The army of ancient Rus'. Military art of ancient Rus'

The basis of the Russian army during the period of Kievan Rus, its professional core, was the princely squad. All princes surrounded themselves with detachments of “husbands”, professional warriors who made up the senior squad. Military service was a profession for them, they took an oath of allegiance to the prince. In addition to them, there was also a lower layer in the squad, called the junior squad. It consisted of “youths” - ordinary soldiers who, in peacetime, were used in the princely household as servants. In terms of national composition, the junior squad was quite diverse due to the fact that, in addition to free people, it also included prisoners of war from different tribes and peoples surrounding Kievan Rus. The junior squad also included the "gridis", or bodyguards of the prince, who had a higher social status.

As a result of development feudal relations The place of “husbands” was taken by “boyars”. Senior warriors gradually turned into feudal holders of “feedings”.

There was military brotherhood and traditions of mutual assistance between the warriors. For example, as it is written in the chronicle, they told Svyatoslav: “Where your head lies, we’ll add it to our heads.” The prince and his warriors resolved issues of war and administration of the principality. He provided them with weapons, collected tribute from the population and shared the spoils of war with them. The warriors had the right to move from one prince to another.

Under Prince Igor, noble people could have their own squads and bring them under the arm of the prince. These troops were enough in peacetime to protect the territory of the state, collect polyudia and patrol duty. In the case of repelling the raids of nomads and organizing campaigns in neighboring countries, the forces of the squads were not enough. In this case, a people's militia was convened from urban and rural residents on a campaign. At the same time, not the entire male population was attracted under the banner of the prince, but, as needed, from certain segments of the population. Thus, in the midst of plowing, harvesting or sowing crops, the Oratai who cultivated the land did not give up their work. Young youths, trappers and hunters, and free residents of urban suburbs went on a campaign.

In addition to the squad, until the second quarter of the 11th century, the Kyiv prince had at his disposal detachments of Scandinavians who served for hire. Sometimes, during a campaign, during a given period of history, detachments of nomads - Pechenegs, Hungarians and Torques - were attracted. The Russian princes, inviting Varangian squads to serve and offering them favorable conditions, saw in them a powerful force, since they consisted of military professionals.

The Russian army consisted of cavalry, infantry and a boat fleet. The main branch of the military throughout the entire period was the infantry, the basis of which was the “voi” (warriors) of the militia.

The Kyiv cavalry was initially small in number. Although the Slavs had used horses since ancient times, they preferred to fight on foot. The Scandinavians, whom the Arabs considered Russians, in their words, “usually fight on ships and do not show courage on horseback.” That is why the basis of the cavalry of the Kyiv princes were mercenary Pechenegs or Hungarians. The princely squad could also fight on horseback, but its numbers were small. They did not have sufficient skills either; their skills were enough to defeat the nomads, but, as Svyatoslav’s experience in the Balkans showed, it was clearly not enough to fight the cavalrymen of the Byzantine Empire.

Kievan Rus had powerful water systems that connected Kyiv not only with the internal regions of the country, but also with Byzantium and other eastern and Western countries. The most important of the river routes were: the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” (from the Baltic to the Black Sea); the Volga route and the route along the Western Dvina to the Baltic Sea. This determined the high development of Russian navigation in the 9th-10th centuries.

The fleet consisted of boats. The ships were hollowed out from linden, aspen or oak trunks and equipped with plank sides. Seagoing vessels were made from boards with transverse ribs. They were equipped with sails, a mast and oars. They were distinguished by their speed and capacity of 40-60 people with supplies. From the middle of the 12th century. On the Dnieper they began to build decked military ships with two rudders - bow and stern. They had greater maneuverability.

The boat fleet was an integral part of the state's armed forces. It was widely used in the wars with Byzantium. All long-distance trips were also made on boats. After the troops were reinforced with cavalry, campaigns began to be carried out in combination: the infantry followed in boats, and the cavalry walked along the shore.

The army had a decimal organization and was divided into tens, hundreds and thousands, led by tens, hundreds and thousands. Overall command belonged to the prince.

There is practically no information about the size of the ancient Russian army. An Arab traveler at the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th century wrote that the Kyiv prince had about 400 soldiers. Later sources indicate that in 1093, Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich had 800 youths at his disposal, which was considered a fairly large squad. The Kiev prince could gather a huge army, at that time. Its number fluctuated during campaigns from 10 to 25 thousand people. If necessary, Rus' could field up to 50 thousand soldiers or more. For example, in the all-Russian campaign of 907, Prince Oleg had over 80 thousand people at his disposal.

In the XI-XII centuries. Some changes are taking place in the military organization of Rus'. The “thousandth” military organization is subordinate to the prince, and the sotskys and thousandths become his co-rulers - “husbands”. An increasing place in the armed forces is now occupied by feudal militias - detachments fielded by individual princes. These detachments were called regiments. The regiments were collected in individual cities and brought to the battlefield by the princes. The regiments were named after the territory in which they were assembled (Novgorod regiment, Kiev regiment, etc.), or by the name of the prince who led the regiment.

The warriors had the right to transfer to the service of another prince. This right was confirmed every time in contracts. However, in reality such transitions were a rare occurrence, because Loyalty to the prince was considered one of the highest virtues of a warrior. It was a shame for the squad and each of its members to leave the battlefield in the event of the death of the prince, and for the prince it was considered a shame to abandon the squad in danger. Military merits have not gone without rewards since ancient times. The earliest insignia was a golden neck hryvnia, i.e. a medal worn on a chain around the neck.

Russian squads were familiar with the use of ambushes and luring the enemy with a deliberate retreat and then going on the offensive. However, it is necessary to note the shortcomings in its organization, which, first of all, included the disunity of the troops of the princes, which was often used by nomadic peoples.

The period of feudal fragmentation is characterized by the disunity of the armed forces of Rus'. Each principality was an independent or semi-independent military organism. On the battlefields, detachments of individual feudal principalities. During this period, local peculiarities appeared in military affairs, although in general military art continued to develop on uniform basis, which was laid down at a previous time.

From the second half of the 15th century. the squad was replaced by small feudally organized groups, led by a boyar or a serving prince. This group included courtyard servants and boyar children. The organization of such an army was built on a feudal principle. The smallest tactical unit is the "spissa" or "spear", which was commanded by the feudal owner.

The basis of the army were service people, who were divided into 2 categories:

Service people in the fatherland - service princes, boyars, tenants, okolnichy, nobles and boyar children;

Service people according to the instrument are pishchalniks, and later also archers, gunners, regimental and city Cossacks.

The following types of troops were distinguished:

Infantry. It consisted of archers, city Cossacks, military personnel of soldier regiments, dragoons, datochny people, and in some cases - dismounted nobles and their military slaves.

Cavalry. It included the noble militia, mounted archers, serving foreigners, city Cossacks, reiters and hussars of the new system and mounted dat people.

Artillery. It was made up of strikers, gunners and other instrumental people.

Auxiliary military engineering units. Mostly they were friendly people.

This system lasted until Peter I.

One of the disadvantages of the local army was the long time it took to assemble, the lack of systematic military training and weapons at the discretion of each warrior. A particular problem was also the failure of some landowners to show up for service. In general, the local army was distinguished by a fairly high combat capability.

The number of troops in the 16th century is unknown. According to the “upper” estimate of Seredonin S.M., by the end of the century it could reach 110,000 people, of which 25 thousand landowners, up to 50 thousand of their people (according to a revised estimate - up to 25 thousand), 10 thousand Tatars, 20 thousand archers and Cossacks, 4 thousand foreigners. In the 17th century, the total number of armed forces was more than 100,000 people.

The main governing body was the Rank Order. The Tsar and the Boyar Duma jointly appointed the commander-in-chief, other governors and their assistants. In the Discharge Order, the great governor received a royal order with vital information and “rank” - painting of the governors and military men of the regiments. Regimental governors received orders that indicated the composition of the regiment under their control, its tasks, information about their subordinates, and assigned nobles, boyar children and their people to hundreds or other services. For conscript service Each governor had 20 esauls. At the head of the noble hundreds were centenary heads, first elected, and later appointed by the Discharge Order or the governor. An important document regulating the order of the armed forces was the “Code of Service 1555 - 1556”. According to the regulations, service people came to the army as part of their units and with their own commanders, but were distributed among the regiments of the local militia.

Armament

Warriors during the Kievan Rus period were armed with massive double-edged swords about a meter long, battle axes, spears, bows and arrows. There were two types of spears. Some had heavy leaf-shaped tips mounted on a long shaft. The warriors acted with them without letting go of their hands. Other spears - sulitsa, had the same shape, but were much lighter. Sulitsa were thrown at the approaching ranks of enemy cavalry or infantry. The warriors were also armed with axes, maces, knives and iron-clad clubs. In the 10th century mounted warriors were armed with long thin sabers, which became widespread in Rus' earlier than in Western Europe.

Chain mail, copper and iron plaques, metal helmets and forged shields appeared as protective weapons; for the infantry - wooden shields, almost the size of a warrior. The shields were painted dark red to identify each other from afar. A chainmail metal mesh - aventail, which covered the neck - was often attached to the helmet. Chain mail appeared in Rus' earlier than in Western Europe, which preferred armor. The chain mail was a metal shirt woven from forged rings, each of which was threaded into four adjacent ones.

The weapons were very expensive; only the “princely men” could maintain war horses. The townspeople were better armed than the farmers, who did not always even have weapons made by blacksmiths.

Since the 17th century, infantry pikes have been used against cavalry.

A variety of axes were widespread and were also primarily used by infantry. The cavalry was equipped with a variety of light axes, as well as hammers and peckers. In the 16th century, berdyshes appeared, known as the weapons of archers.

The reeds were samples with a blade height from 190 to 500 mm. Throughout the 17th century, the height of the blade gradually increased. Reeds of elongated proportions appeared, equipped with holes along the blunt end of the blade and ornaments on the blades.

Flails were used as additional weapons. They were an ordinary rope or leather belt, at the end of which a bronze casting was attached

Swords in Rus' were quickly replaced by sabers. A wide variety of sabers were used, both domestic and imported from Eastern Europe or Western Asia. Their shape varied, but was mainly of the Turkish or Persian type. Sabers made from damask steel and also from Damascus were valued, but not everyone could afford them.

