prof., cand. philol. Sciences M. V. Bulanova-Toporkov (part 1, ch. 1 § 2, 3, 5; ch. 5; ch. 6 § 2-6; ch. 7 § 1; ch. 8, 9);

Associate Professor, Cand. ped. Sciences A. V. Dukhavnev (part 1, ch. 1 § 1; ch. 2, 3; ch. 4 § 4; ch. 6 § 7, 8, 9);

prof., doc. philosophy Sciences L. D. Stolyarenko (part 1, ch. 4 § 1, 2, 3; ch. 6 § 11; part 2, ch. 1-4, 6, 7);

prof., doc. sociological Sciences S. I. Samygin (part 1, ch. 6 § 1; part 2, ch. 7);

Associate Professor, Cand. tech. Sciences G. V. Suchkov (part 1, ch. 1 § 7; ch. 6 § 10, 11);

cand. philosophy Sciences, Associate Professor V. E. Stolyarenko (part 2, ch. 5, 6); Art. teacher ON THE. Kulakovskaya (part 1, ch. 1 § 4, 6).

Publisher: Phoenix, 2002 544 pp. ISBN 5-222-02284-6

The textbook reveals topical problems of higher education: trends in the development of higher education in Russia, its content, teaching technologies, methods for the formation of systemic professional thinking, training a generalist of the 21st century. and education of his harmonious, creative and humane personality.

The textbook complies with the requirements of the state educational standard for the preparation of a master's degree graduate in the specialty "Teacher of Higher Education", the requirements for the content of additional professional educational programs. It won a prize in the competition of textbooks in the cycle "General humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines" for technical areas and specialties of higher professional education.

It is intended for students, graduate students of universities, students of the FPC and courses of postgraduate psychological and pedagogical retraining of university teachers.

Part 1

PEDAGOGY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Chapter 1. Modern development of education in Russia and abroad

1. The role of higher education in modern civilization

2nd place technical university in the Russian educational space

3. Fundamentalization of education in higher education

4. Humanization and humanitarization of education in high school

5. Integration processes in modern education

6. Educational component in vocational education

7. Informatization of the educational process

Chapter 2. Pedagogy as a science

1. The subject of pedagogical science. Its main categories

2. The system of pedagogical sciences and the relationship of pedagogy with other sciences

Chapter 3

1. General concept of didactics

2. Essence, structure and driving forces of learning

3. Principles of teaching as the main guideline in teaching

4. Teaching methods in higher education

Chapter 4

1. Pedagogical act as an organizational and managerial activity

2. Self-awareness of the teacher and the structure of pedagogical activity

3. Pedagogical abilities and pedagogical skills of a teacher of higher education

4. Didactics and pedagogical skill high school teacher

Chapter 5. Forms of organization educational process in high school

2. Seminars and practical classes at the Higher School

3. Independent work of students as the development and self-organization of the personality of students

4. Basics pedagogical control in high school

Chapter 6. Pedagogical Design and Pedagogical Technologies

1. Stages and forms of pedagogical design

2. Classification of technologies for teaching higher education

3. Modular construction of the content of the discipline and rating control

4. Intensification of learning and problem-based learning

5. Active learning

6. Business game as a form of active learning

7. Heuristic learning technologies

8. Technology of sign-context learning

9. Developmental learning technologies

10. Information technology education

11. Technologies of distance education

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

PSYCHOLOGY OF HIGHER SCHOOL

Chapter 1. Features of the development of the student's personality

Chapter 2. Typology of student and teacher personality

Chapter 3. Psychological and pedagogical study of the student's personality

Appendix 1. Psychological schemes "Individual psychological characteristics of the personality"

Annex 2. Psychological schemes "Communication and socio-psychological impact"

Chapter 4. Psychology of vocational education

1. Psychological foundations of professional self-determination

2. Psychological correction of the student's personality with a compromise choice of profession

3. Psychology professional development personalities

4. Psychological features student learning

5. Problems of improving academic performance and reducing student dropout

6. Psychological foundations for the formation of professional systems thinking

7. Psychological features of education of students and the role of student groups

Appendix. Psychological schemes "Social phenomena and the formation of the team"

Bibliography

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

"BELARUSIAN STATE ACADEMY OF COMMUNICATIONS"

"Pedagogy and psychology of higher education"

Training program

by academic discipline for specialties:

1-53-80-01 Automation and control of technological processes and production (by industry)

1-98-80-03 Information security hardware and software

The curriculum is based on the model curriculum for institutions of higher education in the specialties of the second stage of higher education "Pedagogy and psychology of higher education", approved by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus on July 18, 2011, registration No. TD-SG.019 / type.

COMPILERS:

N.D. Korchalova, Senior Lecturer, Department of Humanities

Department__ humanities _____________________________________________

(name of the department - curriculum developer)

(Minutes No. ___ dated ____________);

faculty council engineering and communication technologies

(Minutes No. ___ dated ____________)

NTO methodologist M.N. Litvinova

Explanatory note

The training course "Pedagogy and psychology of higher education" is a necessary component of training teaching staff for high school. Based on the courses "Fundamentals of Psychology and Pedagogy" for higher educational institutions, as well as a number of disciplines of the socio-humanitarian cycle, it brings together knowledge about the learning process in higher education institutions into a single system, allowing you to design elements of the educational process, as well as to make a psychological and pedagogical analysis of specific educational institutions. situations.

The growth of intellectualization of production, the transition to a knowledge-based economy, the need for innovative development of society place increased demands on the quality of professional training in higher education. Improving the quality of higher education can be achieved through the development and implementation of pedagogical innovations in the educational process of universities, updating the content and technologies for training future specialists, taking into account the achievements of fundamental sciences and modern production, the dynamics of the labor market and the requirements for the development of professional activities. The solution to the problem of improving the quality of education at the university is largely determined by the quality of the teaching staff. In this regard, the problem of improving the training of teaching staff for higher education through the magistracy (postgraduate study) becomes the most important.

The foregoing substantiates the relevance of studying the academic discipline "Pedagogy and Psychology of Higher Education" by master students of all specialties, aimed at developing their readiness to carry out professional and pedagogical activities at a higher educational institution at a high scientific and methodological level, mastering educational innovations and conducting research in the field of education.

The purpose of the course "Pedagogy and Psychology of Higher Education" is to form a system of psychological ideas for undergraduates about the dynamics, general and specific patterns of the learning process in higher education, ways and possibilities of its reorganization. As a basis for developing the content and methodological support of the course, reflective-analytical competence is singled out, which implies the orientation of undergraduates in the field of ongoing transformational processes; mastering modern methods of analytics and describing the phenomena of educational and pedagogical activity, as well as design and constructive competence aimed at planning the educational process, determining the strategy and tactics of pedagogical and learning activities in high school.

To select the content of the psychological and pedagogical preparation of undergraduates for teaching at the university, a practice-oriented approach was used, in accordance with the requirement of which skills and forms of behavior were identified, training tasks and the procedure for their implementation were planned, as well as a cognitive approach aimed at developing analytical and argumentative abilities trainees.

The course program is compiled in accordance with the requirements of the state standard and involves the resolution of the following tasks.

Get acquainted with modern requirements and basic conceptual approaches to the organization of the educational process at the university.

Compare ways of describing educational and pedagogical activities within different educational paradigms.

Analyze the educational process by fixing the pedagogical "actions" of the teacher and the educational "actions" of the student.

Learn how to design training course(module of the training course), centered on the organization of educational activities of students.

Determine the idea, structure, content, methodological support of the course (module of the training course).

Monitor compliance with goals, content, teaching methods and assessment methods.

Outline the problematic field of pedagogy and psychology of higher education and determine its place in the system of other scientific disciplines.

