Why pyramid building and other funeral rites. great pyramids

With the onset of the Iron Age - the appearance of the first tools made of iron - the productivity of farmers increased. It became possible to plow lands that previously could not be cultivated, but were used as pastures. Farmers began to push the neighboring pastoral tribes. The expanding agricultural territories had to be protected from nomadic raids, which required the creation of new states. Unlike the first kingdoms of antiquity, their functions were not connected with the organization of irrigation of the land. With this task, thanks to more advanced tools, rural communities have already coped.

New state formations were military despotisms, They provided agricultural communities, artisans and merchants of cities protection from external enemies. The collected taxes went to the maintenance of the army, the administrative apparatus, the court nobility. The more lands controlled by the military despotism, the more funds were at the disposal of its overlords. This stimulated constant expansion. Wars in the name of expanding the territory were fought continuously.

The emerging empires were fragile, relying only on military force. The economic and religious heterogeneity of the lands included in them, the desire of the local nobility for independence in the face of serious military defeats led to their disintegration. The centers of the first military despotisms were the states formed in Asia Minor, on the Iranian Highlands (the power of the Hittites, Assyria, Urartu). A struggle broke out between them for control over the fertile lands of Mesopotamia. In the XIV-XIII centuries, BC. The Hittites achieved the greatest success, not without success at war with the Egyptians. Then Acciria advanced to the role of the first military despotism. It has been since the 19th century BC. competed with Babylon for dominance over the fertile lands of Mesopotamia. In the X - VII centuries, BC Assyria extended its power to all of Asia Minor, conquered not only Babylon, but also Phoenicia, the Damascus kingdom, the kingdoms of Judah and Israel in Palestine, Egypt, land of the Hittites, Persian and Median tribes.

In the 7th century BC. the union of the Median tribes refused to submit to Assyria and began a war against it. Babylon took advantage of the weakening of Assyria, seizing most of its possessions.

In the VI century BC. the rise of the Persian state began. The Persians, under King Cyrus Il (ruled in 558-530 to ll, e.), freed from the power of Media, began aggressive campaigns. They managed to conquer Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Phoenicia, Asia Minor. Under King Cambyses, they took possession of Egypt. Under King Darius 1 (reigned 522-486 BC), who conquered the west of India, a new administrative system of governance developed. His empire was divided into 20 provinces (satrapies), each of which paid taxes depending on the size and fertility of the cultivated land. For the convenience of settlements and trade, for the first time in the world, the minting of silver coins began, and silver bars were also used as a means of payment. About 400 tons of silver entered the treasury of Darius annually.

The Persian Empire turned out to be fragile: after the defeat in the war with the city-states of Greece, in the 4th century BC, it collapsed under the blows of the Macedonian troops.

ancient india

In India, several large state formations have also changed. In the III - II centuries, BC. most of its territory was controlled by the Mauryan Empire.

After its collapse, a long period of rivalry between small states began, ending only in the 4th century, when the borders of the power of the Tupta dynasty expanded. However, under the blows of nomadic tribes in the VI century, this empire also collapsed. Many small states re-emerged in India.

The difficulty of creating large military despotisms in India was partly explained by the vastness of its territory, a significant part of which was occupied by difficult jungles, deserts and mountains. A unique system of social relations played an important role here.

Even within the framework of the tribal system, on the basis of communities leading subsistence farming (they usually included several settlements), a rigid system of inheritance of professions developed. Society divided the axis into varnas - closed groups of people. The highest included the varnas of the brahmins (priests) and kshatriyas (leaders and warriors). The most numerous vaishya var united ordinary members of the community. Strangers (those who strayed from their communities, captives and their descendants) constituted the lowest varna - the shudras. Marriages between representatives of different varnas, transition from one varna to another were impossible.

The origin of the varn system is not exactly known. One hypothesis is that it was associated with the conquest of India by the Indo-European Aryan tribes. According to Indian scientists, the ancestral home of the Aryans was Central Europe. At the beginning of the II millennium BC. some of their tribal alliances began to move east. Part settled on the territory of modern Iran (in particular, the Medes and Persians are their descendants). Others moved south India subordinating the local tribes. Relatively few conquerors - leaders, warriors, priests, not wanting to completely merge with the conquered population, sought to make their power Hereditary. The tradition of inheriting a social role, laid down by them, took root in society over time.

The varna system, which originated in the Ganges valley, gradually spread to most of India. With the advent of new professions at the beginning of the new era, the Varnas, especially among the Vaishyas, were divided into castes of artisans, merchants, farmers, etc.

The caste system, which numbered more than a hundred (it was abolished only in the twentieth century), divided society into many small segments that avoided contact with each other. She was extremely conservative, ruled out the possibility of any change. Representatives of each caste had different, strictly defined privileges, rights and obligations. The tradition of intra-caste solidarity and mutual support was strong.

Successive conquerors could tax communal farms, but they were not able to influence the established norms of caste behavior, to secure support for themselves in Indian society, which lives according to its own laws. The decisive role was played by the local spiritual and secular nobility - the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. This determined the fragility of the empires that arose in India.

China in antiquity

The development of the state in ancient China had its own characteristics. The vast territory between the Yangtze and Huang He rivers has long been inhabited by agricultural tribes, who gradually settled on the flat part of the territory of modern China.

In the process of rivalry between small state formations, headed by elevated tribal nobility (its number reached several hundred), a number of large powers gradually emerged. At the turn of II - I millennia BC. the most influential was Western Zhou, whose head, wang (emperor), was considered the son of Heaven, standing between gods and people. In the VIII century BC. Zhou is in decline, and seven major rival states emerge in China. The most powerful of them, the Qin Empire, in the III century BC. for a short time unites almost the entire country. It is believed that it was at this time, by order of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, to protect against nomads, the construction of the Great Wall of China was completed.

The gigantic dimensions of the wall (its length reaches 5000 km, its height is from 6.6 to 10 m, the thickness in the lower part is 6.5 m, in Bepx it is 5.5 m, watchtowers rise every few hundred meters) gave rise to many hypotheses about the time of its construction, but their reliability is doubtful. Since the nomadic tribes constantly approached the borders of the ancient Chinese states, it is possible that the wall was built by them over several centuries, repeatedly completed and repaired.

From the II century BC. until the 3rd century AD supremacy in China passes to the Han Empire. During this period, aggressive campaigns were organized in Korea and Vietnam, trade relations were established with many states of Central Asia and the Middle East (the Great Silk Road).

Peculiarity China was that the main danger to its integrity was created by the separatist aspirations of the local nobility. With the development of commodity-money relations, its position was strengthened, it seized control over communal lands, and many farmers fell into debt slavery.

China was the only country in the ancient world where attempts were made to weaken the importance of the nobility, in particular, to free the state apparatus from its influence. The practice has become widespread, in which appointment to a public position required certain knowledge, passing an exam.

People from all walks of life were admitted to it. Officials were not rewarded for their service with land, but received a regular salary.

The authorities often sought to rely on the support of ordinary community members, acting in defense of their interests, their usual (traditional) way of life. Repeated attempts were made to limit the development of commodity-money relations, to hinder the redistribution of land in favor of the nobility. Thus, during the time of the Zhou state, land was considered to belong to the state, to which farmers paid taxes. In the Han Empire in the 1st century, all hereditary tigils were abolished, and the purchase and sale of land was prohibited. The state regulated prices in the markets, controlled the output of products by artisans. The maximum size of land holdings, as well as the number of slaves that could be at the disposal of one owner, were limited.

Initially, the maximum size of the estate was 138 hectares, then it was reduced to 2 hectares. A tax was introduced on individuals who had slaves. At the same time, state slavery was on the rise.

Abuse of power by officials, embezzlement and low efficiency of their activities (in particular, the irrigation system of the Yellow River fell into decay, which caused floods and famine), a constant increase in taxes (funds were spent on maintaining the state apparatus) led in the 1st century to an uprising that entered into history as the "red eyebrows" movement. It was suppressed with great difficulty, but the policy of the authorities did not change.

New stage of spiritual life

With the advent of the Iron Age and the improvement of labor tools, the degree of man's dependence on nature decreased. This led to the fall of the influence of religions based on the deification of its elemental forces. At the same time, the mystery of death still remained a mystery to man. This contributed to the emergence and rise of new religions - Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Judaism. With large differences between them, a common feature stood out: the life path of a person on Earth was considered as a kind of test, and those who passed it with dignity received a reward after death.