A characteristic feature of sabers of the 15th - early 16th centuries are, first of all, large and heavy blades with a length of 880 to 930 mm, with a total length of sabers of 960-1060 mm with a pronounced elman. The weight of sabers with scabbards was up to 2.6 kg. Blades are either without fullers or with one wide but shallow fuller. Blades of this type in the collection of the Armory Chamber are made of Damascus steel. The crosshairs of such sabers reach up to 220 mm. Earlier samples are characterized by a slightly curved handle with a small fracture in the middle part.

The second type of sabers of the 15th - early 16th centuries were sabers that had a relatively narrow blade. A characteristic feature of this type of saber is, first of all, blades with a length of 800-860 mm with a total length of the saber of 920-1000 mm. The width of such blades at the heel of the blade reaches 34-37 mm. Mostly blades without fullers or with one narrow fuller shifted closer to the blunt end.

The third type of sabers in the 15th - early 16th centuries. there were Polish-Hungarian sabers, which spread during the Time of Troubles as a weapon of the interventionists and their allies.

The exact date of the appearance of firearms in Rus' is unknown, but it occurred under Dmitry Donskoy no later than 1382, when it was used in the defense of Moscow. At first, cannons were used to defend fortresses, and since 1393, the use of cannons in Rus' as siege weapons. Around 1400 there was local production of at least forged trunks. The guns were of various purposes and designs. If heavy weapons were required for the siege of cities, then lighter ones were required for defense. For them, stone cores were mainly used. Medium and long-barreled guns were called pishchal and fired iron cannonballs. Mattresses with a conical barrel fired shotguns, and those with a cylindrical barrel were used for targeted shooting of cannonballs. All firearms of that time were rather ineffective, so they were used together with crossbows and throwing machines, which, as they improved, replaced them only in the middle of the 15th century. The first recorded case of our using a firearm in a kind of field battle dates back to the stand on the Ugra in 1480. At the same time, artillery on wheeled carriages (“machines on wheels”) was introduced.

Hand grips, which appeared at the end of the 14th century, were small, 20-30 cm long barrels with a caliber of 2.5-3.3 cm, mounted on a large wooden stock-stock 1-1.5 m long. They were thrown over the shoulder or the butt was clamped under the arm. The second half of the 15th century can be attributed to the use, albeit small, of hand-held firearms in cavalry. The length of the barrel gradually increases, and the design of the stock also changes. Since 1480, the term "squeaker" also refers to handguns. In the 16th century, Berendeykas were introduced among the archers. Since 1511, there has been mention of a “squeaker outfit” - small, sometimes multi-barreled guns, and fortress guns, including zatinny ones, used for the defense of fortresses. Later, the most rational designs are selected from the entire arsenal; 14 calibers from 0.5 to 8 hryvnia remain in the 17th century. Multi-barreled guns - magpies and organs - were also used in campaigns - for example, in Ermak’s campaign there was a 7-barreled gun. And Andrei Chokhov made a “hundred-barreled cannon” in 1588. From the beginning of the 17th century, hand-held firearms became widespread among the local cavalry, however, as a rule, military serfs had arquebuses and carbines, while nobles and boyar children only had pistols.

Strategy and tactics

The strategy and tactics of military operations were developed and developed by the princes and their military leaders.

The campaigns of the Russian princes were distinguished by their swiftness and combined character. They began in the spring, when rivers and lakes opened up from ice, and lasted until autumn. The infantry traveled in boats along, the cavalry - on land. Troops usually moved along watersheds as the most level and dry places. At night and in the steppes, the direction of movement was determined by the sun and stars. To rest, the army camped in an area convenient for defense, which was fortified with fences, ditches and fenced with carts. Night and day guards were deployed.

On the campaign, guards and warriors walked ahead, obliged to find food, fuel and feed for the horses. Reconnaissance was carried out through observation, capture of prisoners, defectors and spies. The reconnaissance was followed by the main forces and convoy. The cavalry army moved with clockwork horses. Armor and weapons were transported on carts.

Svyatoslav, for example, to suppress the enemy, preferred to speak out openly, declaring: “I want to attack you.” He sought to defeat the enemy forces piecemeal in two or three battles, with rapid maneuver of forces. The Russian princes skillfully took advantage of disagreements and strife between opponents, concluding temporary alliances with them.

It was possible to fight a strong and skilled opponent only by mastering his experience. U Eastern Slavs Having previously fought in a column of battle formation, a formation was born that went down in history as the “wall.” This is a dense and deep battle formation of foot soldiers. His flanks were guarded by cavalry. Such a formation with defensive fortifications ensured defense and offensive operations in battles with nomads, and with Byzantine cavalry and heavy infantry. It was distinguished by its extreme force of impact when attacking and its enormous resistance when defending. The foot formation of the Russian army adopted the advantages and advantages of the Byzantine phalanx.

To repel a mounted frontal attack, the Russian army used spears of increasing length, which were used to arm the infantry. The “wall” was built extremely dense. IN front row became warriors who had armor. The ranks were covered with almost full-length shields, behind which spears were pointed. The front warriors had short ones, and each subsequent rank had longer ones. The use of extending spears was borrowed from the Byzantines. The six-rank formation turned out to be invulnerable to Greek, and even more so, nomadic cavalry. The length of the spear at the last rank could reach 5–6 m or more. The increasing length of the spears allowed the foot formation to connect the spear tips in one row, which formed a continuous mortal palisade.

The battle began with light infantry armed with bows. The attacking cavalry was met with volleys of arrows from bows. After the start of the battle, she retreated to the flanks of the wall and supported the actions of the heavy infantry. As the horsemen approached, the foot formation lowered their spears onto the shoulders of the line in front. With a five-meter length of the back row of spears, each rider had a palisade of ten or more spears. The first and second ranks of foot soldiers with short spears sought to hit the horses, the third and subsequent ranks aimed at the horsemen. It was almost impossible to break through such a foot formation of spearmen with cavalry. For greater stability of the battle formation, a second line was introduced, which was, as it were, a reserve. The flanks of the wall were covered by cavalry.

The battle formation was carried out according to a banner - a banner, which was installed in the center of the battle formation. During the battle, the banner indicated the location of the prince. The movement of the banner determined the direction of movement of the troops. The banner, therefore, was a means of commanding the army. The most reliable warriors were located around the prince and the banner. The closer the warrior's position was to the prince, the more honorable it was considered.

During the siege in those days, large excavation works were carried out. To take possession of the walls and towers, they sprinkled earth on them or piled logs against the walls, along which they climbed to the walls. Sometimes these logs were set on fire in an attempt to set the city on fire. Taking the city by storm cost the attacker big losses, and therefore more often cities were taken by blockade. Having surrounded the city and ravaged its surroundings, the besiegers tried to starve the garrison into surrender. The besieged first of all sought to prevent the attackers' excavation work by making frequent forays. When attacking, they threw stones and burning logs onto the attackers, poured boiling water and burning tar from the walls. Cities surrendered very rarely. Usually they defended until the entire army defending the city was killed.

Over time, tactics became more varied, depending on opponents and conditions. Back in the 13th century, commanders could act independently during battle, sometimes changing the original plan. When types of troops interacted, a variety of combinations were encountered, such as clashes between infantry and cavalry, dismounting of cavalry, entry into battle of one cavalry, or some archers, and others. However, the main core still remained the cavalry.

The main manifestation of military activity, as in Ancient Rus', remained field battle. Also, if necessary, defense and assault of fortresses. Over time, the number of regiments in the army increased, and their formation began to be regulated. For example, in battles with heavily armed Germans, encirclement tactics were more effective. In other cases, different tactics were used.

During the battle, several advances could occur - the opponents approached each other and began hand-to-hand combat, after which they dispersed, and so on several times. The cavalry sometimes used bows and arrows, but their main weapons were spears. At the same time, it formed into a certain battle formation and attacked in close formation. At the end of the 15th-16th centuries, “orientalization”, “orientalization” of Russian tactics began. The basis of the army was light cavalry, adapted for long-range combat using archery in all directions. She tried to get around the enemy and make a surprise attack from the rear. If the enemy army withstood the attack, then the Russians retreated just as quickly. Later, this situation changed, but the cavalry remained the main active part of the army. Infantrymen armed with remote weapons (streltsy), as a rule, did not change positions during the battle - most often they fired at the enemy from a covered position or from their fortifications. With the formation of new regiments in the 17th century, tactics became Europeanized. In particular, active infantry maneuvers are being developed, the widespread use of foot spearmen (pikemen), and the weapons and organizational structure of the cavalry are approaching their European counterparts.



1. Introduction

2. Organization of the army

3. Types of troops

4. Tactics

5. Armament

5.1 Melee weapons

5.2 Armor

5.3 Siege weapons

6. Bogatyrs in Rus'

7. Martial arts

1. Introduction

In 375, one of the first military clashes of the ancient Slavs is mentioned. The Antic elder Bozh and with him 70 elders were killed by the Goths.

After the decline of the Hunnic Empire towards the end of the 5th century, with the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe, the Slavs returned to the historical arena. In the 6th-7th centuries, active Slavic colonization of the Balkan Peninsula took place, which was owned by Byzantium - the most powerful state of the 6th century, which crushed the kingdoms of the Vandals in North Africa, the Ostrogoths in Italy and the Visigoths in Spain and again turned the Mediterranean Sea into a Roman lake. Often in direct clashes with the Byzantines, the Slavic troops won victories. For example, in 551, the Slavs defeated the Byzantine cavalry and captured its chief Asbad, which indicates the presence of cavalry among the Slavs, and took the city of Toper, luring its garrison away from the fortress with a false retreat and setting up an ambush. In 597, during the siege of Thessalonica, the Slavs used stone-throwing machines, “turtles,” iron rams and hooks. In the 7th century, the Slavs successfully operated at sea against Byzantium (the siege of Thessaloniki in 610, the landing on Crete in 623, the landing under the walls of Constantinople in 626).

In the next period, associated with the dominance of the Turkic-Bulgarians in the steppes, the Slavs found themselves cut off from the Byzantine borders, but in the 9th century two events took place that immediately chronologically preceded the era of Kievan Rus - the Russian-Byzantine war of 830 and the Russian-Byzantine war of 860. Both expeditions were by sea.

Features of the development of ancient Russian statehood at its early stage (the presence of powerful tribal unions with local princely dynasties and large urban centers with veche self-government, their subordination to the Kiev prince on a federal basis, the features of the feudal relations that were emerging, the absence of private ownership of land) largely determined the uniqueness of the military organization Ancient Rus'.

In the centuries-old struggle, the military organization of the Slavs took shape, military art arose and developed, which influenced the military art of the armed organization of neighboring peoples and states. Mauritius recommended that the Byzantine army use Slavic methods of warfare.