Characterize the specifics different approaches in pedagogy and psychology of higher education, in the formulation of its problems and issues discussed, the methods they use.

To characterize the main aspects of the student's activity in the university: his educational activity, the process of professionalization, the dynamics of the value-semantic and motivational spheres in the learning process.

Consider the content of a university student's activity from the point of view of a competency-based approach.

characterize pedagogical activity university teacher, identify the factors of its effectiveness.

To present a variety of modern innovative approaches to the description and reform of modern higher education.

Determine the psychological conditions for the success and inefficiency of reforming higher education.

As a result of mastering this course, the undergraduate should know:

conceptual apparatus, methodological foundations and methods of pedagogy and psychology of higher education; directions, patterns and principles of development of the higher education system; advanced pedagogical experience (including international) and innovations in the field of higher education;

modern approaches to the analysis of educational situations;

the specifics of conducting psychological and pedagogical research;

the main forms and means of organizing and implementing the processes of education and upbringing, enhancing the independent work of students, conducting research work;

effective educational technologies, approaches and principles of development and application of modern educational and methodological support of the educational process (including those based on electronic learning tools);

design the content of training, establish interdisciplinary connections;

use and improve methods, techniques, technologies for teaching and educating students;

design and organize various forms training sessions and educational activities, extracurricular independent work and research activities of students;

organize the educational process using pedagogical innovations and taking into account the personal characteristics of students and manage its quality:

develop modern educational and methodological support for the educational process (including electronic means of education), means of its diagnostics and control;

establish pedagogically appropriate relationships with all participants in the educational process;

plan and carry out scientific research in the field of pedagogy and psychology of higher education;

produce a microanalysis of educational interaction;

to select a specific categorical-conceptual apparatus that allows building a productive reflexive-analytical position to educational situations, to establish boundaries between different theoretical perspectives in the analysis of educational situations;

determine the goals and procedure for analytical work, summarize the results obtained, exercise self-control over the analytical work being done.

The number of hours allocated for the study of the academic discipline:

The program is designed for 122 academic hours, of which for full-time education - 52 classrooms. Approximate distribution of classroom hours by type of classes: lectures - 34, practical classes - 18.

The program is designed for full-time higher education.

Forms of current controlby academic discipline:

For the academic discipline, the following forms of current control are planned for full-time students of higher education: oral questioning.

The form of the current certification in the academic discipline is an offset.

The textbook deals with issues of psychology and pedagogy of higher education: features of student personality development, student personality typology, crises of professional development. Methods and means of teaching, forms and approaches of control and assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as methods of professional education of students are given. The training material is clearly systematized, reflects modern theoretical and practical developments, and is written in an understandable form.

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For educational psychology the problem of studying both patterns of human mental development at the age stages of youth and maturity appears as one of the new ones. It should be specially noted that many aspects of mental activity and the peculiarities of human learning during this period were insufficiently studied in comparison with the periods of childhood and early adolescence. This leads in some cases to a denial of the theoretical and practical significance of studying the problem of a person’s mental development during his studies in higher education, and in others to an unjustifiably overestimated assessment of the role of age characteristics in solving the problems of teaching and educating students. Such an underestimation or overestimation not only does not contribute to a fruitful search for ways to improve education in higher education, but also disorients teachers, unreasonably justifying the serious shortcomings of modern teaching practice.

Let us give as a concrete example the results of a study conducted by A. M. Kolesova. The decrease in the indicators of educational activity of students during the transition to the second year (a general increase in academic failure, an increase in the percentage of students expelled for academic failure) the author explains age characteristics development of attention, memory and thinking of students. “... At the age of 18, a student can remember the volume of educational information that increased in the second year (memory at this time reaches a high development), but cannot carry out mental processing of all received educational material, since thinking at this time lags behind memory ... With regard to the development of thinking in this period, the “pulsation” is especially noticeable. Declines in thinking are replaced by ups every three years. "Peaks" fall at the age of 20 years, 23 years and 25 years, "spa-




dy "- at 22 and 24 years old, "Peaks" in the development of memory occur at 18 years old, 23 and 24 years old, "recessions" - at 22 and 24 years old.

The question is how to explain the fact that, along with the noted category in the same age group there are a lot of students doing "good" and "excellent"? It is obvious that a student's progress is not determined unambiguously by his age characteristics. AT more it depends on the content and methods of teaching, curricula, and in some cases is associated with the disappointment of the student in the chosen profession, etc.

The explanation proposed by A. M. Kolesova implicitly assumes that teaching methods based on the idea of ​​the learning process as the perception, processing, preservation and reproduction of educational information by a student are optimal for higher education. This idea comes from the fact that cognitive activity is composed of the functioning of individual cognitive processes: perceptions and ideas, attention and memory, thinking and imagination. In associative psychology, these cognitive processes (or cognitive functions) were considered as occurring in each individual individual on the basis of universal laws of association formation. Modern research in preschool and school pedagogy and educational psychology has made it possible to largely overcome these ideas about the process of learning and human development. However, they all remain dominant in the pedagogy of higher education.




To an even greater extent, the empirical ideas of university pedagogy and pedagogical psychology about the completeness of the mental development of a person's personality by the periods of youth and maturity are erroneous.

It is known in school pedagogy and pedagogical psychology that by the age of 12-14 a person develops basic logical structures (J. Piaget), theoretical thinking (V. V. Davydov), spiritual needs and interests (L. I. Bozhovich, Yu. I. . Sharov, G. I. Shchukina), general and some special abilities(V. A. Kru-tetsky, N. S. Leites and others). School pedagogy seeks to show that the formation of such full-fledged types of activity is possible even in more early age(P. Ya. Galperin, V. V. Davydov, L. V. Zankov, D. B. Elkonin). Development of psychological principles and didactic

ical techniques early formation theoretical thinking, general abilities, etc., is the undoubted merit of Soviet pedagogical psychology. It is shown that the psychological characteristics of preschool and early school age are not an obstacle to the formation complex types intellectual activity a person that many reserves of a person’s mental development are hidden in childhood.

However, without correlation with the subsequent stages of the mental development of a person’s personality, following adolescence and early adolescence and including late adolescence and stages of human maturity, it is difficult to unambiguously assess the real “contribution” and significance early stages in the subsequent development of man. On the contrary, positions are sometimes formulated about the relative completeness (fullness) of mental development at the indicated age stages. If we proceed from the position that the relative completion of the mental development of a person's personality occurs by the age of seventeen, then for the period of study in higher education it is impossible to pose sufficiently significant psychological and pedagogical problems. Then it is necessary to come to the conclusion that pedagogical psychology and pedagogy have the right to study the patterns of mental development and manage the mental development of a person up to 17-20 years old. In this case, the period of a person's education in higher educational institution does not have its own psychological and pedagogical problems. The share of educational psychology and pedagogy with this approach remains only private methodological issues, and pedagogy inevitably turns into a set of particular methods of teaching special subjects. Unfortunately, the considered position is the most common in the practical pedagogy of higher education, and psychological problems are reduced to the study of the features of the manifestation of individual mental functions (perception, memory, thinking, etc.) of an aged student in the learning process.

The process of learning in higher education with this approach is increasingly considered and researched as informational, involving the transfer of information by the teacher and its perception and processing by the student. Many studies on scientific




organization of the educational process in higher education, this is how it is considered. “It is essential, - notes S. I. Arkhangelsky, - for the scientific organization of the educational process, to determine the volume, content and movement of diverse information, and above all scientific information. ...Information characterizes the input and output of the functioning of the entire system. Based on this role of information, the scientific organization of the educational process, first of all, sets the task of extending the optimization conditions to its main components. The same is true for learning management. “Management of the educational process is always inextricably linked with information. The nature of management is primarily determined by what external information flow will affect the mental activity of students in order to achieve a given learning goal. Information ... in the educational process acts as a material for thinking, as a condition functioning(highlighted - A. M.) cognitive acts of students and on this basis it becomes the internal property of students.