The spread of Zoroastrianism is associated with the teachings of Zoroaster (Zarathushtra), (VIl-VI centuries, BC), who lived in Iran. According to his views, in the world there is a struggle between two forces - Good and Evil. A person was considered as a product of the forces of Good, but at the same time it was believed that, having free will, he could choose the path of Evil, on which he was being pushed by dark forces. People who embarked on the path of Good, after death, went to heaven. Those who surrendered to Evil doomed themselves to eternal torment in hell. Zoroastrianism assumed the victory of the forces of Good and the establishment of an ideal kingdom on earth. The teachings of Zoroaster spread widely among the Iranian tribes in the III-VII centuries.

Siddhartha Gautama (623-544 BC) is considered the founder of Buddhism. According to his teaching, after the death of a person, a new rebirth awaits, the form of which is determined by the law of karma (retribution) for deeds committed in this and previous lives, a sinner can be reborn in the body of an animal or insect, a righteous man - in a child of the highest caste. The achievement of absolute righteousness leads to nirvana - the cessation of the cycle of rebirth, eternal bliss. Buddhism in the 1st-2nd centuries spread widely not only in India, but also in China, Korea, and Japan.

Confucianism is rather not a religion, but a system of moral and ethical standards developed by the Chinese thinker Confucius (551-479 BC). He considered these norms obligatory for observance by all self-respecting people. They included strict observance of traditions, respect for elders, obedience to authority, observance of the order established by higher powers, Heaven. The state was considered by Confucius as a big family in which the elders, i.e., the authorities, should take care of the people, rule not by coercion, but on the basis of virtue. Many followers of Confucius believed that the people have the right to revolt against the authorities, if it infringes on their rights, resorts to arbitrariness.

Judaism established itself in the ancient Hebrew state of Palestine in the X-VII centuries, BC. It was built on faith in the one god Yahweh, who promised salvation to the people of Israel he had chosen if he followed the precepts set forth in the sacred books. According to the Old Testament, the Last Judgment will befall all the living and the dead. The righteous will gain eternal life, in contrast to the beliefs of the past, which suggested that a person can only pray for support from higher powers, pacifying them with sacrifices, new religions made a person’s fate dependent on his actions, including in relation to others, This was a reflection of the increased role of social factors in development humanity.

Questions and tasks

1. Indicate what are the differences between the state power and the tribal structure. List the signs of a state.

2. In what regions of the world did the first state formations develop? How did climatic and natural conditions influence the formation of ancient states? Give examples.
3. Why was the extreme form of social inequality (slavery) inherent in all ancient states? What was the status of slaves in ancient Egypt? State the sources of slavery.
4. Think about why the rulers of the eastern states were proclaimed living gods. What place did the priests occupy in the social hierarchy? Why was pyramid building and other burial rites so important in ancient Egypt?
5. Tell us about the cultural achievements of Ancient Egypt .

6. Specify the reasons for the weakness of the despotic states of antiquity. How long did the ancient Egyptian state exist? What are the reasons for its decline?
7 What relations were regulated by the most ancient systems of legal norms? Which of the ancient eastern lords was the first to back up his power with the force of law?
8. Give a description of the despotisms that developed at the beginning of the Iron Age. Why were there continuous wars for territorial expansion? What military despotisms arose on the territory of Western Asia? Why did they break up relatively quickly?
9 Tell us about the features of the development of Ancient India. What are varnas and castes?
10. Fill in the table: Table "A new stage of spiritual life"

Make a conclusion about the differences between new religions and old beliefs

Similar information.

It is usually divided into three periods. In IV-II millennia BC. the first state formations arise (the period of the early Ancient World). At the end of II-I millennia BC. the heyday of the ancient states begins. In the first half of the 1st millennium BC. these states enter a period of decline (the period of late antiquity), the role of new states that arose on the periphery of the Ancient World - ancient Greece and Ancient Rome - increases.

Prerequisites for the emergence of the state

In the Neolithic era, all the main issues of the life of the tribe were decided directly by its members. When disputes arose, a way out was found on the basis of tradition, custom. The opinion of the elders, who had extensive experience, was especially respected. When confronted with other tribes, all men, and sometimes women, took up arms. The role of leaders, sorcerers, as a rule, was limited. Their power extended to a narrow range of issues and relied on the power of authority, not coercion.

The emergence of the state meant that the rights to make and execute decisions are transferred to those specially created for this. Customs and traditions are replaced by law, the observance of which is enforced by the armed force. Persuasion is supplemented, and even replaced by coercion. Society is divided according to a new feature - into managed and managers. There is a new group of people - officials, judges, the military, personifying the power and acting on its behalf.

The material foundations for the creation of the state were laid with the transition to metal processing. This increased the productivity of labour, provided a sufficient surplus of products to support the apparatus of power and coercion.

There are various explanations for the causes of the emergence of the state. Among them, the following stand out: the interest of the prosperous tribal elite in strengthening their power and protecting wealth from poor tribesmen; the need to keep the subjugated in obedience tribes enslaved; the needs of the organization of large-scale general works for irrigation and protection from nomadic tribes.

The question of which of these reasons was the main one must be considered in relation to specific situations. It is also important to take into account that the early states developed, over time they had new functions.

The first state formations were formed in the subtropics, in the valleys of such rivers as the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus, Huang He.

The abundance of moisture and the exceptional fertility of the soil, combined with a warm climate, made it possible to obtain several rich harvests per year. At the same time, in the lower reaches of the rivers, swamps attacked the fields, and upstream the fertile lands were swallowed up by the desert. All this required large-scale irrigation works, the construction of dams and canals. The first states arose on the basis of unions of tribes that needed a clear organization of the labor of the masses of people. The largest settlements became centers not only for crafts, trade but also administrative management.

Irrigation work in the upper reaches of the rivers affected the conditions of farming downstream, fertile land became a value. As a result, a fierce struggle unfolded between the first states for control over the entire course of the river. In the IV millennium BC. In the Nile Valley, two large kingdoms developed - Lower and Upper Egypt. In 3118 BC Upper Egypt was conquered by Lower Egypt, the city of Memphis became the capital of the New State, the leader of the conquerors Men (Mina) became the founder of the 1st dynasty of the pharaohs (kings) of Egypt.

In Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates (it is sometimes also called Mesopotamia), where related tribes of the Sumerians lived, several cities claimed supremacy (Akkad, Umma, Lagash, Um, Eridu, etc.). A centralized state developed here in the 24th century BC. The king of the city of Akkad Sargon (reigned in 2316-2261 BC), who was the first in Mesopotamia to create a standing army, united it under his rule and created a dynasty that reigned for a century and a half.

At the turn of 111 - 11 millennia BC. the first state formations arise in India, China, and Palestine. Phoenicia(located in what is now Lebanon) became the main center of Mediterranean trade.

Slavery and social relations in ancient states

Under the conditions of the tribal system, the prisoners were either killed or left in the family community, where they worked together with everyone as the younger members of the family. Such slavery was called patriarchal. It was widespread, but was not of great importance for the life of the tribes.

With the emergence of the first states waging constant wars with each other, the number of prisoners increased significantly. Thus, during one of the wars between Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, 120,000 people were captured and enslaved. Slaves became the property of the central and local authorities, the nobility, temples, and artisans. The use of their labor acquired great importance for irrigation works, the construction of palaces and pyramids. Slaves became a commodity, a "talking tool" that was bought and sold. At the same time, slaves with the skill of crafts, writing, young women were valued higher. Trips to neighboring countries to capture new prisoners became regular. For example, the Egyptians repeatedly invaded Ethiopia, Libya, Palestine, Syria.

The conquered lands became the property of the temples, the pharaoh, and were distributed to them by their close associates. Their inhabitants either became slaves or remained formally free, but were deprived of their property. They were called hemu. They depended on the will of the pharaoh's officials, who sent them to public works, to workshops, or allocated land to them.

The remaining communal land tenure played an important economic role. The influence of kinship ties on ensuring the unity of the community gradually decreased. More important was the joint use of land and the performance of common duties (payment of taxes, service in the pharaoh's troops during campaigns, irrigation and other work).

Belonging to the community gave himcertain privileges. The communal self-government that remained from the time of the tribal system was preserved. Members of the community enjoyed her protection, she was collectively responsible for their misdeeds.

The supreme power in ancient Egypt belonged to the pharaoh, who was considered a living god, his will was the absolute law for his subjects. He owned a significant part of the land and slaves. The pharaoh's deputies were most often appointed by his relatives. They ruled the provinces and at the same time, owning the lands granted or belonging to them, were large proprietors. This gave the Egyptian despotism a patriarchal character.