The strength and military skill of the Slavs gave them victory, but not the weakness of their opponents. The strength of the Slavs lay in their tribal system, which ensured high moral and fighting qualities of warriors, cohesion and mutual assistance in battle. Numerous wars brought forward talented military leaders of the Slavic tribes (Piragast, Samo and others), under whose command long campaigns were undertaken. The offensive actions of the Slavs forced the Eastern Roman Empire to switch to strategic defense and create several defensive lines, the presence of which did not ensure the security of the empire’s borders.

The tactics of the ancient Slavs did not consist in inventing forms of constructing battle formations, to which the Romans attached exceptional importance, but in a variety of methods of attacking the enemy both during the offensive and during defense.

To apply such tactics, good organization was necessary. military intelligence, to which the Slavs paid serious attention. Knowledge of the enemy made it possible to carry out surprise attacks.

The tactical interaction of units was skillfully carried out both in field battles and during the assault on fortresses. For the siege of fortresses, the ancient Slavs were able to quickly create all the modern siege equipment.

Thus, it was not the students of the Byzantines or Varangians who acted in the 9th-10th centuries. Slavs, but rich heirs of their ancestors, who for many centuries created the foundations of military art.
Such were the fighting qualities of the Russian warrior, according to reviews of those who were not interested in praising Russian foreigners.
The military art of ancient Rus' was no less amazing.

2.Troop organization

The core of the army was the princely squad, which appeared in the era of military democracy. This included professional wars. The number of senior warriors (without taking into account their own warriors and servants) can be judged from later data (Novgorod Republic - 300 “golden belts”; Battle of Kulikovo - more than 500 dead). The more numerous young squad consisted of gridi (the prince's bodyguards - Ibn Fadlan estimates the number of “heroes” in the castle of the Kyiv prince at 400 people in 922), youths (military servants), children (children of senior warriors). However, the squad was small and hardly exceeded 2000 people.

The most numerous part of the army was the militia - the warriors. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries, the militia was tribal. Archaeological data indicate a stratification of property among the Eastern Slavs at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries and the emergence of thousands of mansions of the local nobility, while tribute was calculated in proportion to the households, regardless of the wealth of the owners (however, according to one version of the origin of the boyars, the local nobility was prototype of the senior squad). From the middle of the 9th century, when Princess Olga organized the collection of tribute in the Russian North through the system of churchyards (later we see the Kyiv governor in Novgorod, transporting 2/3 of the Novgorod tributes to Kyiv), tribal militias lost their importance.

Recruits of warriors at the beginning of the reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich or when Vladimir Svyatoslavich formed the garrisons of the fortresses he built on the border with the steppe are of a one-time nature; there is no information that this service had any duration or that the warrior had to report for service with any equipment .

Since the 11th century, the senior squad begins to play a key role at the veche. On the contrary, in the more numerous part of the veche - in the younger ones - historians see not the younger squad of the prince, but the people's militia of the city (merchants, artisans). Regarding rural people's militia, then, by different versions, smerds participated in campaigns as servants of the convoy, supplied horses for the city militia (Presnyakov A.E.) or themselves served in the cavalry (Rybakov B.A.).

In the wars of Ancient Rus', mercenary troops took a certain part. Initially these were Varangians, which is associated with friendly relations between Russia and Scandinavia. They participated not only as mercenaries. Varangians are also found among the closest associates of the first Kyiv princes. In some campaigns of the 10th century, Russian princes hired Pechenegs and Hungarians. Later, during the period of feudal fragmentation, in internecine wars Mercenaries also often participated. Among the peoples who were among the mercenaries, in addition to the Varangians and Pechenegs, there were Cumans, Hungarians, Western and Southern Slavs, Finno-Ugrians and Balts, Germans and some others. They all armed themselves in their own style.

The total number of troops could be more than 10,000 people.

In the 12th century, after Russia lost the cities of Sarkel on the Don and the Tmutarakan principality, after the success of the first crusade trade routes connecting the Middle East with Western Europe are reoriented to new routes: the Mediterranean and the Volga. Historians note the transformation of the structure of the Russian army. In place of the senior and junior squads come the princely court - the prototype of a standing army and a regiment - the feudal militia of landowner boyars, the importance of the veche falls (except for Novgorod; in Rostov the boyars were defeated by the princes in 1175).

Already in relation to the pre-Mongol period, it is known (for the Novgorod army) about two methods of recruitment - one warrior on horseback and in full armor (mounted and armed) with 4 or 10 plows, depending on the degree of danger (that is, the number of troops collected from one territory , could differ by 2.5 times; perhaps for this reason, some princes who tried to defend their independence could almost equally resist the combined forces of almost all other principalities, and there are also examples of clashes between Russian forces and an enemy who had already defeated them in first battle: victory at Snova after defeat at Alta, defeat at Zhelani after defeat at Stugna, defeat at City after defeat at Kolomna). Despite the fact that the main type of feudal land ownership until the end of the 15th century was patrimony (that is, hereditary unconditional land ownership), the boyars were obliged to serve the prince. For example, in the 1210s, during the struggle of the Galicians with the Hungarians, the main Russian army was twice sent against the boyars who were late for the general gathering.

Kyiv and Chernigov princes in the 12th-13th centuries, the Black Klobuks and Kovuis were used, respectively: Pechenegs, Torks and Berendeys, expelled from the steppes by the Polovtsians and settled on the southern Russian borders. A feature of these troops was constant combat readiness, which was necessary for a prompt response to small Polovtsian raids.

3. Types of troops

In Rus' there were 3 types of troops: cavalry, infantry and navy. Previously, horses were used only for movement, while infantry were often dismounted for battle. But professional cavalry was needed to fight the nomads, so the squad became cavalry. At the same time, the organization took into account the Hungarian and Pecheneg experience. Horse breeding began to develop. The development of cavalry occurred faster in the south of Rus' than in the north, due to differences in the nature of the terrain and opponents. In 1021, Yaroslav the Wise with his army traveled from Kyiv to the Sudomir River, on which he defeated Bryachislav of Polotsk, in a week, that is average speed amounted to 110-115 km. per day. In the 11th century, cavalry was compared in importance to infantry, and later surpassed it. At the same time, horse archers stood out; in addition to bows and arrows, they used axes, possibly spears, shields and helmets.

Horses were important not only for war, but also for the economy, so they were bred in the owner’s villages. They were also kept on princely farms: there are known cases when princes gave horses to militias during the war. The example of the Kyiv uprising of 1068 shows that the city militia was also mounted.

Throughout the pre-Mongol period, infantry played a role in all military operations. She not only took part in the capture of cities and carried out engineering and transport work, but also covered the rear, carried out sabotage attacks, and also took part in battles along with the cavalry. For example, in the 12th century, mixed battles involving both infantry and cavalry were common near city fortifications. There was no clear division in weapons, and everyone used what was more convenient for him and what he could afford. Therefore, everyone had several types of weapons. However, depending on this, the tasks they performed varied. Thus, in the infantry, as in the cavalry, one can distinguish heavily armed spearmen, in addition to the spear, armed with sulits, a battle axe, a mace, a shield, sometimes with a sword and armor, and lightly armed archers, equipped with a bow and arrows, a battle ax or an iron mace, and, obviously without defensive weapons.

The fleet of the Eastern Slavs originated in the 4th-6th centuries and was associated with the struggle against Byzantium. It was a river sailing and rowing fleet, suitable for navigation. Since the 9th century, flotillas of several hundred ships existed in Rus'. They were intended to be used as transport. However, naval battles also took place. The main vessel was a boat, carrying about 50 people and sometimes armed with a ram and throwing machines. During the struggle for the reign of Kiev in the middle of the 12th century, Izyaslav Mstislavich used boats with a second deck built above the oarsmen, on which archers were located.

In 1185 in the south for the first time (and in 1242 in the north for the last time) riflemen were mentioned as a separate branch of the military and a separate tactical unit. The cavalry begins to specialize in direct strikes with edged weapons and in this sense begins to resemble medieval Western European cavalry. Heavily armed spearmen were armed with a spear (or two), a saber or a sword, bows or bows with arrows, a flail, a mace, and, less commonly, a battle hatchet. They were fully armored, including the shield. In 1185, during a campaign against the Polovtsians, Prince Igor himself, and with him the warriors, not wanting to break out of the encirclement on horseback and thereby abandon the black people to the mercy of fate, dismounted and attempted a breakthrough on foot. Next, an interesting detail is indicated: the prince, after receiving a wound, continued to move on his horse. As a result of the repeated defeat of the northeastern Russian cities by the Mongols and Horde and the establishment of control over the Volga trade route in the second half of the 13th century, regression and reverse unification of the Russian troops occurred

4. Slavic tactics

When cavalry was insignificant, the main infantry battle formation was the "wall". Along the front it was about 300m and in depth reached 10-12 ranks. The warriors in the front ranks had good defensive weapons. Sometimes such a formation was covered from the flanks by cavalry. Sometimes the army lined up like a ramming wedge. This tactic had a number of disadvantages in the fight against strong cavalry, the main ones: insufficient maneuverability, vulnerability of the rear and flanks. In the general battle with the Byzantines near Adrianople in 970, the weaker flanks (Hungarians and Pechenegs) were ambushed and defeated, but the main Russian-Bulgarian forces continued to fight their way through the center and were able to decide the outcome of the battle in their favor.

In the 11th-12th centuries the army was divided into regiments. In the 11th century, the main battle formation became the “regimental row,” which consisted of a center and flanks. As a rule, the infantry was in the center. This formation increased the mobility of the army. In 1023, in the Battle of Listven, one Russian formation with a center (tribal militia) and two powerful flanks (druzhina) defeated another Russian simple formation of one regiment.

Already in 1036, in the decisive battle with the Pechenegs, the Russian army was divided into three regiments, which had a homogeneous structure, based on territoriality.

In 1068, on the Snova River, the 3,000-strong army of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich of Chernigov defeated the 12,000-strong Polovtsian army. During the campaigns against the Polovtsians under the Kiev rule of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh, Russian troops repeatedly fought surrounded due to the multiple numerical superiority of the enemy, which did not prevent them from winning victories.

The Russian cavalry was homogeneous; different tactical tasks (reconnaissance, counter strike, pursuit) were performed by units with the same method of recruitment and the same organizational structure. TO end of XII century, to the division into three regiments along the front, a division into four regiments in depth was added.

To control the troops, banners were used, which served as a guide for everyone. Musical instruments were also used.