We have cited the positions of a well-known specialist in the field of pedagogy of higher education in order to emphasize general idea about the management of learning as the functioning of the existing cognitive activity of students. It is this idea of ​​education in higher education that deprives pedagogy as a science of its main subject - the management of the development of a person's personality in the educational process, both in preschool and school education. With this approach to the analysis and study of the specifics of education in higher education, information measures for analyzing and evaluating the effectiveness of the educational process are being developed, but the subject of pedagogy as a science of managing the mental development of a person is lost. As a result, pedagogy degenerates into a system of organizational measures (planning, accounting, control, etc.) and methodological methods for teaching individual subjects. The practical pedagogy of higher education (in the person of the teaching staff) is invariably skeptical about the scientific nature of such recommendations, spreading the indicated view on the pedagogy of higher education as a whole.

The current situation in pedagogy and pedagogical psychology of higher education resembles the old situation in preschool pedagogy and psychology, although they are at the extreme poles of teaching and educating a person. For a long time, preschool pedagogy considered the child as a reduced copy of the schoolchild, sought to transform him into a student, adapting for this purpose school methods training and education. Higher education pedagogy to some extent continued this tradition, trying to adapt school teaching methods (but in a different form) to student learning. In both cases, the use of the principles of school pedagogy turned out to be ineffective.

So, the actual problem of pedagogy and pedagogical psychology in higher education is the problem of specific patterns of mental development of a young man and an adult, and pedagogy as a science is the development of didactic principles for managing the mental development of a person during this period. The main feature of this educational-age period is the transition to a completely new type of learning, mastering higher forms professional activities that ensure the further development of production, science and culture.

The psychological patterns of human learning and development during this period have not yet been sufficiently studied. The main ones are the psychological patterns of the formation of professional cognitive motivation and interests, the development of professional perception, memory, attention, thinking, the formation of professional abilities and the creative personality of a specialist. In this paper, we will consider only some of these problems.

Unlike school pedagogy and pedagogical psychology, whose consumers are primarily teachers, in higher education the consumers of the results scientific research are not only teachers, but also the students themselves. At the same time, the student, like the teacher, is interested in knowing the principles of self-learning and self-education. A student of a higher school is an equal active participant in the educational process, and not just its “managed party”.




The difficulties of researching and managing the mental development of a person, especially an adult, are quite obvious. For example, if we proceed from empirical ideas about the mental development of a person as spontaneous, determined only by his age and individual characteristics, then the very formulation of the pedagogical task of managing the development of personality in training becomes impossible. In defining the general principle of learning theory modern didactics increasingly sees it as developing. In psychology, principles have been developed and the psychological patterns of productive processes are being studied, which, from our point of view, constitute the most general basis for solving the problems of developmental education in higher education. In the didactics of higher education, the patterns of productive processes are largely implemented in the system of problem-based learning.

Psychology of productive processes and problem-based learning

Research in various fields of general and applied psychology is increasingly confirming the need to identify the general psychological patterns of human cognitive activity. Experience in solving didactic and methodological problems higher education shows that it is practically impossible to control each individual cognitive "mental function" (perception, memory, attention, thinking). If in general psychology the study of these cognitive processes still makes it possible to discover new data, then in pedagogical psychology it rather hinders the solution of important pedagogical problems.

The most adequate concept that allows one to approach the formulation of general patterns of development of cognitive activity is the concept productive process. In modern psychology, mental processes are called productive, providing the subjective discovery of a new (unknown) based on the generation of mental neoplasms. The psychological features of productive processes are described by the facts of generating images (V. P. Zinchenko),

generalizations (V. V. Davydov), meanings (A. A. Leontiev), goals (A. N. Leontiev, O. K. Tikhomirov), cognitive needs and motives (A. M. Matyushkin), creative abilities (Ya. L. Ponomarev).

The concept of a productive process was introduced into psychology by O. Zelts, who opposed it to the traditional associative idea of ​​thinking as a reproductive process. The main thing that characterizes these processes is that they help to discover the desired task. Until now, the concepts of “reproductive” and “productive” have been referred by researchers to memory processes and thought processes, respectively. In the studies of thinking, productive processes are often identified with "creative", "heuristic", etc., and the main thing that characterizes them is, first of all, the process of discovering by a person what he is looking for. In this sense, the processes of thinking can be partially or completely reduced to operational cognitive processes. The solution of any, even familiar, task involves the implementation of a system of operations to transform the condition of the problem to find the desired one. In this case, certain intellectual processes take place, but are they productive?

The concept of "productive process" is opposed not to the concept of "reproductive", but to the concept of "unproductive process". Reproductive processes of knowledge actualization are only one of the subtypes of many unproductive operational and semantic processes. Their main characteristic is that they do not presuppose and do not ensure the formation of new mental formations, although in a number of cases they presuppose and ensure the discovery of new information necessary for action in a given situation.

Productive processes include the formation of mental neoplasms and the subjective discovery of something new. On the basis of theoretical and experimental studies, we can assume that the general condition that necessitates productive processes is problem situation.

A problematic situation is a situation that characterizes such a type of interaction between a subject and an object, in which a person has a need to discover a new unknown property, regularity of an object or ability




soba its transformation. On the side of the subject, the problem situation is represented by his cognitive need and cognitive capabilities. The productive process is caused by the cognitive need of the subject, which provides cognitive activity aimed at "satisfying" this need.

The productive process consists in the subjective discovery of something new and constitutes a micro-stage in the mental development of the subject. Like any process of satisfying a need, it is accompanied by positive emotions. This type of needs can be called situational cognitive needs. Unlike the needs of the body, which are reproduced cyclically, cognitive needs arise only in special occasions when it is impossible to achieve the set vital goal with the help of the existing structure of mental regulation of the action.

On the side of the object, the problem situation is represented by the unknown, which is characterized by the degree of novelty and the degree of generalization of the unknown. These indicators of the unknown are relative, because the process of thinking always begins not from absolute zero, but from some previously achieved level of knowledge and methods of action of a certain degree of generalization.

In accordance with known definition, given by E. Thorndike, a problematic situation arises when an “obstacle” is found on the way to the goal. Often this definition is considered as the most general. Obviously, the “novelty” of an object in a problem situation does not objectively contain any “obstacles” on the way to the goal. Why does a person subjectively experience the situation of novelty as a situation of "difficulties" or "obstacles"? The psychological basis of this experience is the reciprocity of the relationship between the established past experience (operational and semantic) and the knowledge and operations that are necessary to discover the new.

From past experience, many situations are familiar to a person, they do not contain anything new. Past experience manifests itself primarily in the form of stereotypes, attitudes, fixations, “psychological barriers” that prevent the emergence of a problem situation, the discovery of a new one, and thereby the formation of

niya of mental neoplasms. Solving a problem in a problem situation involves overcoming the existing levels of self-regulation, stereotypes, semantic structures, etc. At the initial stages of solving a problem, the discovery by the subject of a discrepancy between the required knowledge and past experience is experienced by him as an "obstacle", "difficulty", "uncertainty", and this experience is colored not by positive, but by negative emotions (like many of the needs when they arise: hunger, thirst, etc.). For example, cases of misunderstanding, doubts, etc., realized by a person, do not cause joy. They evoke opposite emotions.