Egypt had a strong tradition of matriarchy. Initially, the right to the throne was transferred through the female line, and many pharaohs were forced to marry their own sisters or cousins ​​in order for their power to be recognized as legitimate.

Great role in the society of the Ancient Egypt officials who collected taxes, directly managed the property of the pharaoh and his entourage, and were responsible for construction, played.

Priests were influential. They observed the weather, solar and lunar eclipses, their blessing considered the axis necessary for any undertaking. In ancient Egypt, special importance was attached to funeral rituals, which also ensured special respect for the priests. They were not only ministers of worship, but also keepers of knowledge. The construction of the pyramids, as well as the implementation of irrigation works, the calculations of the time of the Nile floods required rather complex mathematical calculations.

Social relations in ancient Mesopotamia had approximately the same character, where kings were deified, and temples played a special role in the life of the state.

Culture and Beliefs in Ancient Egypt

The culture of Ancient Egypt became most famous thanks to the tombs of the pharaohs - the pyramids. According to scientists, their construction began in the 27th century BC. under Pharaoh Djoser.

The largest of the pyramids - Cheops - was considered in ancient times one of the wonders of the world. Its height is 146.6 m, the width of each side is 230 m, the total weight of the stone blocks from which the pyramid was built is about 5 million, 750 thousand tons. Inside the pyramids there was a complex system of passages leading to the tomb of the pharaoh. After his death, the body was embalmed, decorated with gold, silver, precious stones and placed in a sarcophagus in a burial chamber. It was believed that after death the soul of the pharaoh continues to live with the gods.

The pyramids are so large that even in the 20th century it seemed unthinkable to many that they could be built by the ancient inhabitants of Egypt. Hypotheses about aliens were born, it was suggested that the pyramids were built in the New Age, and the entire chronology of the Ancient World is erroneous. Meanwhile, given that each pyramid was built for two or three decades (work on it began with the accession of the new pharaoh and had to be completed by the time of his death), and the builders had all the resources of a fairly large state at their disposal, the creation of pyramids does not seem impossible.

The gigantic dimensions of the pyramids, impressing even the people of the 21st century, overwhelmed contemporaries with their grandeur and scale, they served as a clear demonstration of the boundlessness of the power of the pharaohs. In the eyes of farmers, captive slaves, those by whose will such colossus was erected, really should have been akin to gods.

According to the beliefs of the Egyptians, a person consisted of a body (Het), a soul (Ba), a shadow (Khibet), a name (Ren) and an invisible double (Ka). It was believed that if the soul after death goes to the afterlife, then the ka remains on earth and moves into the mummy of the deceased or his statue, continuing to lead a semblance of life and needing food (sacrifices). With insufficient attention to him, how could he leave the burial place and begin to wander among the living, causing them torment and bringing illness. Fear of the dead determined special attention to funeral rituals.

Belief in the afterlife was also reflected in the religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians. They believed in the existence of gods, personifying the various forces of nature, the main of them was the sun god Ra. However, the beloved god was Osiris, who, according to Egyptian mythology, taught people about agriculture, ore processing, and baking. The evil god of the desert Seth, according to legend, killed Osiris, but he resurrected and became the king of the underworld.

Separate temples were dedicated to each of the gods, and, depending on the upcoming affairs, they needed to offer a prayer, make a sacrifice. In addition, along with the gods, revered throughout Egypt, in some provinces their own, local, beliefs were preserved.

In the XIV century BC. under Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton), an attempt was made to reform the cults and establish faith in a single god, but it met with the resistance of the priests and ended in failure.

Literacy was widespread, the Egyptians used the hieroglyphic writing system (the use of separate characters for writing each word).

The hieroglyphs of the ancient Egyptians were preserved on the walls of temples, tombs, obelisks, statues, papyri (paper scrolls made of reed) buried in tombs. For a long time it was believed that the secret of this writing was lost. However, in 1799, a slab was found near the city of Rosetta, where, next to the inscription in hieroglyphs, its translation into Greek was given.

The French scientist J Champollion (1790.-....1832) was able to understand the meaning of hieroglyphs, which gave the key to reading other inscriptions.

Significant development in Egypt has reached medicine. Medicines of plant and animal origin, cosmetics were widely used. Knowledge was accumulated in the field of surgery and dentistry.

The technique of navigation began to develop, although it was inferior to the Phoenician. The Egyptians knew how to build ships up to 50 m long, which were sailing and oared. They sailed not only on the Nile, but also on the sea, although with a weak development of navigation they did not move far from the coast.

Questions and tasks

1. Indicate what are the differences between the state power and the tribal structure. List the signs of the state.

2. In what regions of the world did the first state formations develop? How did climatic and natural conditions influence the formation of ancient states? Give examples.
3. Why was the extreme form of social inequality (slavery) inherent in all ancient states? What was the status of slaves in ancient Egypt? State the sources of slavery.
4. Think about why the rulers of the eastern states were proclaimed living gods. What place did the priests occupy in the social hierarchy? Why was pyramid building and other burial rites so important in ancient Egypt?
5. Tell us about the cultural achievements of Ancient Egypt.

Zarladin N.V., Simoniya N.A. , Story. History of Russia and the world from ancient times to the end of the 19th century: A textbook for grade 10 educational institutions. - 8th ed. - M.: LLC TID Russian word - RS., 2008.

Funeral rituals

Pharaohs built pyramids, while ordinary people had to make do with simpler tombs. Usually they consisted of two parts - underground and aboveground. In the underground part, in a special chamber, a sarcophagus with a body was installed. Then they performed the last rites, the cell was immured. And above it they built a real small temple. It usually faced the courtyard, where there were steles with inscriptions, from which the living could learn about the virtues and deeds of the deceased. Sometimes in such a courtyard near a small pond they managed to grow palm trees and sycamores. Inside the temple, on the columns, the most characteristic episodes from the life of the deceased were depicted, and in a special hall, those who wished could give praise to the gods, asking them to be merciful to the deceased. It is clear that the size and decoration of the temple depended on the well-being of the family of the deceased.

The pharaohs, of course, were spared such problems - they had plenty of funds.

The main burial of the pharaoh was the sarcophagus. There are stories about how the pharaohs visited workshops during their lifetime and meticulously examined the “houses” made for their future mummies. But the sarcophagi of the pharaohs were not simple. The mummy of the Twenty-first Dynasty pharaoh Psusennes, for example, already protected by a golden mask, lay in a silver coffin that repeated its outlines, which, in turn, stood in a black granite sarcophagus, also similar to a stylized mummy. The granite sarcophagus, in turn, was in a rectangular stone box, decorated inside and out with images of deities who were supposed to guard the mummy. On the convex lid was depicted a reclining pharaoh with the attributes of Osiris, and on its inner side, the goddess of the sky Nut with all her boats and constellations. That is, the image of the pharaoh on the sarcophagus had to contemplate the beauty of the goddess flying across the sky for all eternity with the eyes of black granite.

In addition, the eyes were also on the walls of the sarcophagi, so that the deceased pharaoh could see what was happening not only in the tomb, but throughout the world. Also, doors were depicted on the sarcophagi so that the pharaoh, if desired, could leave his eternal refuge and return to it whenever he wanted.

Various utensils were placed in the tomb, which was supposed not only to emphasize the power and wealth of the owner of the sarcophagus, but also to provide him with all kinds of conveniences in the other world. In the richest tomb of Tutankhamun, for example, there were front beds, a bed for rest, chariots and boats, chests, armchairs, chairs, stools, weapons, staffs, jewelry and even playing figures, not to mention cult objects. Also, the tombs were filled with dishes so that the deceased had something to feed his otherworldly guests from, and even grain, wine and meat, so that they had something to eat.

In addition to the sarcophagus, a wooden or stone box with four vessels was placed in the burial chamber.

They kept the internal organs of the pharaoh taken out during embalming, given, respectively, under the protection of four gods - Amset, Hapi, Duamutef and Kebeh-Senuf. Amset had a human head, Hapi had a baboon's head, Duamutef had a jackal's head, and Qebeh-Senuf had a falcon's head. And the lids of four vessels were also made in the form of heads - a man, a baboon, etc. True, some rulers, such as Tutankhamen, first ordered that their organs be placed in small sarcophagi made of gold and silver, and only then - in vessels.

In addition, many figurines were found in the tombs. What did it mean? As we remember, those who did equally good and bad deeds had to work for Osiris. This means to cultivate his fields of Ialu: plow, sow, dig irrigation canals and so on. But how could a person who disdaind to do something like this in his earthly life do this? And a way out was found: instead of the deceased, this work could be performed by a statuette specially placed in the tomb. There was hardly a people in the world who more believed that material earthly things have absolutely wonderful projections in the kingdom of heaven. The faces of the statuettes were given a resemblance to the face of the deceased, and, in order to certainly not cause confusion, they not only wrote the name of the buried, but also listed the duties that the statuette would perform instead of him in the kingdom of the dead.