5. Armament

5.1 Melee weapons

Edged weapons of Ancient Russia are edged weapons designed to defeat the enemy and used on the territory of Rus' in the period from the 9th to the 13th-14th centuries.

From the 9th-10th centuries, Russian warriors began to use a saber, borrowed along with its very name from the Khazar-Magyar weapons complex. These weapons were obviously used primarily by mounted warriors, and were more common in the south and southeast. Between the 10th and 13th centuries, about 150 sabers were found in Rus', which is slightly less than swords. It is difficult to judge the place of production of sabers; there was both import and local production; It is impossible to say which of these was superior. The sabers of noble people were decorated with gold, silver, and niello. In the 10th century they begin to displace swords; in XI-XIII they penetrate into the north of Rus'. However, the sword still remains the more important weapon. In general, the sabers of Eastern Europe and their neighbors were similar. At first, their length reached 1 meter, the curvature was 3-4.5 cm. In XII-XIII, the length of sabers increases by 10-17 cm, the curvature reaches 4.5-5.5 and even 7 cm. The width averaged 3-3.8 cm, but sometimes reached 4.4 cm. So sabers, unlike swords, became more massive. The design of the handle was actively modified; there were several Russian types. The technology for making saber blades has been less studied. More often they were all-steel. Since the 12th century, they were forged from carburized iron blanks, after which repeated hardening was carried out using a particularly complex technology, resulting in a product with the required heterogeneity - the hardest were the blades. At the same time, even before this, non-monolithic blades were produced. In one case, they were welded from two strips - an iron strip was welded to a steel strip with a blade, forming a blunt. In another, a blade of steel, usually high-carbon, was welded into a strip, which sometimes already consisted of iron and low-carbon steel strips.

As a rule, the blade consisted of steel blades welded onto a metal base. This foundation was often iron, but not always. It could consist, for example, of three steel plates; of two steel plates on an iron core; be all-steel; of two damascus plates on an iron core. There were also cheap all-iron cemented swords. On average, their length was about 95 cm, and their weight reached 1.5 kg. The handle consisted of a crosshair, a pommel and a rod, according to the design of which finds can be classified. About 75 swords from the 11th to 13th centuries were found. This is due to the fact that they gradually stopped putting them in burials. They became smaller than the previous swords: the average length was up to 86 cm and the weight was about 1 kg. It's already getting long. Technology is also being simplified. At the same time, heavy swords are also known, up to 2 kg and 120 cm. In general, the swords used in Rus' are not particularly different from those used in other European countries. In addition, swords that are lighter and more convenient for mounted combat stand out. If swords were mainly cutting weapons, then in the 13th century the piercing action became important. Swords were imported from Western Europe, or rather, from the Carolingian Empire. However, many handles for them were made in Rus'.

A very common weapon was the axe. About 1600 of them were found on the territory of Ancient Rus'. They were used by the Slavs since ancient times, and as weapons were mentioned in written sources back in the 8th century. It is possible to divide axes into working and combat axes, but such a division will be inaccurate; in addition, working axes could well be used in war. Three groups can be distinguished:

Special battle axes-hammers, with decorations, characteristic in design and small in size.

Battle axes, universal tools for marching and fighting, resembled industrial axes, but were smaller.

Small narrow-bladed hatchets with a carved butt and upper and lower jaws are exclusively for military purposes. Used until the 12th century.

Axes with a blade pulled down, two pairs of side cheeks and an elongated carved butt; were the most widespread type. Perhaps they have Russian origin, spread at the end of the 10th century; in XII-XIII their design was simplified by replacing the cheeks with cape-like protrusions on the back side of the butt.

Beard-shaped axes with a cutout, a lowered blade, a straight upper edge and side cheeks on the underside of the butt. They are of Northern European origin. Used from the 10th to the 12th centuries. Until the 13th century, similar axes with two pairs of cheeks were also used, and in the 13th century - without them at all.

Norman axes with a wide blade.

Narrow-edged axes with side jaws, prototypes of which in Eastern Europe date back to the first half of the 1st millennium AD. e.. They are more characteristic of the Finno-Ugrians than the Slavs, and have mainly a domestic purpose - the number of combatants among them is extremely small.

Broad-bladed axes, although they were encountered, were rare, and were noted in the 11th century. They are the predecessors of berdyshes.

Working axes, heavier and more massive, were probably rarely used in war.

Battle axes from total number amount to more than 570. The usual dimensions of axes of the first two groups are: blade length 9-15 cm, width up to 10-12 cm, diameter of the butt hole 2-3 cm, weight up to 450 g (minted axes - 200-350 g). Working axes are noticeably larger: length from 15 to 22 cm (usually 17-18 cm), blade width 9-14 cm, sleeve diameter 3-4.5 cm, weight usually 600-800 g. The hammered hatchets were distinguished by the fact that the butt was equipped with a small hammer. They came from the southeast, and the number of finds was slightly less than 100. They were distinguished by a triangular, less often trapezoidal blade. Perhaps the most widespread axes with side cheeks, and often with a blade pulled down and an elongated carved butt, are of Russian origin. Axes of the northern type, with a rounded blade, were also used. In general, the arsenal of axes used was very diverse. Axes were made of steel, and often featured a welded blade. The length of the handle averaged about 80 cm.

Maces appear in ancient times; their spread among the Russian army in the 11th century is the result of southeastern influence. More than 100 iron and bronze tops of Old Russian maces have been found. Their collective Old Russian name is cue (in Polish this is still the name for a stick, especially a heavy one).

Among the oldest Russian finds are iron pommels (more rarely bronze) in the shape of a cube with four massive spikes arranged crosswise. They date back to the 9th-11th centuries.

A little later, their simplified form appears - a cube with cut corners. The role of spikes was played by pyramidal projections. Such maces were most common in the 12th-13th centuries (almost half of the finds), and were also used by the common population, including peasants. The weight of the pommels was 100-350 g.

Sometimes there were pecking clubs. They were of the same shape as the previous ones, but on one side they were equipped with a beak-like protrusion.

In the 12th-13th centuries, bronze maces filled with lead became widespread. complex shapes with 4-5 pyramidal spines. Sometimes they turned golden. The mass of their pommels was 200-300 g.

Bronze pommels with 4 large and 8 small spikes of the same weight, sometimes with decorative bulges around the spikes, are also common. This was the second most common type, accounting for more than a quarter of the finds.

In addition to maces with spikes, maces with spherical heads, often iron, as well as multi-bladed maces were used. Their weight was 150-180 grams.

The use of six-fingers began in the 13th century.

Maces were more common in the south of Rus', especially in Kyiv, than in the north. They were weapons of both cavalry and infantry. The length of the handle on average was at least 50-60 cm. Maces, clubs, and oslops were also used in the infantry.

Spears were also an ancient and common weapon. Information about their military use dates back to the 6th century. There were several types of them, and about 800 tips were found. Small throwing darts - sulitsa, were also used to inflict piercing damage. The following types of copy tips can be distinguished:

The feather is lanceolate, rhombic in cross-section, smoothly turning into a sleeve. Connected with Western influence. X-XI centuries.

Diamond-shaped, with an edge on the blade. We met very rarely. IX-XI centuries.

Wide, elongated triangular feather, rhombic or pointed-oval in cross-section; massive bushing. A very common type. The shape of the tip within these limits was different, and sometimes it was quite wide, and sometimes, on the contrary, and such a spear resembled a pike (over time, it was narrow tips that predominated).

The feather is oblong-ovoid in shape with rounded shoulders, smoothly turning into a low bushing.

Laurel-shaped feather. This includes slingshots - massive spears, the weight of which was 700-1000 g (with the weight of a regular spear being 200-400 g). Distributed since the 12th century.

A feather in the form of a tetrahedral rod, in cross-section, rhombic, square, or, less commonly, in the form of an equal-pointed cross. With funnel bushing. These were the peaks. Until the 11th-12th centuries, they were the second most common, after the elongated triangular type, and then surpassed it. The oldest finds date back to the 8th century.

An elongated triangular tip with a petiole. They appear around the 6th century and fall out of use in the 11th century.

Spears with a double-pronged feather (harpoons), the two points were directed back to ensure that the tip stuck in the body. Most likely they were intended for hunting.

Spears with a knife-shaped tip. We met quite rarely.

There are references to other types of polearms - battle hooks and, possibly, owls. Although spearheads were often forged all-steel (occasionally all-iron), more technologically advanced specimens were also often found. Thus, tips were used from an iron base, onto which steel blades were welded; as well as spears with a multi-layer feather welded into the socket; less commonly, cemented tips.

The bow and arrow, the most important weapon for long-range combat and commercial hunting, has been used extremely widely and since ancient times in Rus'. Almost all more or less significant battles could not be done without archers and began with a shootout. While several thousand arrowheads were found, only more than 50 crossbow bolts were found. Mostly, high-quality compound bows were used. They usually consisted of two arms attached to a handle. The shoulders were glued together from different types of wood, usually birch and juniper. Their length was usually more than a meter, and their shape was close to M-shaped. More complex bows were also used quite widely, one of the elements of which were bone linings, and sometimes whalebone. Crossbows, the appearance of which dates back to the 12th century, were used less frequently. Their bulbs were sometimes made, like bows, composite. In the second half of the 12th century, belt hooks for tightening the bowstring appeared; and in the first half of XIII there is a mechanism for tensioning it, a rotation; the finds of a hook in Izyaslavl and a wheel gear in Vshchizhe are the oldest in Europe. In the 13th century they began to be widely used. Various arrows were used for archery - armor-piercing, shearing, incendiary and others. Their average length was 75-90cm. They were equipped with plumage of 2 or 4 feathers. The vast majority of tips were stalked, and their shape was very diverse. They were made of iron or steel. Three-blade and flat wide tips were used against unarmored opponents; double-spikes got stuck in the body and complicated the wound; the cutters were distinguished by a wide cutting tip and included many varieties; awl-shaped ones pierced chain mail, and faceted and chisel-shaped ones pierced plate armor. Crossbow bolts were shorter and had a heavier tip.