The process of subjective discovery of the new and the formation of mental new formations is carried out as a process of productive formation of new forms of mental self-regulation of actions, new mental properties (abilities, etc.), the generation of goals and motives mediated by the goal being achieved and new conditions of action. spawned new target action at the same time performs the function of a meaning-forming "lever" of a productive mental process.

The functional hierarchy of productive processes includes three main levels:

1) the level of reactions at which they manifest themselves as novelty reactions (orienting reaction) and provide the possibility of adaptation (adaptation) to environmental conditions;

2) the level of knowledge and actions at which they act as various types problematic si-

Tuations in learning;

3) the level of creative activity, at which productive processes act in the form of setting and solving professional practical and theoretical problems. These are functional levels, where the highest level does not grow out of the lowest, but, on the contrary, the lowest is only serving in relation to the highest.

The hierarchy of productive processes at different age stages involves their analysis at the levels:

1) gaming;




2) educational;

3) professional activity and communication of a person.

In pedagogical psychology, these levels are considered as the leading types of activity corresponding to various stages of a person's mental development: the game of a preschooler, the teaching of a schoolchild, the educational and professional activities of a student. At each of these levels, productive processes are characterized by both general and specific psychological patterns, manifesting themselves in non-coinciding forms of transition from one stage to another, higher stage of mental development.

In learning, productive processes are a necessary link in the process of assimilating new knowledge, actions, etc. The management of these processes is based on imitation of the basic conditions that cause a problem situation and the process of subjective discovery of a new one; imitation, carried out with the help of specially designed educational problem tasks (tasks, questions, descriptions, etc.), the presentation of which precedes the assimilation of a new one. Unlike "direct" control methods (algorithmic, etc.), this indirect control is didactically mediated by the creation of problem situations that cause cognitive motivation and the possibility of subjective discovery of something new. Such management is mediated by the laws of productive processes.

Indicators of the productive process are the subsequent possibilities of a person in the formulation and awareness of new problems, in the implementation of new subjective discoveries in new problem situations. Therefore, the main control (test) task for assessing the overall results and effectiveness of training should provide the opportunity to formulate new problems or solve them.

Thus, in the didactics of higher education, it is necessary to solve a new important problem of managing the process of mastering knowledge as a productive process, to develop new types of learning tasks - problematic tasks that precede the assimilation of new knowledge and provide the necessary cognitive activity of students in various types of training: lectures, seminars, work practice , research. In specific me-

teaching methods, it is necessary to develop special training tasks and methods of problematic presentation of the text that are adequate for each subject. Many of the existing study guides do not yet contain such tasks. It is also necessary to form teachers' professional ability to pose problems to students.

The productive thought process includes:

1) First stage- emergence in a problem situation of cognitive motivation at the subject;

2) the central link - the implementation of a specific form of search cognitive activity subject;

3) results - the subjective discovery of the unknown and the formation of mental neoplasms. Thus, the productive process of thinking lies between two extreme points - a problematic situation and the subjective discovery of a new one. This process, limited in time, is a cycle of productive thinking, a micro-stage of mental development.

Unlike the cyclic processes of the body (nutrition, sleep, etc.), the cycles of thought processes do not arise on their own, therefore they are irregular. Their irregularity is determined, first of all, by the features of the goals set and the conditions for their achievement. In a situation that is not specific to the productive process of thinking, they are caused by the tasks of activity that need to be solved. When solving such problems, a person, in order to achieve the set goal (the desired one, etc.), must discover the unknown, which simultaneously acts as the subject of a situationally emerging cognitive need.

Each micro-stage in the mental development of the subject is the result of his activity aimed at mastering the surrounding world and himself. Outside the subject's own activity, his mental development is impossible. Cognitive motivation in the most typical form acts as a situationally emerging cognitive need, that is, as a need caused by the specific conditions of the tasks of activity and communication.

Considering the problems of generating motivation, S. L. Rubinshtein noted that “the key issue is the question of




grew up about how the motives (motives) that characterize not so much a person as the circumstances in which she found herself in the course of life turn into something stable that characterizes this person ... The motives generated by circumstances and life - this is the one "Building material" from which the character is formed ... A situationally determined motive or motivation for a particular act - this is a personality trait in its genesis. The idea of ​​the situational conditionality of the emergence of needs clearly emphasizes their "exogeneity", their external determinism. However, it remains open question about the specific structure of those situations in which cognitive needs are “generated”.

The proposition about compulsion and the generation of needs, it would seem, contradicts the most obvious idea of ​​needs as internal sources activity, motives inherent in the individual and only refracting external influences. Therefore, various types of motivation in behaviorism are often considered only as "intermediate" variables that mediate a particular process. In accordance with this idea, individual psychological types of people who are active at various levels are sometimes singled out. Study of the problem of different levels creative activity in this case it translates into questions of diagnostics, just as a little earlier it appeared in the form of a "diagnostic" approach in the psychology of abilities. Behind the seeming legitimacy of such identification of creative activity and real cases, there are hidden erroneous provisions of the genetically primary conditions that "generated" this or that type of its activity, this or that level of it.

Genetically primary and fundamentally significant is the situation of generating needs and types of activity caused and determined by the specific conditions of activity. As A. N. Leontiev emphasizes, two different schemes are possible, characterizing the relationship between human needs and his activity in fundamentally different ways. “The first reproduces the idea that the starting point is a need, and therefore the process as a whole is expressed by a cycle; need - activity - demand

ness... Another scheme, which opposes it, is the scheme of the cycle: activity - need - activity. Only the second scheme allows us to raise the question of the generation of needs and the type of activity they cause in the specific conditions of this or that activity. This scheme simultaneously corresponds to the genetic approach to the study of specific conditions that give rise to activity, and general conditions their offspring. The cycle of the productive process outlined above now appears as a cycle of unspontaneous, forced mental development, determined by special situations of activity.

There are three levels of processes that generate needs:

1) violation during internal environment an organism that generates an organism's need for something;

2) a violation caused by the type of interaction of the subject with the object, acting as a change in the type of interaction, as a novelty of the situation, as an "obstacle" on the way to satisfy the need; a disorder that necessitates new types of activity;

3) violations in the type of activity, leading to the impossibility of its implementation by the established methods and necessitating the search for new ways of performing the activity.

The third level is a specific case of generating human needs. Cognitive need is born in the conditions of the existing mode of activity on the basis of established motives and needs. It is called as a result of a discrepancy between the set goal and the achieved result, which gives rise to the unknown. This situation is functionally and genetically the primary situation. “The genetically original and characteristic of human activity,” notes A. N. Leontiev, “is the mismatch of motives and goals.”

A cognitive need is born in a situation in which the conditions for achieving the goal appear primarily as subjectively known and habitual. If, in the process of solving this problem, a discrepancy between the usual methods of action and the conditions for solving the problem is found and




the possibility of achieving the set goal, then there is a violation of the regulation of the existing type of activity. These new requirements in activity give rise to a cognitive need and cause cognitive search activity aimed at discovering the unknown. The unknown as a new and initially unconscious goal (subject) of cognitive need generated by the situation and the unknown as the “goal” of cognitive activity coincide.

In the process of development of various needs, the primary need that arises, acting as an unconscious need, "... does not know" its subject, it still has to be discovered. A cognitive need is born every time as a "primary" need, "not knowing" the object of its satisfaction. The unknown as an object of a situationally arisen need is hidden behind the habitual conditions and the apparent well-known ways to achieve the goal. The more significant the apparent coincidence (similarity) of the existing situation with situations of past experience, the more difficult the emerging problem situation. Past experience acts in a problem situation as a "psychological barrier", as an internal subjective obstacle that blocks the path to the goal. The real unknown is not hidden from the subject. His "reticence" (camouflage, etc.) is determined by those "points of past experience" through which the subject perceives the conditions of the task. Psychological barrier past experience hinders the achievement of the goal (solving the problem) and at the same time is necessary condition giving rise to a cognitive need. A situationally arisen cognitive need acts as a link in the chain "inadequate past experience - required new way performance of activities".