For example, the inscription on the statuette of a priest named Osiris read: “If Osiris is taken into account, called, assigned to all kinds of work that should be done there, in the necropolis, as a person does for himself, for the fertility of the fields, for irrigating the banks, for carrying sand from east to west and back, to remove weeds, as a man does for himself, you will say, “I will do it. I'm here!""

Soon an entire industry was born, and for figurines they began to make baskets, hoes, shovels. By the way, they were also signed with the name of the owner - apparently, so that in the afterlife evil figurines would not steal shovels and other equipment from good ones.

Someone was illumined by a quite reasonable thought, how else can you brighten up the deceased's long leisure. Then statuettes of naked women began to be made. Some of the deceased had such images not even a harem, but a whole regiment.

The mummy itself was decorated with many precious amulets and just gold pendants and beads - a rich person should always look rich. However, the poor also wanted to look decent, and they were decorated with imitations of jewelry.

After the preparations were completed, and everything necessary for the most comfortable trip to the realm of the dead had been acquired, it was time to write a will and choose its executor. Usually one of the sons was assigned to them. In addition to a share in the inheritance, he also received a special part of it, which he could spend only on the commemoration of the deceased. He did not have the right to divide it among his own children, but had to choose one of them who would adequately take care of the memory of his grandfather and regularly sacrifice bread, beer and meat and persuade the gods to behave well with the deceased.

When all these troubles were completed, it was possible to die. The Egyptians, like any other people, spoke very badly about old age, but nevertheless sought to live in this, albeit imperfect, state longer. When it was not possible to do this, and the Egyptian, as it was then expressed, "sailed to the other shore", his loved ones plunged into mourning. For at least seventy days. They stopped all their business and sat at home in silent mourning. When it was necessary to go out somewhere, the relatives of the deceased smeared their faces with silt and, walking along the street, constantly beat themselves on the head with their hands.

But I still had to leave the house. One thing was imminent, the main thing now was: the body of the deceased had to be handed over to the embalmers and a method of embalming had to be chosen. There were three of them.

Embalming "on the highest level" consisted in the fact that the brain was removed from the head of the corpse, and all the internal organs, except for the heart, were washed out of the body and placed in special vessels. The body itself was washed twice, filled with incense, and then immersed in a solution of natron (a type of soda), which was found in abundance in Wadi Natron, a valley west of the Fayoum, and also in the region of Nekheb.

After seventy days, the body was taken out, thoroughly washed again and wrapped in wide linen strips soaked in tree resins and other substances. At least fifteen different substances were used: beeswax to cover the ears, eyes, nose, mouth and incision made by the embalmer, cassia, cinnamon, "cedar oil" (actually extracted from juniper), henna, berries juniper, onion, palm wine, sawdust, pitch and tar. Natron continued to serve as the basis for all these mixtures. Some components were not available in Egypt and were brought in from abroad, in particular from Byblos.

After such procedures, the body was a skeleton covered with skin, but it was easily recognizable: all the features of the deceased were preserved, up to the facial expression.

The mummy of a noble Egyptian was richly decorated: they put on necklaces and amulets, bracelets, shoulder pads and sandals. On the incision, the embalmers placed a thick gold leaf engraved with images of the four guardian deities along the edges and the “ujat” eye in the middle, which had the ability to heal wounds. A copy of the Book of the Dead was placed between the legs of the mummy, and a mask was placed on the face. For the pharaohs and the nobility, such masks were made of gold, and sometimes they were connected to a cape or beaded collar with gold threads. For the Egyptians, simpler masks were made of linen and plaster. Then all this was covered with a shroud. Now it was time to start the funeral.

On the way to the tomb, the family members of the deceased wept and wringed their hands in sorrow. Professional mourners were hired to help them, they smeared their faces with silt, tore their clothes and beat themselves on the head. People more impressive loudly recalled the virtues and good deeds of the deceased. If it were not for all this noise, the funeral could well be mistaken for the usual relocation to a new house: in front of the procession, a group of attendants carried pies and flowers, earthenware jugs and stone vases, caskets with figurines and their tools. Then followed a group with funerary furniture and a disassembled chariot. Then they carried personal items, then jewelry and luxury items, laying them out on dishes - so that others could make sure that the deceased was a very wealthy person. Then came an intricate structure, pulled by two cows and pushed by a few men from behind. It was a sleigh on runners, a boat with statues of the goddesses Isis and Nephthys on both sides was installed on the sleigh, and already above the boat there was a hearse made of wooden sliding frames, curtained with embroidered fabrics or leather.

The procession approached the Nile, where a whole flotilla was already ready for the crossing: a funeral boat with a bow bent inward and a stern in the form of papyrus umbrellas, on which the sarcophagus was placed. There was only one person on this boat to control the movement, and all the other members of the procession were loaded onto a large ship, which towed the boat across the Nile. Following them, four more ships moved, which transported funeral utensils.

Relatives and relatives of the deceased usually followed to the other side, while others only escorted the flotilla with wishes to the deceased for a better life in the afterlife. Having moored to the shore, they removed the coffin, things, the procession lined up again in the same order and set off for the resting place. Often it was in the mountains, and soon the cows could no longer pull the sled, then they were unharnessed and replaced by relatives of the deceased. Then they could simply carry the sarcophagus on their shoulders.

At the prepared tomb, there were already tables with everything necessary for the funeral meal: bread and mugs of beer. The priest performed magical rituals that restored the ability of the deceased to walk and look, and the sarcophagus, as well as all burial utensils and food, were lowered into the burial chamber.

Then the masons walled up the entrance, and the participants in the procession were going to commemorate the deceased in the gazebos that were immediately installed. A musician would appear to eulogize the deceased, and the mourners would go back to the city, often already full of joy without a drop of sorrow: all the necessary rituals had been performed, and all that remained was to wait for the resurrection of the dead.

The simpler methods of embalming for people were much more primitive: the bodies were not opened, the organs were not removed, the embalmer only introduced an oily liquid with juniper resin into the body through the anus. For the poor, juniper resin was completely replaced with cheap disinfectants. Such a mummy was placed in a coffin and taken to an old abandoned tomb, where there were already many coffins of similar poor people. And the bodies of the poorest were completely thrown into a common grave, only wrapped in a coarse cloth, and covered with sand.

The living now needed to carefully take care of the dead, otherwise, according to the same Book of the Dead, terrible punishments were inevitable. The living believed that the deceased “will betray them to the fire of the pharaoh on the day of his wrath ... They will capsize in the sea, which will swallow their bodies. They will not receive the honors reserved for righteous people. They will not be able to eat offerings to the dead. Before them, no one will offer fresh water libations. Their sons will not take their place. Their wives will be raped before their eyes… They will not hear the words of the Pharaoh on the day of his joy… But if they take good care of the burials… they will get all the best…” The Book of the Dead promised: “Amon-Ra, the king of the gods, will send you a long life. The king ruling in your time will reward you as you should be rewarded. Positions will be multiplied for you without end, which you will receive from son to son and pass from heir to heir ... They will be buried in the necropolis, reaching the age of one hundred and ten years, and offerings to them will multiply.

The Egyptians believed: if the deceased is still forgotten, then he, having deceived the gods, will get out of the tomb and begin to pursue the living, frightening them and sending them various diseases. However, some dead people may do this not because they have been forgotten, but simply because of the harmfulness of their character. But there's nothing to be done about it...

This text is an introductory piece.

The architectural appearance of Ancient Egypt was rapidly changing during the period of the Old Kingdom. Mastaba - stone foundations were replaced by pyramidal complexes. The evolution of construction took several centuries.

The life of the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt

Construction pyramids in ancient Egypt was preceded by the creation of a mastaba - a platform at ground level, made of high-quality granite or marble. Under the site, underground tunnels, a burial chamber and rooms for storing things and products were previously built.

In the last pyramids of Egypt of the fifth dynasty, the chamber where the sarcophagus with the body of the pharaoh was kept was mounted from marble or granite blocks at a level above the ground with an entrance at a height of 10-20 meters. This made it possible to save on excavation work.

Giza Plateau. Pyramid of Cheops (Khufu). 80s of the last century. A photo.

During the earthworks, the builders lived in a number of built temporary structures or underground structures, that is, not far from the site where the pyramids were built.

