theoretician and practical urban planner who developed urban planning concepts of a regular plan with new functional and aesthetic principles.

New and common characteristics (Miletus and Piraeus)

1) Zoning of the territory (commercial, public, residential)

2) Orientation of main streets from southwest to northeast

3) harmonious proportions of quarters, 7: 6; 7:4

4) street width: secondary. streets – 3.5 m; main streets - 7m, leading road 15m, i.e. The width of the streets was successively doubled.

5) streets, squares and large public buildings organically fit into the planning grid of the plan.

The center of Miletus developed along two spatial coordinates. Along one there was a gymnasium with a stadium and a city park, along the other there were shopping and public squares.

These squares consisted of a southern agora, intended for trade, with shops located around the perimeter and porticoes. The southern agora had three entrances (size 166 x 128 m). The northern agora (smaller) was intended for trade in luxury goods. Between the agoras was the civic center of the city community: bouleuterium - i.e. city ​​council building. In front of the bouleuterium there was an altar for the taking of the oath by the citizens of the community.

The planning composition was “open” in nature. The fortress walls did not have geometrically correct outlines; they did not hinder the growth of the city.

The main planning unit was a block consisting of 2, four or more houses. The city developed by increasing residential units from the center to the periphery.

The Rise of Greek Culture and Architecture (Classics) coincides with the elevation of the city of Athens. The length of Athens from west to east is 1.5 km. On the territory of the city there was a ridge of hills, among which the most massive was the Acropolis hill, 300 m long and 150 m wide, 60 m above sea level.

In the 5th century BC. Construction of the Athens Acropolis began. The first structure is the statue of Athena the Warrior (sculptor Phidias). A year later, the architects Ictinus and Callicrates began construction of the temple of Athena - the Virgin - Parthenon (447 - 438 BC) on the highest point of the hill. The dimensions of the Parthenon are 30.89 x 69.54 m.

In 437 BC. the architect Mnesicles began the construction of the Propylaea (finished in 432 BC). In 421 BC. - construction of the Erechtheion, at the same time there was a small Ionic temple of Nike (Wingless Victory, architect Kallicrates).

The large-scale and figurative contrast between the Parthenon and the Erechtheion suggests that there were different compositional plot zones on the acropolis. The area of ​​the Parthenon, which was intended not as a receptacle for a deity, but as a monument to the military and civil glory of Athens, addressed the entire Greek world. The northern zone, facing the agora, appealed to Attica and Athens. The compositional role of the Propylaea was to combine two plot-compositional principles.

Artistic unity was achieved due to: a single proportional structure of the architectural orders of the Parthenon, Erechtheion and Propylaea, as well as due to the unity of architecture and sculpture.

Each of the sculptures: Athena the Warrior, Athena the Virgin (in the Parthenon),

Athens patroness of the city (in the Erechtheion), Athens Hygeia (patron of health), Athens Ergana (patron of crafts)

had its own scale and was located in a certain place.

The Athenian Acropolis was designed to be perceived as it moved along a certain trajectory, which was associated with the famous Panathenaic holidays. The order of the solemn procession was captured by Phidias on the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon. The procession moved synchronously with the movement of the sun across the sky.

On other hills of Athens, temples were later built (Temple of Theseus).

The city was supplied with water, which was delivered by an aqueduct (VI century BC). The city was surrounded by fortified walls with gates. The Athenian agora was landscaped along the contour with plane trees. Separate residential areas were identified: Limny, Melite, Keramik.

Residential buildings are built of wood and mud brick. The dwellings were very modest, which corresponded to the democratic principles of the time.

The Classical period is associated with the rise of Athens.

Hellenism is associated with the rise of Macedonia.

in the 6th and 5th centuries. BC. Macedonia was the outskirts of the Greek world.

Hellenism is associated with the name of Alexander the Great (356 - 323 BC). This is the period when, with the merging of Greek culture with the local traditions of the peoples of the East, a qualitatively new art was born.

The purpose of the campaigns of Alexander the Great was the desire to expand the borders of the state, colonize vast spaces, turning them into sources of slaves, seize the wealth of eastern cities, find markets for constant trade and turn the conquered countries into a colossal multilingual monarchy.

All campaigns of Alexander the Great were accompanied by active urban planning activities. Alexander the Great either built new fortified settlements, or provided funds for the restoration of destroyed cities, or made contributions to the construction of local sanctuaries.

The first city to which Alexander the Great granted funds for the construction of public buildings was the small Ionian city of Priene. Priene is located on the southern slope of the Mykalian Mountains, terraced down to the valley of the winding Meander River. The city was convenient for people to live. The mountains protected him from the northern winds. Water from mountain springs was distributed throughout the city through ceramic pipes. The city is surrounded by a fortress wall, which covered the territory taking into account further growth. The size of the community center and numerous entertainment facilities are designed for a larger city.