5.2 Armor

By the 8th-9th centuries, the spread of chain mail began. They were made from rings made of iron wire, which reached 7-9 and 13-14 mm in diameter, and 1.5-2 mm in thickness. Half of the rings were welded, and the other was riveted together during weaving (1 to 4). In total, there were at least 20,000 of them. Later, there were chain mail with copper rings woven in for decoration. The ring size is reduced to 6-8 and 10-13mm. There were also weavings where all the rings were riveted together. Old Russian chain mail, on average, was 60-70 cm in length, about 50 cm or more in width (at the waist), with short sleeves of about 25 cm and a split collar. At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, chain mail made of flat rings appeared - their diameter was 13-16 mm with a wire width of 2-4 mm and a thickness of 0.6-0.8 mm. These rings were flattened using a stamp. This shape increased the coverage area with the same weight of armor. In the 13th century, a pan-European heavier armor took place, and knee-length chain mail appeared in Rus'. However, chain mail weaves were also used for other purposes; around the same time, chain mail stockings (nagavitsy) appeared. And most helmets were equipped with aventail. Chain mail in Rus' was very common and was used not only by the squad, but also by humble warriors.

In addition to chain mail, lamellar armor was used. Their appearance dates back to the 9th-10th centuries. Such armor was made from iron plates of a close to rectangular shape, with several holes along the edges. Through these holes, all the plates were connected with straps. On average, the length of each plate was 8-10 cm, and the width was 1.5-3.5 cm. More than 500 of them were needed for the armor. The lamellar looked like a hip-length shirt, with a hem that flared downward, and sometimes with sleeves. According to archeology, in the 9th-13th centuries there was 1 lamellar for every 4 pieces of chain mail, while in the north (especially in Novgorod, Pskov, Minsk) plate armor was more common. And later they even supplant chain mail. There is also information about their export. Scale armor was also used, which were plates measuring 6 by 4-6 cm, attached at the top edge to a leather or fabric base. There were also brigantines. To protect hands from the end of XII- beginning of XIII folded bracers have been used for centuries. And at the end of the 13th century, early mirrors appeared - round plaques worn over armor.

Large shields were protective weapons of the ancient Slavs, but their design is unknown. In the 10th century, round, flat, wooden, leather-covered shields with an iron umbo were common. Since the beginning of the 11th century, almond-shaped shields, convenient for riders, have been widely used. And from the middle of the 13th century they begin to turn into triangular ones.

IN mid-XIII century, the Galician-Volyn army had horse armor, called Tatar by the chronicler (mask and leather blanket), which coincides with Plano Carpini’s description of Mongolian horse armor.

5.3 Siege weapons

In Ancient Rus' there was the use of throwing machines. The earliest report of their use by the Slavs dates back to the end of the 6th century - in the description of the siege of Thessaloniki in 597. In the Greek source they are described as follows: “They were quadrangular on wide bases, ending in a narrower upper part, on which there were very thick drums, with iron edges, and wooden beams (like beams in a large house) with slings were driven into them (sphendons), raising which they threw stones, both large and numerous, so that neither the earth could bear their hits, nor human structures. But in addition, only three of the four sides of the ballistae were surrounded by boards, so that those inside were protected from being hit by arrows fired from the walls." During the siege of Constantinople in 626 by the Slavic-Avar army, the siege equipment consisted of 12 copper-clad mobile towers, several rams, “turtles” and throwing machines covered with leather. Moreover, it was mainly Slavic detachments that manufactured and serviced the vehicles. Arrow-throwing and stone-throwing machines are also mentioned during the siege of Constantinople in 814 by the Slavic-Bulgarian army. During the times of Ancient Rus', the use of throwing machines by both the Byzantines and the Slavs, notes Lev Deacon, speaking about the campaigns of Svyatoslav Igorevich. The message from the Joachim Chronicle about the use of two vices by the Novgorodians against Dobrynya, who was going to baptize them, is rather legendary. By the end of the 10th century, the Russians stopped raiding Byzantium, and a change in tactics led to a decrease in the use of siege weapons. Now the besieged city is taken either by a long blockade or by sudden capture; The fate of the city was most often decided as a result of a battle near it, and then the main type of military action was a field battle. Throwing weapons were used again in 1146 by the troops of Vsevolod Olgovich during the unsuccessful siege of Zvenigorod. In 1152, during the assault on Novgorod-Seversky, they destroyed the wall with stones from vices and took the fort, after which the struggle ended in peace. The Ipatiev Chronicle notes that the Polovtsians, led by Konchak, went to Rus'; they had an Islamic master with them, servicing powerful crossbows, which required 8 (or 50) people and “live fire” to pull. But the Polovtsians were defeated and the cars fell to the Russians. Shereshirs (from the Persian tir-i-cherkh), mentioned in the Tale of Igor's Campaign, may have incendiary shells that were thrown from similar crossbows. Arrows for them have also been preserved. Such an arrow was in the form of an iron rod 170 cm long with a pointed end and a tail unit in the form of 3 iron blades, weighing 2 kg. In 1219, the Russians used large stone-throwing and flame-throwing crossbows during the assault on the Bulgarian city of Oshel. In this case, Russian siege technology developed under West Asian influence. In 1234, vice was used in a field internecine battle, which ended in peace. In the 13th century, the use of throwing machines increased. Great importance here the invasion of the Mongols played a role, who used the best technology that time. However, throwing weapons were also used by the Russians, for example, in the defense of Chernigov and Kholm. They were also actively used in wars with the Polish-Hungarian invaders, for example, in the battle of Yaroslav in 1245.

6. Bogatyrs in Rus'

Ancient Rus' has long been famous for its heroes, whose exploits never cease to amaze our generation. Since ancient times, the Rus (Rus) have been described as This people (the Dews) is mighty, and their physique is strong, and they have great courage. . Russian squads were feared everywhere from Byzantium to the nomadic tribes of the East (Khazars).

Even without delving into the details, you can understand that in order to survive at that time, a person had to be a warrior and protect his family. Let's look at the weapons that were in use in ancient Rus'. First of all, it is chain mail made of woven rings; usually metal plates are put on top of it, giving additional protection to the most important organs. There was also a wooden and iron shield, greaves were put on the legs, and in the hands there was either a club or a sword. In general, to summarize, a warrior went into battle carrying more than 30 kilograms of weapons. If we also take into account that ancient battles sometimes lasted for days, then one must imagine what incredible strength the ancient Russian warriors must have had, while in order to survive the warrior had to not only wave a sword, but also dodge, crouch and much more. Another question is that warriors from an early age were accustomed to such large physical activities. Usually, children were simply sent to the squads, but such cases are few, so teenagers who usually turned 18 years old came to the squads; usually these were middle or younger sons who had not received their father’s inheritance. In the squad, they spent the whole day cleaning their weapons and training, so to speak, usually it was training with weapons and in full armor. The princely squads were more strict with training. In which, since the time of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, people from the people began to be attracted as opposed to mercenaries. But usually teenagers came to the squads already significantly prepared. They developed dexterity in children's outdoor games with peers, accuracy in hunting, and they learned to fight during numerous festivals (such as Maslenitsa), when after burning effigies and starting the wheels it was usually like a funny game wall to wall (usually it was village to village), where every teenager could learn the basics of fist fighting. Later, fist fights became synonymous with duels, when the offended person could challenge the offender to a fight with these honest people - a vivid example. Such a duel is described in song about the merchant Kalashnikov.

In the squad, the prince was an example for everyone. Who himself led his squad into battle. Vivid examples Such a feat is Prince Dmitry Donskoy and the Battle of Kulikovo, in which the prince, dressed in the equipment of a simple soldier, fought in the front ranks.

At many fairs, people made fun of bending coins with their fingers, twisting cast iron pokers into a knot, for this there was a great incentive for the prince to invite the most distinguished person into his squad.

Also to great attention was devoted to weapons. After all, in order to swing a sword (this is the lightest weapon) all day you had to have incredible endurance. The Slavic-Goritsky struggle gave great development to this. A sort of synonym for martial arts, where domains (totems) dedicated to various animals were also distinguished. The most common totem was the bear totem. As in martial arts, the Slavic-Goritsky wrestling had its own philosophy cleansing the soul and body (which is like a healthy mind in a healthy body).

Also, the warriors were trained to swim in chain mail, with full armor. Russian heroes performed many feats of arms during the Mongol-Tatar yoke. One example is the exploits of the hero Evpatiy Kolovrat, who with his small detachment tormented Batu. Even after Batu’s army surrounded his detachment, he did not surrender and even during the battle he cut down the Mongol leader of the detachment according to the description of the strongest warrior among the Mongol army in half. Batu had no choice but to bombard Kolovrat’s detachment with cannonballs from catapults.

What is the reason for the health of the ancient Russian warriors?
The first thing is, of course, training, training with weapons that developed muscles and endurance. Secondly, this is, of course, pure ecology and food, as well as unique diets (the church played a huge role in this, the same fast that limited the intake of alcohol). And also constant exercise stress, because at that time there was no automation of any kind. In villages, blacksmiths usually stood out for their strength. But there are also examples of ordinary workers performing their own feats. One such example is the folk hero of epics Nikita Kozhemyaka the tanner, who defeated the Pecheneg hero, for which he was accepted into the squad of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich.

With the gradual improvement of weapons, the need for greater physical strength disappeared. Chain mail was replaced by uniforms, heavy swords were replaced by light broadswords, and the need for shields disappeared altogether. And on the battlefield, it was not the skill of the soldier that played a big role, but the tactics of the commander. But still, even in the days of firearms, Russian soldiers showed their remarkable physical abilities. During the Patriotic War of 1812, soldiers carried cast iron cannons on themselves. There is also a case where a Russian soldier fought off the French with a ramrod. Over time, a heroic physique became a rarity and it became the privilege of booths and circuses. During the times of Tsarist Russia, the names of Russian athletes thundered throughout Europe. Who was amazed at the ability of Russian heroes to throw two- and three-pound weights with a sweet smile on their faces.

7. Martial arts

Martial art is a set of certain combat techniques. in physical and technical terms, and spiritual harmony and tranquility in philosophical terms. That is, every technique or action is not possible without spiritual harmony. That's what they said in the east.

Martial arts came to the Slavs from ancient times, and have thousands of years of history. These were rather combat systems, even just a series of techniques, quite limited in every sense of the word, based on a person’s physical data, in other words, waving his arms in the hope of getting somewhere. This is the case when we are talking about hand-to-hand combat. Fighting with weapons developed much faster, if only because a stone hits harder than a hand, and by tying it to a rope or stick, without much strength or preparation, you can cause significant damage to the enemy. When working with weapons, the first thing that attracts attention is the approach to security. In the west it is. means to withstand the blow. Hence the desire for heavy armor and, consequently, for weapons capable of piercing or piercing them - axes and clubs, on the one hand, coins, pikes and stilettos, on the other. And this affects the technique of striking with maximum use of the inertial force of heavy weapons, with hard blocks and all that. Heavy defense hampered movement, and there were no developed systems for leaving the line of attack or bypassing the enemy. The European understanding of security leads to the desire to keep the enemy away from oneself with the help of a fairly long weapon.