Burials of ordinary workers and employees were carried out in the zone of construction of the burial complex in the allotted place.

Part of the local population, mostly women, cooked food and baked bread, brought water in jugs from the Nile River or from canals built specifically to supply water to the village of craftsmen. Food was prepared not only for hired workers, but also for slaves.

At the same time, up to 10 thousand workers and employees worked on the pyramid, and the same number prepared blocks in limestone and marble quarries, both near the pyramid and hundreds of kilometers away.

Most of the marble and granite blocks were supplied along the Nile from the stone mines of Kom Ombo and finishing materials from Syria and Libya.

Sectional Pyramid of Ancient Egypt

If we consider the internal contents of the pyramid in a section, then it is easy to determine the place for installing the sarcophagus - the burial chamber, somewhere in the center of the pyramid, with the installation of five to seven ventilation ducts and hatches of various sections with an inclination of 45 degrees.

From above, the sarcophagus is protected by a tent-type canopy made of multi-ton marble slabs, which enhances the fastening and protection of the sarcophagus from the weight of the ceiling, the subsidence of the masonry blocks of the pyramids of ancient Egypt from above, in the early projects leading to its destruction.

Work on the construction of the burial chamber, underground passages, grottoes, false passages, lighting and ventilation shafts, tunnels, dead ends, anti-vandal bolts, corner fixtures, wastewater discharge systems and stormwater sewage systems were carried out before the construction of the pyramid, the so-called zero construction cycle.

Question: “How did they carry a multi-ton sarcophagus through such narrow tunnels?” is fundamentally wrong. It was installed before the start pyramid building in ancient egypt, on a pre-built mastaba or below it at a depth of 20-60 meters!

The embalmed body of the pharaoh was brought into the sarcophagus along the corridors already at the end of the construction of the main building. With him, food and clothing were brought in, which could be useful to him in the other world. Upon completion of the loading of the burial chamber and the sarcophagus, the entrance and ventilation tunnels were covered with multi-ton granite slabs. Small holes were left in them for the passage of air and the communication of the pharaoh with the world.
Neither marble latches nor deep mines saved the tomb from robbery.

Everything that was built above the level of the mastaba, such as ventilation shafts, was carried out during the laying of stone blocks.
Compared to the processing of tunnels and passages with a simple copper chisel with a low surface quality, the walls of the burial room are made with special care - they are polished and painted with hieroglyphs.

Construction of the pyramids of ancient Egypt

Assembly of blocks in the construction of the ancient pyramids of Egypt

No one raised blocks of 20 tons to the height of the pyramid, they were prepared on site in the formwork from Egyptian cedar boards, on polymer concrete with additives from marble and granite chips from stone quarry waste. The solution was kneaded on the spot, water, boards and building materials were brought to the height along the ramp. The larger the stone block was planned, the less expensive wood was spent on the formwork.

In earlier pyramids, the space between the burial chamber and the outer contour was filled with rubble and waste from quarries. From above, the pyramid was lined with polished limestone slabs and blocks.
There are almost no stone blocks inside - they were used only for fastening the passages of tunnels, shafts, props and stretch marks.

Pyramids of Ancient Egypt: Photos

Egyptian pyramid building material

The lack of stone blocks was filled in almost all pyramids with raw brick, which is still produced in large quantities for the construction of housing.

There was also a construction quarry near the pyramids, but the limestone here was of poor quality with a high content of sand. A visit to the passages of the pyramids and the opening of collapses indicates a weak fastening of the internal ligament of the body of the pyramid, consisting of fragments and pieces left over from the processing of limestone blocks and slabs, which went to the external surface finish and installation of the pyramid.

This method of economical use of materials is used in our time in construction, the outer surface is made of high-quality bricks, and the inner part is filled with waste with a polymer mortar on cement.

The order of execution of polymer concrete blocks is shown in one of the pyramid drawings, and is no different from the modern one - wood formwork and mortar.

Egyptian Pyramid of Pharaoh Teti and Djoser

The foundation for the multi-ton pyramid was not built; the foundation was taken from the solid limestone of the sole of one of the natural hills - the plateau.

The construction project of the ancient pyramid of Egypt provided for the burial area of ​​the relatives and wives of the pharaoh, sometimes next to small ones.

The lack of geodetic study of the soil, the presence of groundwater, as a rule, led to the premature destruction of the pyramid, but this rarely happened. In the floodplain of the flood meadows of the Nile, the construction of pyramids was not carried out, and the foothill territory occupied by burials did not have underground groundwater.

The pyramids, washed away by the high level of the Nile during the years of the flood, were destroyed almost to the ground.
Hundreds of millions of years ago, in the zone where the pyramids were located, there were mountain ranges that collapsed from the waters of the ancient sea in the river valley, the sun and heat - turning into sand and rubble.

Pyramids of Ancient Egypt video

The content of the article

FUNERAL CUSTOMS AND RITUALS. Everywhere and at all times available to our knowledge, after the death of an individual member of society, established customs come into play. The usual procedural actions associated with the disposal of the corpse and the behavior of the relatives of the deceased are ritual not only to the extent that they are inherited and socially consecrated, but also to the extent that they contain certain symbolism and lack purely practical calculations. Customs that involve the burial of a body simply for sanitation or other practical reasons cannot qualify as rituals because they lack the context of sacredness. This kind of context may not be strictly religious or magical if it contains feelings, values, and beliefs that transcend the utilitarian. However, with rare exceptions limited to modern urban civilizations, death customs and ceremonies belong ultimately to the realm of religion. For this reason, such rites and customs turn out to be symbolically loaded and have significance only in relation to the culture in which they arise and receive their expression.

A number of anthropologists have analyzed the functions of funeral rites. For the deceased, funerals are one of the rites of the life cycle, like other rites of the same cycle, performed on the occasion of reaching puberty, marriage, and similar events, and mark the transition from one status to another. This rite of the life cycle should create the best conditions for such a transition.
Despite their obvious focus on the individual, funeral rites are social in their function, since they have an effect on the living. Through these rites, mourners are given the means to achieve stability. In accordance with the analysis carried out by American anthropologists Eliot Chapple and Carleton S. Coon, death causes social imbalance, since relations between members of those institutions in which the deceased participated are temporarily disrupted. To achieve the balance so necessary for social life, it is necessary to restore a stable system of relations that would include predictable relations of rhythmic and stable interaction. The rites of the life cycle serve as a means to this end.

Since there is no consensus among theorists about the origin of ambivalent attitudes and rituals, instead we will have to turn to explanations supported by practical evidence.

The attitude towards the dead may be determined by the specific circumstances of their death. Thus, for example, those who die as a result of illness, accident or murder may be considered hostile or vindictive towards the living, while those who have lived their entire allotted life and died peacefully may be considered friendly or at least indifferent.
Customs such as blindfolding the dead, taking the body out of the dwelling through a special door that is then sealed up, taking the body to the grave in a roundabout way, scattering thorns along the road from the grave to the village, are all ways to confuse the spirit of the deceased and prevent him from returning to inflict harm. The complete destruction of the property of the dead can be interpreted as a way to prevent their return, since they will not have a home, no tools, no utensils, no clothes. The body may be dismembered or otherwise mutilated to prevent its return. Loud noise and disgusting smells can serve the same purpose. The purpose of burying the dead in secret and inaccessible places may be to prevent them from being awakened by any intruder. The widespread taboo to pronounce the name of the deceased may be due to the desire not to attract his attention to himself.

A completely different attitude takes place when the bodies of the dead are preserved and endowed with certain attention out of a sense of respect and love for them from the living. Embalming, drying, and even cremation can be considered motivated by this kind of feeling. The same applies to grave goods, food offerings, jewelry, portrait statues and images, monuments and memorial services.

In any society, therefore, the elements of fear, reverence, respect, reverence, and love are mixed in varying proportions according to the circumstances. Some tribes, especially in Australia, allow the simultaneous expression of sadness and hostility, since they endow the deceased with two souls - one of them is friendly, the other is hostile. Many societies throughout Malaysia respect the good i.e. to the soul located on the right, and they drive out the evil one, i.e. the soul on the left.

Antiquity of funeral rites.

The conclusions of archaeologists regarding the antiquity of burial customs and rites indicate that, apparently, already in the Pleistocene, the modeled attitude towards the dead was predominant in various parts of the world.

The most ancient evidence comes from China, where during the Lower Paleolithic (Early Stone Age), about half a million years ago, ritual cannibalism was practiced by Sinanthropus.