Thus, thinking as cognition is directed primarily, and this is its psychological essence, to its specific subject - the objective world, an object that appears before a person in its unknown properties, qualities, patterns. Thinking is a process of comprehension, discovery of the unknown.

Comprehension of the world begins with the birth of a child and continues throughout human life. The achieved knowledge of mankind about the world around us acts for

everyone individual person in the very process of their mastery as knowledge unknown to him. in education (in preschool age, in the middle and special school, at a university), a student, with the help of a teacher, must not only remember the amount of knowledge accumulated by mankind, but subjectively discover them for himself.

The knowledge achieved by mankind provokes learning along one of the easiest ways - the transfer of developed, ready-made knowledge to students using existing means of communication and means of presenting information. The development of human sciences shows that the actual process of cognition is more complex. Both in the specific conditions of learning and in real activity, it is every time the process of generating this knowledge by the subject himself, regardless of his age and level of development.

The process of mastering knowledge during training is not separated from the process of development of the cognizing subject. Each micro-stage in the mental development of a person is the result of his own activity. Outside of the subject's own activity, its development is impossible.

Therefore, one of important issues psychology of an adult is how the subject's activity is evoked, in particular those of its specific forms that make up his cognitive activity. At the same time, it is important for pedagogy and pedagogical psychology to reveal the patterns of formation of mental neoplasms and develop methods (principles) for managing the conditions that cause (generate) those special forms of activity that provide the possibility of a person’s mental development in the process of his training and education.

Thus, the activity of a person forms his specific needs, which are primarily generated by the special conditions of activity. The need realized by a person gives rise to new goals of activity and at the same time acts as a motivating force of special activity in the direction of satisfying the need, achieving the goal. Conscious need becomes a specific "objective" motive, the driving force of the directed activity of the subject. Achieving a goal is the process of satisfying a need. Purpose of activity




becomes the property of the subject only when it meets this need.

The problem of generating spiritual needs is one of the common and unresolved issues psychology. In the psychology of learning, this is the problem of generating special cognitive needs that cause special forms of cognitive activity of the subject. These forms are aimed at the subjective discovery of the unknown, which acts as a specific goal of a person's mental activity, his theoretical activity, a specific subject for satisfying the cognitive need that has arisen. Management of the process of assimilation, as well as development, begins with the management of the conditions that generate the activity of the subject, with the "generation" of needs. The problems of the activity of the subject and, in particular, his cognitive activity, as well as the problems of mental development, in particular the development of abilities, are common problems of psychology and pedagogy. The basic principles of the theory of learning are based on their study at all stages of personal development management.

Psychology of activity and practice of higher education

The principle of activity is significant theoretical principle psychology - is also the principle of the specific practice of higher education, the main content of which is the management of the process of formation of professional activity, the formation of a professionally prepared creative personality. This principle is the main and most general and determines the specific conditions that cause the activity of the subject and his mental development. Only on the basis of the principle of activity does it become possible to study the activity and mental development of a person not only as the mental development of an individual, but also as a person.

It has been shown in psychology that neither associations nor reactions (biochemical, neuronal, physiological), nor actions constitute or derive activity. It is not derived from the characteristics (properties, response capabilities, etc.) of the organism, is not

its property or quality. There are no elements of activity in the human body. Activity, including all types of professional activity, is of a social nature, develops according to social laws. A person appropriates this social activities from another person in the process of special education, in particular university.

Each type of developed professional activity of a person is a product historical development. AT individual development a person masters these types of activities that have developed in society, their content and methods of implementation. Up to this point, the activity has a depersonalized character, it is “alienated” from a specific person. At the same time, in the products of human activity - industrial products, works of art, scientific knowledge - thinking is not contained in an explicit form, it is hidden, it is not in the laws discovered by people, created by tools of labor, etc. as such, faceless, supra-individual. The process of thinking that provides these discoveries and inventions is individual. Open laws become public property. Creativity, development are individual, while an open pattern, assimilated knowledge is a general pattern, general knowledge.

One of the most important signs and characteristics of activity as a socially determined form of human behavior is its appeal to another person, an individual society. Any kind of activity is mediated primarily by the fact that the results of a person’s speech, mental, production activity serve other people, society as a whole, and through them - to themselves. human activity as social form his behavior is mediated by the activities of other people.

In this regard, B. F. Lomov writes: “Research individual shape of human being, apparently, cannot be limited only to the analysis of subject-object relations, manifested in individual activities. For all their importance, they constitute only one aspect of the problem. Another, no less, and perhaps more important, is the relationship of a person with other people, the relationship of subject - subject.




Labor professional activity acquires the form of developed labor activity only when its result serves not to satisfy the needs of the individual producer, but to satisfy the needs of other people, the needs of society. Knowledge as a product and result of a person's mental activity becomes the property of other people through the use of special language means of communication, special means of intellectual logical activity - means of proving the truth of the knowledge achieved. Thinking, as a special form of activity directed at another person, acts primarily as a system of methods for demonstrating, transmitting, and proving the truth of the achieved results of thinking. This is social entity and social form of human mental activity. Just as in trade there is an exchange of goods, the results of people's production activities, their mutual evaluation through monetary equivalents, logic provides the possibility of transferring the knowledge gained to other people 1 , their evaluation through appropriate equivalents, the possibility of proving their truth or refutation.

In special studies, the following main types of such mediation can be distinguished.

1. Joint activity with another person, determined by the same goal, the same achieved result.

2. Activity for another person, in which the achieved goal or the result obtained does not serve oneself, but another person.

3. Activity “against” another person, which is most prominent in various types of conflict and game situations.

4. Activities performed with the help of another person century and component one of the types of control.

1 As L. S. Vygotsky noted: “... Through others, we become ourselves, and... this rule applies not only to the personality as a whole, but also to the history of each individual function. This is the essence of the process. cultural development, expressed in pure logical form. The personality becomes for itself what it is in itself, through what it presents for others.

5. "Parallel" achievement by partners (or groups) of the same goals (assimilation, decisions professional tasks), mediated by other goals or motives, constitutes competition, which manifests itself as special shape mutually mediated activities.

The noted types of mutual mediation in the processes of performing activities only in individual cases act in the indicated "pure" forms. In most cases of educational and professional activity, they are expressed as a simultaneous manifestation of various types of mediation (for example, competitions in conditions of joint activity); personal characteristics participants, the characteristics of their communication.

In the conditions of training, it is necessary to take into account specific types of personal mediation, which can act as joint activities, conflict, competition, etc. Each of the various types of mediated performance of educational activities can be used to solve didactic problems of increasing the effectiveness of the educational process. Assimilated knowledge and actions are not a simple projection of socially developed knowledge onto the student; they are "born" as a result of one's own activity, mediated by the specific activity of another person - a teacher, teacher, educator or a team in which a person lives, studies, works.

Higher specific psychological processes “can be born only in the interaction of a person with a person, that is, as intrapsychological, and only then begin to be carried out by the individual independently; at the same time, some of them further lose their original form, turning into interpsychological processes.

The formulated provisions are important in organizing all levels of professional higher specialized education, although they have not yet found their concrete implementation not only in the pedagogical practice of higher education, but also in experimental psychological studies of the processes of formation of professional activity.