Fist fights were often held in Ancient Rus'. They existed in Russia from ancient times until the beginning of the 20th century. In addition to entertainment, fist fighting was a kind of school of war, developing among the people the skills necessary to defend the Motherland. To denote competitions, in addition to the term “fist fight”, the following terms were used: “fists”, “boiovishche”, “navkulachki”, “fist striker”, “fighter”.

Rules and types of fist fighting

Fist fights were usually held on holidays, and the rampant fighting began during Maslenitsa. According to the number of participants, they were divided into: “street to street”, “village to village”, “settlement to settlement”. In summer the battle took place in squares, in winter - on frozen rivers and lakes. Both ordinary people and merchants took part in the battles.

There were types of fist fighting: “one on one”, “wall to wall”. Considered a type of fist fight, “clutch-dump”, in reality it is an independent martial arts, the Russian analogue of pankration, a fight without rules. ancient army hero weapon

The most ancient type of combat is the “clutch-dump” fight, which was often called “clutch fighting”, “scattered dumping”, “dumping fight”, “clutch fight”. It was a confrontation between fighters who fought without observing formation, each for himself and against everyone. According to the mention of N. Razin: “Here it was necessary to have not only dexterity and a strong blow, but also special composure.”

Russian fighters used only punches - anything that cannot be clenched into a fist is not a fist fight. Three striking surfaces were used, which corresponds to three striking surfaces of the weapon: the heads of the metacarpal bones (a thrust with a weapon), the base of the fist from the little finger (a chopping blow with a weapon), the heads of the main phalanges (a blow with a butt). You could hit any part of the body above the waist, but they tried to hit the head, solar plexus(“into the soul”), and under the ribs (“under the mikitki”). The continuation of the fight on the ground (wrestling on the ground) was never used. There were certain rules according to which it was forbidden to beat a person who was lying down or bleeding, to use any weapon, and one had to fight with bare hands. Failure to comply with the rules was severely punished. Despite the strict rules, fights sometimes ended in failure: the participant could be injured, and there were also deaths.

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The armed forces of the Old Russian state consisted of the senior and junior squads of the prince, the squads of the prince’s “husbands,” that is, the squads of his boyars and princes, and the “warriors” - the city and rural militia. The princely squads formed the core of the Russian army. For large campaigns, allies and mercenaries were brought in, in particular the Pechenegs and Cumans.

Senior squad consisted of “princely husbands”, or boyars. In peacetime, she formed a council under the prince and, thus, participated in government; During the war, the squad was a reserve for the governors who led individual detachments of the army.

Junior squad(“youths”, “children’s”) was the prince’s personal guard. The prince supplied his squads with weapons, clothing and food, and shared booty with the warriors.

The leaders of the “warriors” were governors And thousand . The support was the princely squad, with whom the prince held council at critical moments. The prince’s decision was binding on the entire army.

The social base of recruitment determined the character of the army and the organization of the military branches: infantry and cavalry. The squads usually consisted of cavalry, which was reinforced by allies or mercenaries from nomads; "voi" - infantry. At the same time, the cavalry, depending on the situation, fought on horseback or on foot.

The Russian army, using the rich system of rivers and the Russian Sea, made long campaigns. In the campaigns to the Volga and the Caucasus alone, the army under the command of Svyatoslav covered over 3 thousand km by land and about 1.5 thousand km along rivers. In campaigns along rivers and seas, a large role was played by the boat fleet, which consisted of light boats that could carry up to 40 people each. In the chronicles of the mid-12th century. boats with decks are mentioned. The boat fleet was not only a means of transport, but also entered into battle with sea ​​ships enemy.

The number of troops of the ancient Russian state reached a significant figure: according to Leo the Deacon, Svyatoslav had 60 thousand people on the campaign to Bulgaria. The army had a certain organization associated with the organization of Russian cities.

The city exhibited a “thousand”, divided into hundreds and tens (by “ends” and streets). The “thousand” was commanded by the tysyatsky, who was elected by the veche; subsequently, the tysyatsky was appointed by the prince. “Hundreds” and “tens” were commanded by elected officials sotskie And ten's . Cities fielded infantry, which at that time was the main branch of the army and was divided into archers and spearmen.

The Slavs were armed with spears, swords, maces, axes, boot knives and bows. Protective equipment consisted of chain mail armor, a pointed helmet with a chain mail mesh over the face and shoulders, and large, often full-length, wooden shields. The quality of weapons and armor depended on the wealth of the warrior. The main weapons and equipment were usually stored in the prince's warehouses and were issued before going on a campaign, and after the campaign they were taken away again. Since ancient times, the Slavs had “banners” (banners) and military music. The troops lined up and fought around their banners. “To set up a banner” meant to line up or prepare for battle.

The Old Russian army was different high discipline. A system of penalties and rewards was gradually developed. According to later data, gold hryvnia (medals), chains and crosses, which were worn on the chest, were issued for military distinctions and merits. Sometimes warriors were rewarded with weapons, armor, a horse or land holdings.

The order of battle of the Russian army from the 11th century. consisted of three parts: the middle (center) and two wings (right and left). In more ancient period in the center of the battle formation were the princely squads, and the “voy” (militia) were located on the flanks. But then there were changes in the formation of the army. The princely squads began to be located on the flanks, and the “voy” lined up in the center. The basis for such a qualitatively uneven distribution of forces along the front was the desire to make the flanks stronger.

The Slavs started the battle with archery in loose formation, and fought in deep formations; usually the first blow was struck with spears, then they were cut with swords. Victory was determined by strength, courage, skill with weapons and art. Enveloping and outflanking flanks, ambushes and luring the enemy by deliberate retreat were used very often. The division of the battle formation into three components contributed to increasing the maneuverability of the army.

The warriors and warriors were brave and resilient. These qualities were developed by a harsh lifestyle. By personal example, the princes enticed warriors and “warriors” to exploits. Having started the war, the princes sought to transfer it to enemy territory.

The Russian army took cities by assault (“spear”), surprise attack or cunning. If the assault failed, the Russians besieged the city from all sides and forced the garrison to surrender by starvation. If the garrison did not surrender, siege work was carried out - a rampart was built around the besieged city, and the army was located in a fortified camp, from where it carried out attacks. The Russians approached the enemy’s city walls under the cover of shields, then cut down the tyn and set fire to the towers and walls. Sometimes a ditch was filled in, and an earthen layer was made near the wall so that one could climb onto it. To destroy the fortress wall and penetrate the city, they made a tunnel, and also used towers that rolled up to the fortress wall. Archers from this tower, with well-aimed shots, drove the defenders off the wall and ensured the siege work. Battering machines (rams) and “vices” (throwing stones) were used. All this work was carried out in order to prepare for the assault.

The Slavs built fortifications of both field and fortress types. Field fortifications were called zaseki, forts, and towns. The city fortifications consisted of an outer fortress (a roundabout town or fort) and an inner citadel (detinets, or vyshgorod, kremlin). The Kremlin was located at a difficult height. The external and internal fortifications consisted of wooden walls with wooden towers, a deep ditch and a tine in front. The walls (fences) consisted of a double row of logs or thick logs, between which earth and stones were poured. The towers (vezhi or archers) were quadrangular, had loopholes and flanked the approaches to the walls. Walls and towers were sometimes lined with turf. Kyiv was initially surrounded by an earthen rampart more than one kilometer long. In 1037 a stone fence with three gates was built.

During the reign of Vladimir, the southern border of the ancient Russian state was strengthened. Along the rivers Desna, Oster, Trubezh, Sula and Stugna, new fortifications were built and old ones were restored. The garrisons located here consisted of the best squads of Novgorodians, Krivichi, Vyatichi, and partly of Pecheneg mercenaries. To monitor the nomads, mounds were built, on which guard posts were set up. Fortifications and guard mounds in important directions were interconnected by an earthen rampart and palisade. Thus, for the first time, a fortified line was created to protect the ancient Russian state from the raids of nomads. Instead of individual fortified points, a system of fortifications appeared.

Creating a strong defense on the borders, the princes of the ancient Russian state did not think of sitting behind its palisades and ramparts, but undertook campaigns against the Pechenegs. In the wars of the ancient Russian state they advanced talented commanders ancient Rus': Svyatoslav, Vladimir Svyatoslavich, Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir Monomakh. Victories over enemies strengthened internal and external political situation states. The Kiev Grand Duke began to participate in all important European affairs.

In the second half of the 11th century, the process of development of feudal relations intensified in the Old Russian state. Large patrimonial land ownership grew, and a process of economic, political and military decentralization was underway.

Feudal fragmentation determined a change in the nature of the armed organization. At the same time, the previous organizational forms were still preserved, but the content of the military structure had already changed significantly.

The first and main part of the armed organization was still the princely squad, but it did not constitute “free servants”, but turned into the princely “court”, a detachment of armed servants. Such squads of servants, and not “warriors,” were the support in the implementation of separatist policies by the princes and in consolidating political and military decentralization.

The second part of the feudal army consisted of regiments and armies of boyars - landowners. The patrimonial boyars brought people subordinate to them, whom they armed and supplied. This was an unreliable part of the army, since the boyars enjoyed the right of “departure,” that is, they could go with their people to another prince at any time.

The city regiments were the third part of the feudal military organization. Usually they gathered by decision of the meeting on certain period. If the veche did not agree to the campaign, the prince could recruit volunteers.

All these units of the army were actually autonomous. There was no unity of organization and weapons. There was no unified command. All questions of strategy and tactics were resolved at the council of princes and governors of city regiments. Decisions made were not binding on everyone; many princes acted at their own discretion. As a rule, there was no unity of action. In essence, it was a feudal army.

The military organization of the Novgorod land was determined by the peculiarities of its state structure.

The veche summoned or removed the prince, elected the mayor and the thousand, and from the middle of the 12th century. and the archbishop. The prince was a military commander and led the squad, and on campaigns the entire Novgorod army. In his absence, the mayor led the Novgorod army. Subordinate to the mayor were “gridis”. They performed garrison service, for which they received a salary from the mayor. “Gridys” were sent as an “ambush” (garrison) to the suburbs (Novgorod had up to 30 suburbs: Pskov, Ladoga, Izborsk, Korela, etc.). The archbishop had his own squad, which he supported at his own expense.