The skulls of at least fourteen individuals, and the teeth and jaws of many others, indicate that the bodies of the dead were decapitated posthumously and then buried until completely decomposed. After that, the heads were deliberately preserved. The nature of the cranial injuries suggests that the brains were eaten, probably during a cannibal feast, the purpose of which was to acquire a certain life-giving element from the spiritual substance that lives in the head.

Found in 1939 in the grotto of Monte Circeo in Italy, a Neanderthal skull was cut open so that the brain could be removed from it. The cave in which the skull was found could have been a sanctuary (bone storage), since the skull was inside a circle of stones in a small inner chamber, along the wall of which bones of various mammals were piled. The bones date from c. 70 thousand to 100 thousand years ago.

A later parallel to the cult of skulls was the cult of the dead that began in the Paleolithic. His principal intention seems to have been not to try to extract the power or positive qualities of the dead by eating their bodies, but to have a connection with them after they entered the afterlife. This would require both an attempt to give the dead an afterlife and an attempt, not necessarily independent of the first, to prevent the return of the dead, which could bother the living.
Neanderthal skeletons found in France indicate the care taken in the burial of the bodies. The tools and food placed in the graves, as well as the position of the bodies of the dead, testify to the measures taken to ensure the afterlife of the dead.

Later, with the advent of Homo sapiens in the Upper Paleolithic, evidence of attempts to support the existence of those who have passed away in the afterlife becomes more numerous and obvious. The famous burials discovered near the village of Grimaldi on the Italian Riviera consist of the burials of a sixteen-year-old teenager and an adult woman. The young man's legs were bent back under the thigh bones, and the heels were located in the pelvis. The woman's legs were also bent, but in the opposite direction so that the knees were close to the shoulders. The reasons for the crouched position of the bodies remain uncertain. In addition to the artifacts associated with them, it should be noted that the skeleton of the young man was painted red using hematite, red iron ore. The young man and woman belonged to an early type of Homo sapiens known as Cro-Magnons, and artifacts associated with them are identified as belonging to the Aurignac cultural type, widespread in the Upper Paleolithic. Cro-Magnon skeletons were also found in a number of other caves on the Riviera. Some of them were buried in an extended position, some in a crouched position, but always with jewelry or tools, and usually with animal bones and red ocher. The example of the "Red Woman of Paviland" in South Wales shows that the practice of burying the dead in red iron ore deposits was widespread throughout northwestern Europe.

In the cultures of the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age of Europe, starting from about the 12th millennium BC, the old burial traditions did not undergo any major changes. In the Mesolithic cave site Offnet near the city of Augsburg in Bavaria, a burial of 27 human skulls was excavated: oriented to the west, they lay in a layer of ocher. Six more skulls were found nearby. The burial of all thirty-three skulls was conscious, and since they were accompanied only by cervical vertebrae, it is believed that these individuals were previously decapitated. There is good reason to believe that they were considered trophies. Some wore necklaces made from snail shells, others made from deer teeth. Tardenoisian burials (the Tardenoisian culture was a Mesolithic hunting and fishing culture centered in the Mediterranean) have been found near Teviec in French Brittany and also on the island of Hoedic; in both cases, some of the skeletons were decorated with antlers. Other Tardenois burials have been found in Portugal, Spain and Belgium.

The Maglemosian cultures (named after the Mesolithic settlement near the Danish city of Mullerup) of hunters and fishermen of the forest region of northern Europe did not find any signs of ritual burials. However, the Mesolithic Ertebolle people of the Baltic coast buried their dead in shell mounds at a time when new agricultural cultures were invading central Europe.

The Neolithic (New Stone Age) "revolution", marked by the transition from gathering to a productive economy, began in the Middle East. In addition to the usual burials in caves and graves, massive megalithic crypts began to appear, especially in the Nile Valley. Pit burials were characteristic of the pre-dynastic Neolithic cultures of the Upper Nile (Nile Valley) Badarian, Amratian and Gerzian, dating back to about the 4th millennium BC. The graves were lined with raw bricks and had wooden ceilings covered with sand or stones. Sometimes these burials were located outside the settlements, and sometimes they were near the hearths inside the dwellings.

For the first Egyptian Dynasty, the beginning of which dates from about 32-29 centuries. BC, royal tombs were characteristic, replacing the simple graves of the past. Over time, the architecture of Egyptian tombs has undergone a number of changes, going from a simple mastaba tomb, built of stone over a mummy chamber carved into the rock, to the royal pyramids at Giza, built c. 2690 BC during the Fourth Dynasty. The construction of both early and later tombs was based on the belief that the life of the dead continued in them.

Funeral preparations.

Rites before death. In cases where it becomes obvious that a person is dying, he and members of his community can perform a number of prescribed rites. Relatives may be required to be present at the bedside of a dying person, not only for sentimental reasons, but also to obtain official recognition of certain rights and status. Ulithians (Ulithians - one of the peoples of Micronesia) must be present to hear the official order of the dying person regarding property and usufruct (the right to use, but not possession). The Bavenda of the northern Transvaal region in southeast Africa gather at the bedside of a dying person so as not to be suspected of complicity in death.

Among the Murngin and the aboriginal people of northern Australia, the living deny the dying person all moral and physical support, doing everything possible to send him to the land of the dead. The living see a danger in a terminally ill person, because he is halfway between the land of the living and the land of the dead. They also seek to hasten and facilitate his transformation into a fully spiritual being.
The unction of a dying man by a Roman Catholic priest is the clearest example of a ritual performed before death.

Its purpose is to move the soul from the mundane, material world to the world of the sacred, spiritual. A prayer is read over the dangerously ill or wounded, his eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hands and feet are anointed with olive oil consecrated by the bishop, in the hope of restoring his health. At the same time, the patient is given the opportunity to repent of his sins and receive forgiveness for them.

Rites between death and burial. In the period between a person's death and his funeral, society usually performs a number of urgent actions. European customs include stopping clocks in the home of the deceased, turning mirrors to face the wall, pouring water from vessels, opening doors and windows, and removing one roof tile. The explanations given for the causes of these actions are so diverse that it is impossible to speak with certainty about how they appeared.

Before burial, the body is usually carefully prepared. It may be washed, anointed, shaved, combed, or coated with ocher, turmeric, or other dye. Often, various body openings are clogged - the mouth, nose, urethra and rectum. Internal organs may be removed and replaced with plant fiber or other materials. The early Christians used to anoint the body with incense in memory of the spices and spices in which the body of Christ was wrapped. The eyes of the deceased are almost invariably covered with some kind of weight, which is sometimes placed on the eyelids so that the deceased does not look at the living. The body may be left naked or covered with a veil, and jewelry or other ornaments may be added to this. In medieval England, the poor were buried almost naked, but those who could afford it were covered with linen. The Chinese dressed their dead according to their social rank - a nobleman could be dressed in numerous rich clothes.

Lamentation for the dead may be spontaneous or a matter of individual emotion, but more often it is an organized form of controlled weeping and funeral songs. Crying for the dead usually expresses grief, praise, doubt about the truth of what is happening or compensatory emotions and can be accompanied by frantic actions. Professional mourners (usually women) have been used in both the ancient and modern worlds. Their duties include shrieking, beating their chests, pulling out their hair, tearing their clothes, and even mutilating themselves. The ancient Greeks and Romans used the services of such paid mourners, and so did, for example, the Chinese, Ethiopians, Welsh, Irish, Corsicans and Eastern Jews until recently. There is evidence of the existence of hired mourners even among such aboriginal peoples as the Indians of the North American Mandan Plains (from the Sioux group) and the Gros Ventras and Chiriguanos of eastern Bolivia. Mourning can be expressed in chants, often reaching a high poetic and musical sound. The funeral service is sometimes accompanied by ritual dances, often taking on more significance than the sobs and lamentations themselves.
In some societies, constant vigilance near the body of the deceased is considered mandatory. There are various motives for such vigils, including the hope of returning the deceased to life. The Jews sometimes employ professional attendants. Irish commemoration arose from the medieval custom of sitting with the dead, filling the hours of sitting with an activity called "rousing the spirit" ("rousing the ghost"). Among peoples with a tribal organization, the solemn observance of such vigils has several explanations. Some Aborigines of Australia protect the body of the deceased from spirits, while others remain near him in the hope of determining the sorcerer responsible for his death.

Funeral customs.

The root causes of the emergence of various burial methods are usually unknowable, so we can only speculate about them. In general, it seems possible that there is a dual need – to protect the living and to help the dead. The living want to get rid of the "infection" of death and the threats generated by spirits; the dead should be given every assistance in finding peace and rest. Both of these goals are reflected in the very basis of most rituals. Refusal to perform traditional rites refers to cases where the individual does not have an appropriate social status or when it is considered that by his behavior in life he did not deserve due respect. Thus, for example, infants, ordinary members of the community or slaves, criminals, suicides, victims of violence or disease, and heretics may be buried without ceremony or according to special rites.