The formation of a specialist involves the formation of a creative attitude to professional work. The very process of mastering knowledge and skills is mediated by this attitude, i.e. by other people - carriers of the profession and colleagues in mastering the profession, who ensure the formation and development of professional activity. Only that educational team (study group) ensures the successful formation of professional motivation, in the center of the joint activity of which are the subject and. tasks of professional activity. That is why not only professional knowledge and skills are the driving forces for becoming a specialist, but also the attitude towards the profession, which develops in educational team. Mastering knowledge and skills in the process of studying at a university acts as a means of mastering a profession, and not as its goal. The purpose of studying at a university is the formation of professional activity, as such, with all its structural and functional components.

Modern pedagogical theory and practice more and more clearly formulate the position on the learning process as a mutually mediated activity of the teacher and the student. Recent ideas about pedagogy, which “lost” the subject of education, the student, as well as ideas about pedagogy that provides student learning without a teacher, are receding into the past. The main and theoretically more substantiated unit of learning analysis is the "teacher-student", "teaching-learning" scheme, etc. "Binary" classifications of teaching methods are being developed (M. I. Makhmutov). Authoritarian and algorithmic ideas about the professional activity of a teacher and his pedagogical abilities are increasingly being replaced by theoretically substantiated ideas about the ability to generate student activity. special problem modern pedagogy and pedagogical psychology of higher education becomes the problem of communication, dialogue in teaching. Its solution is the development of didactic principles of teaching in higher education as a joint activity of the teacher and students, which ensures the formation of professional practical and theoretical activities of a specialist. highest qualification.

Communication, dialogue and development of theoretical thinking of a specialist

One of the first important steps psychological science there was an idea of ​​the objective determination of the mental, expressed most clearly in the reflex theory of the mental. The reflex concept of the mental made it possible theoretically and experimentally to reveal the conditions for the objective determination of mental processes, individual manifestations and features of the course of mental processes, and the ways of their formation. The main subject of the study was the "subject" of the mental, and the general system of relations acted as an "object-subject". In the simplest theoretical and experimental form, it is expressed as a stimulus-reflex, "stimulus-reaction", etc.

The second step in psychological science was the transition to the idea of ​​the mental as generated by human activity, unfolding in a dual system of relations "subject - object" and "subject - subject" and acting as a creative, primarily labor, human activity. The main result of these theoretical and experimental studies was a concrete consideration of the psychological patterns of the structure and formation of various types of creative human activity, an idea of ​​the very structure of activity, its units. The psychic was, as it were, taken out of the subject and transferred into the object. At the same time, the object does not in itself determine the emergence of the mental, the mental is born on the basis and as a result of the appropriated activity that the subject performs with the object of activity. This most important theoretical step made it possible to present in a completely new way the ways of studying the structure and formation of various types of activities in learning.

At present, within the framework of this second direction, new fundamental problems of the study and formation of the human psyche are clearly revealed. They include as a basic provision on the mutual mediation of the activities of one person




other 1 . The clearest representation is

0 activities implemented in communication studies. However, not only communication is built according to the specified pattern 2 . Similarly, those types of developed professional activity of a person that are addressed to another person 3 are built, including pedagogical professional activity.

These studies are just beginning. Their significance lies in the fact that they open up completely new aspects of psychological and pedagogical research in higher education.

The development of a problem-based learning system as we move from schooling to teaching in higher education involves a consistent transition from managing the individual cognitive activity of the student to dialogic management, including an "equal" dialogue between the teacher and students. Dialogues- academic form of education in this case acts as an opti-

1 In Soviet psychology, this position is formulated quite clearly. “The usual idea of ​​the subject of knowledge as a purely individual, only a single being is a fiction. In reality, we always have two interconnected relations - a person and being, a person and another person (other people).

2 “Human psychology deals with the activities of specific individuals, occurring either in conditions of an open collectivity - among the surrounding people, together with them and in interaction with them, or eye to eye with others the objective world- in front of the potter's wheel or at the desk.

The fundamental importance of the dual mediation of human ties with the world for the formation of personality was emphasized by L. N. Leontiev. “The formation of a personality involves the development of the process of goal-setting and, accordingly, the development of the actions of the subject. Actions, becoming more and more enriched, seem to outgrow the range of activities that they implement, and come into conflict with the motives that gave rise to them. The phenomena of such outgrowth are well known and are constantly described in the literature on developmental psychology, albeit in different terms; it is they who form the so-called developmental crises - the crisis of three years, seven years, adolescence, as well as much less studied crises of maturity(underlined by me. - A. M.). As a result, there is a shift of motives to goals, a change in their hierarchy and the birth of new motives - new types of activity; former goals are discredited, and the actions that respond to them either cease to exist altogether or turn into impersonal operations.

The internal driving forces of this process lie in the initial duality of the connection of the subject with the world, in their dual mediation - objective activity and communication.

3 As noted by B. F. Lomov, “further development general psychological theory requires a transition to an analysis of the joint activity of individuals, which takes place in the conditions of their communication with each other.

small for further development theoretical and professional thinking of students.

So, for example, in comparison with the use of problem situations in school education, where the assimilation cycle included only three links: a problem situation - a search for a solution - a subjective discovery as an assimilation of the unknown (understanding), the corresponding cycle of a student's learning activity is more complex. The main form of setting educational tasks for teaching at school is “ready-made” educational problematic tasks presented in various textbooks and teaching aids. The formulation and setting of the tasks themselves acted as the work of a teacher and authors of textbooks.

With the transition to higher levels of education, the problem of formulating professional-practical and research tasks by the student himself is becoming increasingly important for pedagogy. In subsequent professional and practical activities, the student must not only solve problems, but also formulate them independently. At the same time, setting goals will be the most important link in his professional practice. That is why, when studying at a university, the didactic scheme of problem-based learning in its initial link should be significantly supplemented. It should begin with a situation of real professional-practical or research activity, "generating" a problematic task, which the student must learn to formulate. Such "generating" situations of activity are close to real problem-research situations.

In the form of dialogic learning we are considering, such generating situations include two necessary elements:

a) a subject-practical or theoretical situation that requires the formulation and formulation of a problem;

b) the second participant in the activity, for which the corresponding task should be formulated initially. The second participant can be either a teacher or a student. The formulation of the problem is thus a dialogical transformation




naming the situation of subject-professional activity into a logically formulated and represented in a sign or verbal form mental task.

The presence of a second person makes it possible to present the indicated learning situation both as a professional-practical situation and as a communication situation. Moreover, it is the situation of communication that ensures the full transformation of the subject-practical situation into the situation of a mental task expressed in the language of professional communication. Thus, when studying at a university, the lack of school education, which began with the setting of “ready-made” pre-formulated tasks, is overcome. Thus, the scheme of problem-based learning is significantly expanded and supplemented, transferring learning into situations of real activity and full communication with other people. The student himself in these situations acts as a kind of "compiler" of problems, their author, even in those cases when he solves these problems himself. However, this possibility of setting tasks for oneself is a kind of outcome of the previous development, when such tasks were formulated as tasks “for another”.

For example, the theorem itself “If three circles of the same radius pass through one point, then the circle passing through the other three points of their intersection has the same radius” can be considered both as an obvious statement and as a statement that needs proof. The latter acts as addressed to another person. In this case, the theorem itself is transformed into an expanded problem for proof, including its specific version "Three circles to,/and t of the same radius r pass through a point O. Circles /and t intersect at a point Ah, tick-in point B, ki1-b point WITH. It is required to prove that the radius of the circle r passing through the points A, B and C is also equal to G". In this example, taken from the famous book by D. Poya " mathematical discovery” (M.: Nauka, 1970, pp. 238-241), illustratively shows a kind of transformation of some mathematical truth into a problem of proof. It is this kind of transformation that the student must learn in the process of learning as one of the links of thinking.