Thus, the Novgorod army included the prince's squad, the archbishop's squad, the "gridi", the Konchan regiments and the posad militias. In addition, there were squads of “povolniki” (free people), which were private organizations of wealthy boyars and merchants.

The Novgorod army consisted of horse and foot troops. The horse army sometimes dismounted and fought on foot. A foot army often moved along rivers on boats, and then it was a rook army. The peculiarity of the Novgorod army was that it did not have special archers, which influenced the character and outset of the battle. Almost all Novgorod warriors had bows. Having released arrows, they fearlessly cut into the enemy's ranks. In battle with knights clad in armor, they used spears with hooks to pull knights off their horses, as well as knives - “cobblers”, with which they ripped open the bellies of horses.

By decision of the veche, the Novgorod army was equipped for only one specific campaign. The basis for calculating the acquisition was the “plow” - the area of ​​​​land that could be plowed by the owner himself or herself and with three horses. Several “sohs” displayed a fully equipped mounted warrior. If Novgorod was in danger, four “plows” were deployed on horseback; in other cases, ten “sokh” gave one warrior.

The insolvent sections of the population formed the foot army. At the same time, two residents “twisted”, i.e. equipped, the third, who went on a hike. Only the clergy were exempt from participating in the campaign.

The organization of the Novgorod army was determined by the administrative structure of Novgorod and its suburbs. The army consisted of five regiments, fielded in five “ends” into which the city was divided. Each regiment was divided into two hundred; a hundred consisted of several streets. The regiments were led by governors elected at the assembly. The prince himself commanded his squad. The governors obeyed him. In Pskov (in the 15th century) there were six “ends” and therefore six governors were usually appointed, each of whom commanded two regiments (one regiment was a city regiment, the other a suburban regiment). If two governors were appointed from the “end”, then each of them commanded one regiment. At the head of the six voivodes, one was appointed, “which is the greatest voivode,” and the city regiment was commanded by the “chief voivode.” Hundreds were commanded by centurions. This organization of the Novgorod army and the suburbs of Novgorod ensured the control of troops both on the march and in battle.

Each warrior had food with him for a certain period of time. When supplies ran out, special detachments were separated from the army and sent to “live”, that is, to forage. These detachments were called “rich people.” Supplies of food and weapons, tents, battering and throwing machines were carried in “goods” (in the wagon train).

The battle formation of the Novgorod army consisted of regiments, which were tactical units. Each army included several regiments of organized (administrative) order. According to their tactical purpose, the regiments were divided into a guard regiment, a “forehead” and “wings” (right and left). The regiments were built in a “regimental row”, with a guard regiment in front.

In the army southern principalities The battle was started by arrows allocated from all regiments. In the Novgorod army, the battle began with a guard regiment, then a foot army went on the attack, followed by a horse army and princely squads. When the Novgorodians “reached” the “goods,” that is, the carts, the enemy “pushed in, showing his shoulders.” During the war, “plants,” “ambushes,” and “Western armies” were widely used for a surprise attack on the march or during battle.

In the IX – XII centuries. it worked out Old Russian state– Kievan Rus as a state of a historically transitional type, as the main institution of the political system of class society, protecting its economic and social structures. The main features of this process were: the presence of a special system of bodies and institutions that exercised the functions of state power; existence of a right enshrining a certain system norms sanctioned by the state; the presence of a certain territory over which the jurisdiction of a given state extended.

The central power was represented by the prince, called in the 11th century. Grand Duke. The main military and fiscal force of the state was the squad, which had intra-class democracy. The state administration was formed from the druzhina class. The senior squad made up the noble boyar elite, the prince’s inner circle, the prince’s Duma. From among them, governors, townsmen, and thousand governors were appointed. The basis of the future class service people became representatives of the junior squad. From among them were tiuns (managers of princely estates), tributaries and mytniks and other lower officials. Thus, the Old Russian state sought to ensure its most important functions as external security, and internal stability and public order, as well as fiscal and other functions.

The Old Russian state included a huge territory for that time, exceeding 1 million square meters. km with a population of more than 4.5 million people, and had a significant influence on the fate of the world historical process.

Ancient Rus' became the cradle of three Slavic peoples– Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. Being a multi-ethnic state, Kievan Rus became an example of the equality of all peoples, as the Russian Metropolitan Hilarion (11th century) spoke about in his “Sermon on Law and Grace”.

Any settlement has borders that must be protected from enemy invasions; this need has always existed for large Slavic settlements. During the period of Ancient Rus', conflicts tore the country apart; it was necessary to fight not only with external threats, but also with fellow tribesmen. Unity and agreement between the princes helped create a great state that became defensible. Old Russian warriors stood under one banner and showed the whole world their strength and courage.

Druzhina

The Slavs were a peace-loving people, so the ancient Russian warriors did not stand out too much from the background of ordinary peasants. They defended their home with spears, axes, knives and clubs. Military equipment and weapons appear gradually, and they are more focused on protecting their owner than on attack. In the 10th century, several Slavic tribes united around the Prince of Kyiv, who collected taxes and protected the territory under his control from the invasion of the steppes, Swedes, Byzantines, and Mongols. A squad is formed, 30% of which consists of professional military men (often mercenaries: Varangians, Pechenegs, Germans, Hungarians) and militias (voi). During this period, the weapons of the ancient Russian warrior consisted of a club, a spear, and a sword. Lightweight protection does not restrict movement and ensures mobility in battle and on the march. The main force was infantry, horses were used as pack animals and for delivering soldiers to battlefields. The cavalry is formed after unsuccessful clashes with the steppe people, who were excellent riders.

Protection

Old Russian wars wore shirts and ports, common for the population of Rus' in the 5th - 6th centuries, and put on bast shoes. During the Russian-Byzantine war, the enemy was amazed by the courage and bravery of the “Rus”, who fought without protective armor, hiding behind shields and using them at the same time as weapons. Later, the “kuyak” appeared, which was essentially a sleeveless shirt, it was trimmed with plates from horse hooves or pieces of leather. Later, metal plates began to be used to protect the body from slashing blows and enemy arrows.

Shield

The armor of the ancient Russian warrior was light, which ensured high maneuverability, but at the same time reduced the degree of protection. Large ones, human-sized, have been used by Slavic peoples since ancient times. They covered the warrior's head, so in the upper part they had a hole for the eyes. Since the 10th century, shields have been made round shape, they are upholstered in iron, covered with leather and decorated with various tribal symbols. According to the testimony of Byzantine historians, the Russians created a wall of shields that tightly closed with each other, and put spears forward. This tactic did not allow the advanced units of the enemy to break through to the rear of the Russian troops. After 100 years, the uniform is adapted to a new type of army - cavalry. The shields become almond-shaped and have two mounts designed to be held in battle and on the march. With this type of equipment, ancient Russian warriors went on campaigns and defended their own lands before the invention of firearms. Many traditions and legends are associated with shields. Some of them are still “winged” to this day. Fallen and wounded soldiers were brought home on shields; when fleeing, the retreating regiments threw them under the feet of the pursuers' horses. Prince Oleg hangs a shield on the gates of the defeated Constantinople.

Helmets

Until the 9th - 10th centuries, Old Russian warriors wore ordinary hats on their heads, which did not protect them from the chopping blows of the enemy. The first helmets found by archaeologists were made according to the Norman type, but they were not widely used in Rus'. The conical shape has become more practical and therefore widely used. In this case, the helmet was riveted from four metal plates, they were decorated precious stones and feathers (from noble warriors or governors). This shape allowed the sword to slip without causing much harm to the person; a balaclava made of leather or felt softened the blow. The helmet was changed due to additional protective devices: aventail (chain mail mesh), nasal (metal plate). The use of protection in the form of masks (faces) was rare in Rus'; most often these were captured helmets, which were widely used in European countries. The description of the ancient Russian warrior, preserved in the chronicles, suggests that they did not hide their faces, but could fetter the enemy with a menacing gaze. Helmets with a half mask were made for noble and wealthy warriors; they were characterized by decorative details that did not have a protective function.

Chain mail

The most famous part of the vestment of an ancient Russian warrior, according to archaeological excavations, appears in the 7th - 8th centuries. Chain mail is a shirt made of metal rings tightly connected to each other. At this time, it was quite difficult for craftsmen to make such protection; the work was delicate and took a long period of time. The metal was rolled into wire, from which rings were rolled and welded, fastened to each other according to a 1 to 4 pattern. At least 20 - 25 thousand rings were spent on creating one chain mail, the weight of which ranged from 6 to 16 kilograms. Copper links were woven into the fabric for decoration. In the 12th century, stamping technology was used, when woven rings were flattened, which provided a larger area of ​​protection. During the same period, chain mail became longer, additional elements of armor appeared: nagovitsa (iron, wicker stockings), aventail (mesh to protect the neck), bracers (metal gloves). Quilted clothing was worn under the chain mail to soften the force of the blow. At the same time, they were used in Rus'. Manufacturing required a base (shirt) made of leather, onto which thin iron slats were tightly attached. Their length was 6 - 9 centimeters, width from 1 to 3. Lamellar armor gradually replaced chain mail and was even sold to other countries. In Rus', scale, lamellar and chain mail armor were often combined. Yushman, bakhterets were essentially chain mail, which, to increase their protective properties, were equipped with plates on the chest. IN early XIV century appears the new kind armor - mirrors. Large metal plates, polished to a shine, were usually worn over chain mail. They were connected on the sides and shoulders with leather straps and were often decorated with various kinds of symbols.

Weapon

The protective clothing of the ancient Russian warrior was not impenetrable armor, but was distinguished by its lightness, which ensured greater maneuverability of warriors and shooters in battle conditions. According to information obtained from historical sources of the Byzantines, the “Rusichi” were distinguished by enormous physical strength. In the 5th - 6th centuries, the weapons of our ancestors were quite primitive, used for close combat. To cause significant damage to the enemy, it had a lot of weight and was additionally equipped with damaging elements. The evolution of weapons took place against the backdrop of technological progress and changes in combat strategy. Throwing systems, siege engines, piercing and cutting iron tools were used for many centuries, and their design was constantly improved. Some innovations were adopted from other nations, but Russian inventors and gunsmiths have always been distinguished by the originality of their approach and the reliability of the manufactured systems.