Tradition to the earth.

Burial of the body is the most common way of burial. The place of burial may be chosen at random or determined by such factors as prediction (depending on omens), the presence of traditional cemeteries, the place of death of the deceased (he may be buried right there), or the wish expressed by the dying. Wealth, age, and other conditions may play a role in determining the burial site. Sometimes the place of burial is kept secret due to fear of aggression from sorcerers and sorcerers. Children are often buried at or near their mothers' homes, probably to encourage rebirth. Many West Africans bury their leaders and dear relatives under the floors of their huts. Probably out of fear of the dead, some peoples bury the dead far from their habitats. Many prehistoric North American Indians used to bury their dead in garbage pits.

Christians consider it necessary to bury the dead in consecrated ground. They oppose cremation because it is contrary to Christian and Jewish tradition, and believe that the practice of cremation was started by anti-Christians with the express purpose of destroying belief in the immortality of the soul and in the resurrection of the body.

In ancient Israel, burying the body was considered the proper way of burial, and this practice remains a common practice among Jews.

Cave burials.

Burial in caves is an ancient and widespread custom. This is usually one of the options for burial, since the body is usually buried in it, but this method is classified separately on the basis of the peculiarity of the place. The voids created by nature proved to be an invaluable source for the study of human history, since the dryness of the caves ensured the excellent preservation of human remains.

Cave burials, as we have already noted, are characteristic of many prehistoric peoples of the Old World. Reports of their existence in the modern period concern areas of Malaysia, Melanesia and Polynesia, Madagascar and Africa, as well as indigenous Indian cultures of western North America.

Air burials.

There is a suggestion that the earliest method of burial was a simple air burial, but we cannot be sure of this. In any case, this is not a very common way, even among the wildest tribes of modern times. Air burials are usually performed on the surface of the earth, with the body of the deceased wrapped or placed in a box, although it was customary among the Maasai of East Africa to simply throw the bodies of ordinary members of the community after death directly to the ground. The ancient Zoroastrians of Persia used the method of air burial, believing that the desecration of sacred elements - fire, earth or water - by corpses should not be allowed. According to the Zoroastrian tradition, air burials were performed in the "towers of silence", which is a walled platform in the open air, so that the vultures could quickly destroy the soft flesh. Modern Zoroastrians bury their dead in graves filled with concrete, believing that in this way the corpse does not come into contact with earth, water or fire.

Where the ground remains frozen for most of the year, air burial has been resorted to as an alternative to burying the body. The Yakuts of Siberia often used rough platforms. Scaffolds or platforms are also used in warmer areas, such as the Indians of the northwest coast of North America. Platforms were used by many Plains and Great Lakes Indian tribes in the upper Mississippi not only to protect the body from wild animals, but also to dry it.

Water burials.

Water burials include burials in water and air burials on the surface of the sea. Water burials seem to be done for two reasons. This simplest way of getting rid of the body is especially often used in cases where the deceased has a low social status. Water burial can also be seen as a precautionary measure, as some peoples consider water to be a magical barrier to the dead. Burial at sea was common among the Polynesians and is still practiced in parts of Micronesia where the practice was widespread in the past. In cases where the body of the deceased is set adrift on a raft or in a boat, the usual motives are the concepts of respect and honor.

Cremation.

Burning the body is an ancient and widespread custom. It first appeared in Europe during the New Stone Age and remained the predominant form of burial during the Bronze Age, losing ground with the rise of Christianity. For Hindus, this is the normal way of burial, and due to Hindu influence in Indonesia, it often takes place on these islands. Some Native American groups in North America practiced cremation selectively. The practice of burning corpses is also known in parts of Africa and Southeast Asia.

This method of burial appears to have been motivated by many considerations: the reluctance on the part of the nomads to leave their dead behind; fear of the return of the dead; the desire to free the soul to travel to the other world; protection from wild animals or evil spirits; providing the dead with warmth and comfort in the other world.

Cannibalism.

Burial cannibalism seems to be an extremely ancient way of burying the dead. In historical times, it was common among the Luiseno Indians of the state of Southern California, who substantiated it with a myth in which the killed demiurge Wiyot was eaten by Coyote. The Australian aboriginal Dieri ate the fat of the deceased in order to acquire his virtue and strength. The main function of funerary cannibalism was probably the union of the living and the dead through a kind of communion, compared with the Christian ritual of eating from the body of Christ in the form of bread or waffles.

secondary burial. Exhumation and re-burial of the bones of the dead is a phenomenon that seems not uncommon in antiquity. The bones could be processed in different ways: they could be smoked over a fire, dyed with red dye, or wrapped in tree bark. After that, they were usually buried again or kept in some receptacle. Secondary burial is often the privilege of the rich or noble, although among some peoples, including some of the Aborigines of Australia, secondary burial is the rule for everyone.

GRAVE COMPLEX

Being essentially the homes of the dead, the graves show a corresponding attitude towards themselves. The very word "cemetery" ("cemetery"), which comes from the Greek word meaning to put to bed, conveys the feeling that the dead are buried here. Graves also serve as social symbols reflecting status and cultural values.

Grave shapes.

Graves are often dug deep enough to avoid moisture infiltration and to protect against animals and robbers. The traditional depth of European graves is approximately 1.8 m. Sometimes the trunk of the grave is made deep and a side niche breaks out at the bottom to accommodate the body of the deceased.

Some prehistoric cultures are characterized by collective burials. Among the most notable examples of this practice is the megalithic complex of tombs that spread throughout Europe from the eastern Mediterranean in the 2nd millennium BC; the tholos of Cyprus, the vaulted tombs of Crete, the vestibule graves of Iberia, Brittany, Ireland and Denmark, and the long mounds of Britain all represent this complex. In the New World, the Ohio River Valley area shows that during the periods known as Burial Mounds I and II (c. 100 BC–500 AD), group burial was favored, especially among Native American cultures. Adena (c. 900 BC - 100 AD) and Hopewell (100 BC - 500 AD). The Hopewell Indians had a primordial cult of the dead, with the construction of large ritual centers along the rivers and streams on which their villages were located. Their mounds were usually large, and the burials of the dead were accompanied by a large number of skillfully made ornaments, weapons and tools.

body orientation.

The remains of the dead are usually oriented in some traditional direction. The position of the body is usually associated with the location of the other world and indicates the path that the deceased will travel. The favorite direction is the west, to which the face of the deceased can be turned. The west direction may be chosen, probably to emphasize the completeness of life, since it is there that the sun "dies", while the east, where the sun rises, may be chosen to emphasize the moment of the renewal of life. The Mandan Indians of the Great Plains of North America laid their dead on a platform with their feet to the southeast, in the direction in which the spirits were believed to travel to the Hart River, and where the ancestors once lived. Some Christians bury the dead with their feet in the direction of Jerusalem so that they can meet Christ there on the Day of Judgment.

In addition to direction, every position given to the body has a symbolic meaning - lying on the back, prone, on the side or sitting. So, for example, there was an ancient English belief that burying a firstborn baby face down deprives the mother of any further opportunity to have children. In the Punjab region of India, a similar position is used in the case of sweepers (one of the lower castes), whose spirits are greatly feared and it is believed that such a position will not allow them to free themselves.

The question of the reasons for that crouched position, which we spoke about when discussing the Paleolithic time, remains debatable. The Grimaldi woman had her knees pulled up to shoulder level. The position of the body with legs pulled up to the chest and arms crossed is considered to represent the womb, as if the dead rested in it in their graves in anticipation of rebirth. However, a more plausible assumption is that the strongly crouched position of the body is due to the fact that it was tied up to prevent the dead from molesting the living. Such an assumption would explain why the legs are sometimes bent backwards. Modern peoples with a tribal organization give many examples of the fact that the dead are associated precisely for this reason.

Preservation of the bodies of the dead.

In contrast to the usual practice of burial with the sole purpose of getting rid of the body, a quite different goal is often pursued, namely, to preserve it in the most complete state. The most famous custom of mummification among the ancient Egyptians. At first, mummification was carried out with the help of natural means. The hot and dry sand of the desert, in which the bodies of the dead were placed, slowed down the decomposition process, especially when sodium nitrate was present in the soil. Natural mummification probably started the tradition practiced by the Egyptians from the Dynasties onwards. Early mummies were usually treated with raw sodium carbonate and wrapped in linen. The insides were usually removed. Mummification did not fully develop until the Fifth Dynasty, when the elaborate cult of the dead was already in full bloom.