The traditional idea of ​​thinking as an individual act of mastering, mastering knowledge, etc., considers only one aspect of human mental activity. The second side of thinking as a productive process is the "generation" of ignorance, the unknown. The process of such “generation” of the unknown appears in the form of questions to reality, expressing real, yet unresolved problems. Only with such an approach to the formation of thinking can one understand both the structure of a person’s complete mental act and its development in the learning process. Most of the psychological and pedagogical research was based on the fact that the process of thinking (thinking act) begins and is carried out as a person solving a problem. At the same time, it was assumed that the mental tasks themselves already exist, are set (like pre-prepared school tasks), and thinking consists in the processes of finding their solutions. But at the same time, it was not taken into account that the tasks themselves had already been set and formulated by someone (by the authors of textbooks, teachers, etc.). The very act of setting goals, formulating questions was considered as its prerequisite.

However, the conditions for the formation of a developed professional activity of a highly qualified specialist suggest the need to highlight this act, “preceding” the solution of the problem and consisting in formulating it as a special and unexplored in experimental psychology link of mental activity. General scheme mental activity, which is expressed as the process of finding a solution to a problem, should be supplemented at the initial stage by the process of the emergence, generation of a question, task, problem, preceding the very process of finding its solution! The act of thought begins with the central link of the problem situation - the unknown, the unknown. It is expressed as a question to reality, originally addressed to another person.

The process of finding a solution new task proceeds (under the conditions of an individual or group decision) as a process of understanding and does not differ significantly from the general patterns of problem-based learning. The solution found or the new knowledge acquired in this process acts as a subjective discovery of the new.




Unlike school education, in which assimilation ends with “understanding”, university education involves the inclusion of a new special link that follows the understanding of what has been learned and involves its explanation or proof to another, and, if necessary, refutation of erroneous (false) positions expressed by others. Thus, the development of thinking in the process of learning in higher education involves the formation of a developed theoretical thinking of a person, including the independent formulation of professional, practical and research problems, the search and implementation of their solutions, the proof of the truth of the achieved solutions, their justification or explanation to another person. The optimal or most rational form of education in these cases is the form of a developed educational dialogue, which implies an equal Active participation teacher and students in each of the marked stages of the learning process, carried out as a full-fledged communication between the teacher and students and students among themselves in various types of educational activities. It is only in this form of dialogic teaching that all the basic types of thinking are born as "destined" for the other and addressed to the other.

So, for example, in the conditions of education in higher education, the didactic position that the explanation of the studied is practically the reduction of it to the known, understandable, past experience, etc., becomes practically unjustified. principles of school pedagogy, is increasingly transformed into an explanation as a function of science, which ensures the formulation of hypotheses, the prediction of phenomena, etc. scientific research in the system: experiment (observation) - description - explanation - prediction. Moreover, only under the conditions of dialogic learning does it become necessary to fully implement each of the links of the study.

Similarly, the need for proof is born as a way of understanding the found solution, as a form of de-

demonstrations not only of the truth of this or that proposition, but also of the method of solving the problem, the way of research.

The idea of ​​the learning process as a kind of dialogue between the teacher and students requires a special analysis of two specific parts of the educational process - questions and answers as components of the dialogue in learning. In many cases of analysis and concrete teaching practice, we tend to consider questions primarily as a unit of teaching activity, and answers as the predominant activity of students. With this representation, we, as it were, artificially break the real teaching dialogue, assigning an active role to the teacher and a passive-response to the student. As a result of such a naive-empirical idea of ​​a student’s learning activity (as an individual one), in the practice of higher education, didactic principles and methodological methods for the development of a student’s thinking are insufficiently developed, providing opportunities for further (compared to school age) development of theoretical professional thinking. In this regard, the problem self-staging questions by the student (to the teacher, to the educational material) is no less important than all forms of his reproducing response activity. The classical scheme for assessing learning outcomes in terms of student responses is partial and incomplete.

The second equivalent indicator of the effectiveness of training (assimilation) are the questions generated by the educational process. Only in the specified relationship "answer - question" the learning process fully acts as a kind of educational dialogue that provides opportunities for the development of students' thinking. As M. M. Bakhtin rightly noted, “if the answer to gives rise to a new question, it drops out of the dialogue and enters systemic cognition, essentially impersonal”

To an even greater extent, the above applies to the development of the student's thinking, including the development of opportunities to refute false or unproven statements and hypotheses. Unfortunately, as shown in a special study by a professor at the University. R. Descartes J. Fizer (Materials of the Soviet-French seminar September 22-24, 1976, manuscript), students are ready to take on faith an insufficiently substantiated system of




ny or even a false hypothesis, learn it and "pass" it during the test-examination session. They not only do not need to refute it, but also doubt its truth.

The result of training in higher education should be not only an acquired system of knowledge, but also that system of questions, problems, tasks that have not yet been resolved in science and that specialists who have received higher education will have to work on.

Some psychological requirements

to the didactic principles of teaching

in high school

Most general principles training and education in higher education are:

1) the principle of activity, including professional activity as the main link in the system of education and upbringing in higher education and determining the mutual mediation of the student's educational activity and the teaching activity of the teacher;

2) the principle of the mental development of the individual in training, which determines the need for the development of the spiritual needs of the individual, the formation of professional cognitive motivation and the development of the creative professional abilities of a person;

3) the principle of creative cognitive activity of the individual in learning, which determines the system of requirements for the student's educational activity and methodological requirements for the professional activity of a teacher of a higher educational institution.

At present, the third of the mentioned principles is implemented to a greater extent in the didactics of higher education. It is most fully developed in the system of problem-based learning in higher education. This principle, which has sufficiently justified itself in school and special vocational training, has not yet received a thorough theoretical and methodological development in the system of higher education.

The main requirement for problem-based learning in higher education is that it must be implemented in the entire system of educational (including laboratory-practical and scientific) work of the student. AT certain types training sessions (lectures, seminars, laboratory classes, etc.), the principles of problem-based learning can only be partially implemented and cannot ensure the increase in the effectiveness of the educational process inherent in the possibilities of problem-based learning.

The specific requirements of problem-based learning in higher education include:

1) formulation of an educational-cognitive or research problem on the basis of a real or simulated in the learning process of a life-practical or laboratory-practical situation that cannot be solved with the help of previously acquired knowledge. Previous knowledge is a necessary psychological condition for posing a problem and creating a problem situation in the learning process, a psychological basis for determining the nearest (unknown) new knowledge that can be learned in the learning process;

2) the main subjective condition for the emergence of a problem situation for a student in the general education system is a mandatory independent execution by each student of a practical, theoretical or laboratory-practical task that precedes the assimilation of the program educational material and leads to the formulation of the problem, to the definition of the new unknown knowledge that is necessary to solve it. A problematic situation does not arise outside the student's own subjective activity.

Thus, along with a system of tasks that ensure the application, training or control of previously acquired knowledge, a special system of practical, theoretical and laboratory tasks (tasks) is needed, the fulfillment of which precedes the assimilation of new educational knowledge and leads to the emergence of a cognitive need for acquired knowledge. In accordance with this, some laboratory, seminar and practical exercises can




precede lectures. There are at least two types of educational-practical, laboratory and seminar classes.

One of them precedes lecture theoretical studies. Its didactic function is to clearly formulate questions-problems, the answers to which will be obtained in the lectures that follow it and other types of theoretical classes. In such classes, the student must learn to pose and formulate problems, fix the unknown knowledge, the assimilation of which can ensure the successful solution of educational, practical (including laboratory) and theoretical problems.

Another type of practical training, the most widely and successfully used in modern higher education, follows the assimilation of theoretical educational material, ensures its application to the solution of various practical problems, and constitutes a necessary link for consolidating and training in learning.