The city plan was regular. The only passable street (west - east) was called Western Gate Street. The remaining streets parallel to it were pedestrian. The streets (north-south) were stairs. The main street had a width of 7.36 m, the rest 3-4.4 m. The city is divided into residential quarters, the sides of the quarters were proportioned as 3: 4. The proportions of the “golden ratio” were used in many buildings and spaces. Each block consists of four residential buildings. Each house consisted of a small paved courtyard surrounded by residential and service premises. In some cases there was a small garden behind the house. Only the walls of houses and fences with entrance openings faced the street.

The public buildings of Priene were located on three terraces.

At the lower level there was a large gymnasium with a square internal peristyle and a stadium. On the second terrace– the main social and shopping center. The center consisted of a food market agora and a sanctuary of Zeus. The agora itself consisted of a southern trading part, surrounded by a colonnade, behind which there were shops, and a public part, facing the Sacred Stoa. The sacred stoa (Orophernes stoa) was a gallery with two rows of external and internal columns that supported the roof. Behind the gallery were located city institutions, among which the ecclesiasterium (hall for public meetings) and the prytany stood out for their size.

On the third terrace the main sanctuary of the city was located - the temple of Athena Polyada, the patroness of the city (architect Pytheas). The Ionic peripter of the Temple of Athena is clearly visible from the agora, especially along the diagonal, which was typical of the best ensembles of the classical period.

Thus, Priene is a unique example of Hellenistic urban planning, combining two directions in the development of urban planning art in Greece: an improved regular spatial system and the ability to create monumental ensembles located at different levels.

During the campaigns of Alexander the Great, over 70 Alexandrias were founded.

The largest was city ​​of Alexandria Egypt(331 BC).

The city is oriented almost exactly according to the cardinal points. The main street ran parallel to the sea, its length was 7 km, width 30 m. The street had colonnades along its entire length. The building height is 20 m. The city had extensive parks. Particularly famous were the Museion garden, the sacred grove at the Dicasterion pipe production building and the Paneion park, in the center of which there was an artificial hill with a temple at the very top.

After the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC), the empire split into a number of separate Hellenistic states: the Ptolemaic kingdom, the Seleucid kingdom; Greco - the Bactrian kingdom, the Pergamon kingdom and Macedonia.

Followers of Alexander the Great continued to found new cities. King Ptolemy founded 75 new cities, one of them was city ​​of Ptolemyada(near Thebes).

Among the cities Seleucid kingdom stood out Dura – Europos on the river Euphrates. It was oriented according to the cardinal points, like most cities of Mesopotamia, the city was surrounded by fortress walls, had three gates, and a citadel in the northeastern part. In the center is the agora. The street system is rectangular. The width of the main street is 12.65 m, 2 transverse ones are 8.45 m, the rest are 6.35 m.

City blocks occupied areas of 70.5 x 35.2 m, i.e. had proportions of 1:2.

Capital The kingdom of Pergamon was the city of Pergamum. It did not have a regular layout, but developed freely at the foot of the Acropolis. Streets 10 m wide

had stone paving and gutters. The city was surrounded by walls on several sides, the main one being the southern gate. The city had two squares - the Upper and Lower Markets, three gymnasiums, and a library. The main street from the South Gate led to the Acropolis. Having passed the market of the lower city and the gymnasium, located on three terraces, it rose to a height of 250 m to the upper agora, then, after a rise of 40 m, it approached the entrance to the acropolis and led along the royal gardens.

On the left side of the road was the sanctuary of Athena with a monumental entrance in the form of propylae. The Library of Pergamon adjoins the sanctuary of Athena to the north.

The sanctuary of Athena is surrounded on three sides by two-tiered white marble porticoes, and on the fourth side it is open to the city. The Temple of Athena (Doric order) is moved to the edge of the sanctuary terrace. Below the relief to the north was the Great Altar of Zeus (1st half of the 2nd century BC). A sculptural frieze 120 m high, 2.5 m depicting the battle of the gods with the giants (dedicated to the victory of the Pergamon troops over the Galatian tribes). From the sanctuary of Athena one could get into a theater carved into the rock. Later, a gallery was added to the theater stage.

Thus, the Pergamon Acropolis consists of several ensembles isolated from each other, but due to the possibility of viewing, the illusion of spatial integrity of these ensembles was created. The western façade of the acropolis from the sea side was especially impressive. A fan-shaped composition unfolded - picturesque and balanced.

Thus, urban planning of the 4th – late 2nd centuries. BC. characterized by the following main features:

1) urban spaces become an independent architectural theme;

2) the use of colonnades, porticoes, galleries in the formation of spaces in city squares to give them geometric correctness and uniformity;

3) the increasing role of the peristyle in residential architecture, sanctuaries, gymnasiums and other public buildings;

4) the development of a tendency towards closed urban spaces;

5) development of techniques for creating unified architectural and spatial compositions at different levels of complex terrain;

6) high level of improvement: paving of streets and squares, water pipelines;

7) experience in the construction of multi-storey buildings for renting out premises;

8) construction of villas;

9) an attempt to develop a cosmopolitan artistic language:

Introducing oriental elements into Greek art;

Increasing the scale of architectural ensembles;

Increasing the formal-compositional side to the detriment of the ideological-artistic

Lush decoration of buildings.