Percussion

Weapons for close combat are known to all nations; at the dawn of the development of civilization, its main type was the club. This is a heavy club that is wrapped in iron at the end. Some options include metal spikes or nails. Most often in Russian chronicles, a flail is mentioned along with a club. Due to their ease of manufacture and effectiveness in combat, impact weapons were widely used. The sword and saber are partially replacing it, but militias and warriors continue to use it in battle. Based on chronicle sources and excavation data, historians have created a typical portrait of a man who was called an ancient Russian warrior. Photographs of reconstructions, as well as images of heroes that have survived to this day, necessarily contain some type of impact weapon, most often the legendary mace acts in this capacity.

Slashing, piercing

In the history of ancient Rus', the sword is of great importance. It is not only the main type of weapon, but also a symbol of princely power. The knives used were of several types; they were named according to the place where they were worn: boot knives, belt knives, side knives. They were used along with the sword and the ancient Russian warrior changed in the 10th century, the sword was replaced by a saber. The Russians appreciated its combat characteristics in battles with nomads, from whom they borrowed the uniform. Spears and spears are among the most ancient types of piercing weapons, which were successfully used by warriors as defensive and offensive weapons. When used in parallel, they evolved ambiguously. Rogatins are gradually being replaced by spears, which are being improved into sulitsa. Not only peasants (warriors and militias), but also the princely squad fought with axes. Among the mounted warriors this type weapons had a short handle, infantrymen (warriors) used axes on long shafts. Berdysh (an ax with a wide blade) became a weapon in the 13th - 14th centuries. Later it was transformed into a halberd.

Strelkovoe

All means used daily in hunting and in everyday life were used by Russian soldiers as military weapons. Bows were made from animal horns and suitable types of wood (birch, juniper). Some of them were more than two meters long. To store arrows, they used a shoulder quiver, which was made of leather, sometimes decorated with brocade, precious and semi-precious stones. To make arrows, reeds, birch, reeds, and apple trees were used, with an iron tip attached to the splinter. In the 10th century, the design of the bow was quite complex, and the process of its manufacture was labor-intensive. Crossbows were a more effective type. Their disadvantage was their lower rate of fire, but the bolt (used as a projectile) caused more damage to the enemy, piercing armor when hit. It was difficult to pull the bowstring of a crossbow; even strong warriors rested their feet on the butt to do this. In the 12th century, to speed up and facilitate this process, they began to use a hook, which archers wore on their belts. Before the invention of firearms, bows were used by Russian troops.

Equipment

Foreigners who visited Russian cities of the 12th - 13th centuries were surprised at how equipped the soldiers were. Despite the apparent cumbersomeness of the armor (especially on heavy horsemen), the horsemen coped with several tasks quite easily. Sitting in the saddle, the warrior could hold the reins (drive the horse), shoot from a bow or crossbow, and prepare a heavy sword for close combat. The cavalry was maneuverable impact force, so the equipment of the rider and horse should be light but durable. The chest, croup and sides of the war horse were covered with special covers, which were made of fabric with iron plates sewn on. The equipment of the ancient Russian warrior was thought out to the smallest detail. Saddles made of wood allowed the archer to turn around reverse side and shoot at full speed, while controlling the direction of the horse's movement. Unlike European warriors At that time, completely clad in armor, the light armor of the Russians was focused on fighting with nomads. Noble nobles, princes, and kings had combat and ceremonial weapons and armor, which were richly decorated and equipped with state symbols. Foreign ambassadors were received there and went on holidays.

Mikhail Savinov

MILITARY AFFAIRS OF ANCIENT Rus' IX–XI centuries

Russian troops on the march and in battle

The author expresses sincere gratitude for great assistance in selecting illustrations for this book to the leaders and participants of historical reconstruction clubs early Middle Ages D. Belsky, S. Kashin-Sveshnikov, I. Ponomarev, V. Ostromentsky, E. Alekseev, I. Kulagin, S. Mishanin, wonderful masters V. Sukhov, V. Kachaev, A. Budilov, P. Zhigulin and A. Shtyrova, photographers M. Bagaev, E. Nesvitaylo, I. Kurilov, D. Tikhomirov, A. Lovchikov, A. Kopatchinsky and A. Listova!

AT THE SOURCES

Why do we need history?

Every science has fundamental problems and practical applications. The study of a chain reaction is a theoretical problem, but the practical implementation of this problem can be different - here is a nuclear power plant, and atomic bomb. There are such connections between problems and practice in both biology and chemistry.

It is clear that if a physicist, chemist or biologist solves complex theoretical issues, it means that sooner or later the solution to these issues will be translated into a purely practical result. But where is this result from historical research? For example, who will live better if the author of these lines, who is engaged in textual criticism of Russian chronographs of the 17th century, opens a new edition, or a list, or even a new such chronograph?

The first answer, which seems to lie on the surface, is that history makes it possible to foresee the future, predict events based on the experience of mankind. At the same time, it is well known that history teaches no one anything, and similar situations are repeated over and over again, only on a larger scale and with great suffering.

Is there a second answer? Eat. This answer lies in the very practice of studying the past. History is a wonderful gymnastics for the mind.

It is not for nothing that history has its own patron muse, Clio, and it is not for nothing that the ancients considered history to be a relative of the fine arts. Music or drawing lessons will not necessarily make a musician, composer or artist out of a person, but they can develop his taste, teach him to hear and see the world differently - and this world will sparkle with new colors - will make his fingers free and give him the joy of mastering a brush, pencil or musical instrument.

In the same way, history teaches an inquisitive admirer to be attentive to any evidence from a source, teaches him to understand the actions, feelings and thoughts of people of the past, to hear their living speech in chronicles and sagas. History provides new opportunities to understand the human world.

There is a third answer to our main question, and this answer is no longer important for a specific person, but for the entire people, nation, country. A common historical memory unites a people and ensures its survival among other peoples much better than, for example, an artificially invented national idea.

The national idea is abstract. You can not accept it, you can argue with it. But there is another thing around which the nation rallies into a single whole without any abstract idea. This is the memory of the military exploits of our ancestors, the memory of the victories of the defenders of the Motherland.

People have always sought to determine their place in the world precisely with the help of their history. This task is served by myth - it explains the origin of the people and their position on the World Tree - and the epic, which preserves the memory of the heroes of the people, of the people who gave their lives for its prosperity. We also have such an epic - these are Russian heroic epics, which we will definitely turn to in the course of our story about the military affairs of Rus'.

So, our goal is to take a closer look at the origins of the military affairs of Rus' - that Rus' that managed to overcome all the difficult trials, all the invasions of the invaders, the Rus' whose history continues today. Our ancestors had to absorb the military science of a variety of peoples. We will see how Rus' learned to fight at the dawn of its history - in the 9th–11th centuries.

V. D. Polenov. Portrait of epic storyteller Nikita Bogdanov. From the words of such storytellers who lived in the Urals and the Russian North, scientists recorded epics throughout the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries. Nowadays, the living tradition of performing heroic songs has almost disappeared.

* * *

In the modern pronunciation of the word “Slavs,” the stem “slava” is clearly heard, and it seems that the common name of Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs and Croats comes from this word... But in fact this is not so.

The ancient ancestors of the Slavic peoples called themselves “Slovene” - from “word”. Slovenes - those who speak the word can understand each other. Strangers speak incomprehensibly.

Many self-names of peoples all over the earth are translated exactly like this - “those who speak.” Language for ancient man is the first and main principle to separate friends and foes.

The Slavs, like most peoples of Europe, belong to the Indo-European language family. The languages ​​of this family are also spoken by Armenians, Iranians, Tajiks and many peoples of India.

All these peoples have common ancestors - the ancient Indo-Europeans. Scientists are still arguing about the exact location of the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans. We will not delve into either the debate about the Indo-Europeans or the debate about the origin of the Slavs, but will limit ourselves only to those facts that are known for sure.

Fact one: such ancestral homelands in the Ill-II millennia BC. e. There were most likely several. Most European peoples settled across the continent from the area of ​​modern Central Europe, moving in several waves.

Fact two. The Slavs represented the last wave of Indo-Europeans to appear in Europe, and this appearance can reliably be attributed to the fifth century AD. Not earlier.

Of course, the Slavs did not appear in Europe out of nowhere, but the history of their entry into the historical arena is too vague and controversial. The data from written sources is fragmentary - after all, the ancient history of the Slavs began on the very periphery of the Greco-Roman world, therefore the records of ancient authors about the Slavs are brief and often fantastic. And yet, the first people who wrote something about the Slavs were the Romans.

The Laurentian Chronicle, which preserved one of the editions of the Tale of Bygone Years, the sacred book of our history, the main source telling about the birth of Rus'.

First centuries AD. Rome at the zenith of glory. The Romans rule the world.

Outside the mighty and enlightened empire, barbarian tribes swarm. Since they can pose a serious threat, the Romans try to collect and process information about them. The Romans know the Germans best; Latin authors have a relatively good understanding of the Black Sea tribes that replaced the famous Scythians. But the inhabitants of the forest wilds of Central and Eastern Europe, including our distant ancestors, are much less well known to the writers of the empire. However, the Romans are not afraid of this paucity of knowledge, and they still write about these lands, sometimes not stopping at obvious fantasy...

The most ancient people of ancient sources, which can somehow be compared with the Slavs, are the Wends. For example, Roman historians of the 1st century write about them. AD Pliny and Tacitus, placing the region inhabited by the Wends somewhere in the Vistula (Vistula) river basin. But the Slavicity of the Wends can neither be proven nor disproved.

Let's see if archeology tells us something. She studies evidence of the life of ancient peoples preserved in the earth: settlements, ancient cemeteries, burial grounds, treasures.

Archeology gives us a lot. We see the life and customs of the people who once lived on earth, we can imagine how these people dressed, what they ate, what they believed. We can understand how this people differed from their neighbors, and how, on the contrary, they were similar to them. We can identify areas of settlement of related tribes, we can learn a lot about their contacts with neighbors and more distant countries - for example, the Roman Empire. The Roman coin in the burial of a barbarian will help us date our entire archaeological culture - a set of monuments left by one ancient people or a group of closely related peoples.

But not a single burial will contain a sign with the inscription for descendants: “We are Slavs!” or “We are Germans!” The Germanic or Slavic ancestry of the buried can be established by their belongings or by the burial rite. For the era of Ancient Rus', such differences are well known - a Scandinavian burial is difficult to confuse with a Slavic one, and the burial of a Finn will differ from both. But in the first centuries of our era, things were much more complicated.

Meanwhile, the Wends of Tacitus, the possible oldest Slavs, belong to these first centuries. Therefore, scientists really wanted to find an archaeological culture in this era that could be confidently associated with the Slavs.