Like this, lecture classes(including introductory, current, review-generalizing and other lectures) can either pose a problem, the solution of which will be obtained through practical and laboratory classes, or answer the problem that actually arose in the process of performing practical, laboratory or research work.

Necessary requirement to the program content of problematic and training tasks lies in the fact that they should be directly or indirectly related to the acquired professional activity. Special academic subjects should constitute a system that ensures the formation of professional activity. Curriculum structure defines the system key tasks, the solution of which determines the mastery of the theory and practice of professional activity.

Assimilation of educational material by a student at lectures is most effective if the didactic structure of the lecture provides the student (and the lecturer) with the opportunity to implement academic work as a joint formulation and search for a solution to the set learning problem. Educational lecture as one of the most important and most responsible parts of educational and theoretical work in higher education provides the greatest efficiency under the condition of "joint thinking"

teacher and students. The professional pedagogical skill of a teacher of higher education includes a deep knowledge of the subject and possession of a system of didactic methods and means that provide opportunities for joint search with students for a solution to the problem. The student's readiness for academic work at the lecture lies in the fact that he must master the system special knowledge and learning skills that provide opportunities for the joint implementation of the mental search with the lecturer, which leads to the assimilation of educational material. The didactic ways and specific methodological methods of such a student's educational work have not yet been sufficiently studied.

An indicator of the effectiveness of a lecture can be, for example, the ability to directly reproduce (immediately after the lecture and without the help of notes) its main provisions, including the formulation of the problem, solved




Pedagogy and psychology of higher education

Pedagogy and psychology of higher education: Textbook

Managing editor M. V. Bulanova-Toporkova

prof., cand. philol. Sciences M. V. Bulanova-Toporkov (part 1, ch. 1 2, 3, 5; ch. 5; ch. 6 2-6; ch. 7 1; ch. 8, 9);

Associate Professor, Cand. ped. Sciences A. V. Dukhavnev (part 1, ch. 1 1; ch. 2, 3; ch. 4 4; ch. 6 7, 8, 9);

prof., doc. philosophy Sciences L. D. Stolyarenko (part 1, ch. 4 1, 2, 3; ch. 6 11; part 2, ch. 1-4, 6, 7);

prof., doc. sociological Sciences S. I. Samygin (part 1, ch. 6 1; part 2, ch. 7);

Associate Professor, Cand. tech. Sciences G. V. Suchkov (part 1, ch. 1 7; ch. 6 10, 11);

cand. philosophy Sciences, Associate Professor V. E. Stolyarenko (part 2, ch. 5, 6); Art. teacher ON THE. Kulakovskaya (part 1, ch. 1 4, 6).

The tutorial reveals actual problems higher education: trends in the development of higher education in Russia, its content, teaching technologies, methods for the formation of systemic professional thinking, training a generalist of the 21st century. and education of his harmonious, creative and humane personality.

The textbook complies with the requirements of the state educational standard on the preparation of a master's degree graduate in the specialty "Teacher of Higher Education", requirements for the content of additional professional educational programs. It won a prize in the competition of textbooks in the cycle "General humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines" for technical areas and specialties of higher professional education.

It is intended for students, graduate students of universities, students of the FPC and courses of postgraduate psychological and pedagogical retraining of university teachers.

Chapter 1. Modern development of education in Russia and abroad

2. The place of the technical university in the Russian educational space

3. Fundamentalization of education in higher education

4. Humanization and humanization of education in higher education

5. Integration processes in modern education

6. Educational component in vocational education

7. Informatization of the educational process

Chapter 2. Pedagogy as a science

1. The subject of pedagogical science. Its main categories

2. The system of pedagogical sciences and the relationship of pedagogy with other sciences

Chapter 3

1. General concept of didactics

2. Essence, structure and driving forces of learning

3. Principles of teaching as the main guideline in teaching

4. Teaching methods in higher education

Chapter 4

1. Pedagogical act as an organizational and managerial activity

2. Self-awareness of the teacher and the structure of pedagogical activity

3. Pedagogical abilities and pedagogical skills of a teacher of higher education

4. Didactics and pedagogical skills of a teacher of higher education

Chapter 5. Forms of organization of the educational process in higher education

2. Seminars and practical classes at the Higher School

3. Independent work of students as the development and self-organization of the personality of students

4. Fundamentals of pedagogical control in higher education

Chapter 6. Pedagogical Design and Pedagogical Technologies

1. Stages and forms of pedagogical design

2. Classification of technologies for teaching higher education

3. Modular construction of the content of the discipline and rating control

4. Intensification of learning and problem-based learning

5. Active learning

6. Business game as a form of active learning

7. Heuristic learning technologies

8. Technology of sign-context learning

9. Developmental learning technologies

10. Information technology education

11. Technologies of distance education

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

PSYCHOLOGY OF HIGHER SCHOOL

Chapter 1. Features of the development of the student's personality

Chapter 2. Typology of student and teacher personality

Chapter 3. Psychological and pedagogical study of the student's personality

Appendix 1. Psychological schemes "Individual psychological characteristics of the personality"

Annex 2. Psychological schemes "Communication and socio-psychological impact"

Chapter 4. Psychology of vocational education

1. Psychological foundations of professional self-determination

2. Psychological correction of the student's personality with a compromise choice of profession

3. Psychology of professional development of personality

4. Psychological features of student learning

5. Problems of improving academic performance and reducing student dropout

6. Psychological foundations for the formation of professional systems thinking

7. Psychological features of education of students and the role of student groups

Appendix. Psychological schemes" Social phenomena and team building

Bibliography

PEDAGOGY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Chapter 1. MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN RUSSIA AND ABROAD

1. The role of higher education in modern civilization

In modern society, education has become one of the most extensive areas of human activity. It employs more than a billion students and almost 50 million teachers. The social role of education has noticeably increased: the prospects for the development of mankind today largely depend on its orientation and effectiveness. In the last decade, the world has changed its attitude towards all types of education. Education, especially higher education, is regarded as the main, leading factor in social and economic progress. The reason for this attention lies in the understanding that the most important value and fixed capital modern society is a person capable of searching for and mastering new knowledge and making innovative decisions.

In the mid 60s. advanced countries have come to the conclusion that scientific and technical progress unable to resolve the most acute problems of society and the individual, a deep contradiction is revealed between them. Thus, for example, the colossal development of the productive forces does not ensure the minimum necessary level of well-being for hundreds of millions of people; the ecological crisis has acquired a global character, creating a real threat of total destruction of the habitat of all earthlings; ruthlessness in relation to the plant and animal world turns a person into a cruel, spiritless creature.

In recent years, the limitations and dangers of the further development of mankind through purely economic growth and an increase in technical power, as well as the fact that future development is more determined by the level of culture and wisdom of man, have become more and more real in recent years. According to Erich Fromm, development will be determined not so much by what a person has, but by who he is, what he can do with what he has.

All this makes it quite obvious that in overcoming the crisis of civilization, in solving the most acute global problems humanity huge role should belong to education. "It is now generally accepted," says one of the UNESCO documents (Report on the state of world education for 1991, Paris, 1991), "that policies aimed at combating poverty, reducing child mortality and improving the health of society, protecting the environment, strengthening human rights, improving international understanding and enriching national culture will not work without an appropriate education strategy.

It should be emphasized that almost all developed countries carried out reforms of national education systems of various depths and scales, investing huge financial resources in them. Higher education reforms gain status public policy because states began to realize that the level of higher education in a country determines its future development. In line with this policy, issues related to the growth of the contingent of students and the number of universities, the quality of knowledge, the new functions of higher education, the quantitative growth of information and the dissemination of new information technologies etc.