The drying and mummification of the bodies of the dead were not alien to the American Indians. In the states of Arizona and New Mexico, centuries-old bodies were found, swaddled in the characteristic way for mummies or placed in a hard raw sarcophagus. Mummies have also been found in saltpeter caves in the lower Mimbres Valley in the south of the country. The skin was usually intact, and decorations made of shells and woven straw were preserved on the body. Mummification is also known from several saltpeter caves in Kentucky, where the process of natural desiccation took place, but the bodies of the dead were carefully swaddled, decorated and smeared with clay without removing the entrails. There are reports of archaeological finds related to the practice of drying or mummifying the bodies of the dead, from burials in the Aleutian Islands, along the coast of Alaska and in the state of Virginia, as well as in Peru (700-800 AD) and other parts of the New World.

Among the peoples of Oceania, there has been sporadic recourse to the practice of evisceration and artificial embalming, especially in Samoa, New Zealand, Mangaya (Cook Islands) and Tahiti.

Funeral inventory.

Weapons, utensils, ornaments, furniture, food, and the like often accompany the dead. This expresses the widespread and very ancient notion that the dead will find them useful and pleasant in the afterlife; they are presented to the relatives of the deceased as the best way to provide for the material needs of people who have left their lives. It is possible that all these things were also intended to pacify the dead and prevent the commission of evil on their part.

Monuments of the Middle Paleolithic testify to the great antiquity of the grave goods. So, in the cave of Le Moustier in southwestern France, a young Neanderthal man was found, next to whose left hand was an ax and a scraper belonging to the Acheulean culture, and under his head was a pillow of flint fragments. At a site in Solutre in France, which gave its name to the Solutrean culture, shells with holes made in them, engraved images of animals and pierced bones of deer legs were found in hearth burials.

In the Neolithic burials of the Upper Nile at El-Badari, El-Amrah and Gerzeh, utensils, tools, amulets and food remains have been preserved. In the Neolithic tombs of Mesopotamia, ceramic and stone vessels, copper beads, two-grain wheat (spelt), barley and many other items were found. The richest burial inventory is associated with the royal tombs of the Mesopotamian city of Ur in the 3rd millennium BC. There were found not only luxurious vessels, tables, chariots, decorations, etc., but also the remains of the accompanying people.

The monuments of the ancient civilizations of Elam and Balochistan, located, respectively, to the north and southeast of the Persian Gulf, as well as the monuments of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa of the Indus Valley - all of them were rich in various grave goods, like the megalithic burials of Neolithic Europe in Europe. Rich grave goods are also characteristic of ancient Peru.

Among modern peoples, it is believed that grave goods are needed by the dead, and sometimes objects are "killed" by breaking them, presumably so that their spirits can follow the dead to serve them. But sometimes another explanation is given: objects are broken so that the dead do not come back for them. There is no doubt that the most common reason why tools, utensils, personal effects, and the like are placed in graves is the desire to make the afterlife comfortable for the dead.

With a broad definition of grave goods, we can include in it also sacrifices buried with the dead. Wealthy families in ancient China buried dogs, horses, and people with their dead. In the burials of some kings of this country, there were from one hundred to three hundred human victims, intended to serve the kings in the next world. This practice continued until the Zhou era (11th century BC - 3 AD), but paper substitutes were gradually introduced. In ancient Egypt, along with a dead man, wives and servants went to the next world.

Graves as symbols.

Graves are visible social symbols in the sense that they reflect many of the values ​​of society and its attitudes towards death and communal life. Even the modern American cemetery in this sense is no less symbolic than the cemetery of the people with a tribal organization. In American cemeteries, larger headstones are often placed for men in better places. Spatially, the father is central, although often the mother may share this position or even occupy it herself. Children are given secondary places, which subconsciously expresses the subordinate position given to those whose social personality has had less time to develop. The family plot is sometimes fenced off, which emphasizes the importance Americans place on the small family of mother, father, and their children, as opposed to the large family. After the death of a person, rivalry for him can arise between two categories of families - between the one in which the person was born, and the one that he helped create through marriage and childbearing.

Catholics, Jews, Protestants have their own separate cemeteries.

Mourning.

With few exceptions, all societies observe some period of official mourning after a person's death. Such a phenomenon as crying and groaning has already been mentioned. Those present at the funeral are usually relatives, but sometimes they can be just friends, and in some cases mourning is required by all members of the community, regardless of personal emotions. Upon the death of a tribal leader or president, mourning may be observed by the entire society. The duration of the mourning period may vary in different societies and even within the same society, since much depends on the importance of the person of the deceased and on the solidarity of his relatives or friends. In any case, the duration of mourning is determined, as a rule, by custom, and not by individual preferences.

There are many ways to express mourning. Participants in mourning may refuse certain types of food, jewelry or entertainment, resort to sexual abstinence. They may refuse the usual hygiene procedures - washing or combing. In the custom of some peoples with a tribal organization, they inflict deep wounds on their body and even mutilate themselves by cutting off the joint of the finger. Whatever the specific manifestation, its function is usually to distinguish people in mourning from the rest. If the hair is usually cut, then it is left to grow; if they are usually allowed to grow long, they are cut short. Clothes can be changed to tatters or abandoned altogether, and then the mourners go naked.

It is likely that all customs of mourning arose from the spontaneous expression of emotions, and only over time acquired the variety of forms that we know today. The obvious purpose of a formalized expression of grief may be to appease the dead or throw them off the trail because of the threat they pose to the living, or to show the dead that the living experience a deep sense of loss and can only alleviate their grief. through self-denial. Each of these motives is based on the idea of ​​sacrifice, although, in fact, they are not mutually exclusive.

Another, conscious or unconscious, purpose of mourning is to protect the community from those who have been in contact with death. Those involved in mourning are often considered defiled and therefore should be isolated. Mourning clothes arose, probably, as a special one, subject to rejection after the disappearance of the threat of infection. Among the Polynesians, such an attitude is included in the concept of taboo, which implies not only a prohibition, but also a certain state of life. A state of taboo or ritual pollution can be transmitted to those who have been in contact with the body of the deceased or otherwise involved in the funeral rites. The ancient Avesta, the collection of sacred books of the Zoroastrians, emphasizes the supernatural nature of a corpse and its ability to exert a defiling influence that is dangerous to those who touch it.

As a consequence of this attitude, many societies enforce a quarantine during which those who were closely associated with the dead must live and sleep separately, avoid ordinary roads, refrain from touching other people and their utensils, and not eat food that can be shared. with others. The personal belongings of the deceased should be avoided or destroyed due to their defiling influence.

Where such attitudes exist, formal measures are provided to neutralize the contamination of those who have been defiled. Rites of purification can take many forms, including fasting, smearing with mud or paint, bathing, bloodletting, cutting off hair, changing clothes, and animal sacrifices. Each of these forms has its own explanation, but behind all of them is the belief that they cleanse from filth.

Modern tendencies.

Modern trends in relation to the dead are characterized by desacralization (elimination of supernatural qualities) and deritualization (elimination of ritual qualities). These trends are especially noticeable in urbanized societies.

One sign of desacralization is the partial replacement of a religious figure by that of a doctor or undertaker. This statement is especially true in relation to Protestants, in whom the priest is becoming more and more secularized and has fewer and fewer external symbols of sacralization that support his authority. He has to compete with the doctor in preparing the family when one of its members is dying, and with the undertaker in the funeral process. The role of the priest remains unshakable, mainly in the area of ​​the funeral oration, which, acting as one of the rites of the life cycle, is intended to convince the audience of the transformation of the deceased into a spiritual being, as well as to convince the living at the same time that immortality is a true reality. Even the lawyer took over some of the functions traditionally performed by the priest.

Professionally trained people have appeared who are now engaged in satisfying most of the needs that arise at the death of a person. They took the place of relatives and friends in preparing the body for burial, with the skill of embalmers, beauticians, and dressers. They often organize ritual funerals, providing transport, music and a chapel when needed. But despite the fact that these people today are increasingly borrowing sacred symbols, rituals and the language of religion, they remain entrepreneurs outside the ideological sphere of the latter.

Recently, an interesting new aspect of burial customs has emerged, which has received considerable stimulus and support from commercial structures, especially in the United States. It consists in transferring the burial complex to domestic animals, especially dogs and cats, which are buried in large cemeteries specially allocated for them. The corresponding attitudes and rituals imitate the practice of Christian religious sects, but do not find sanction in the traditional theological doctrine regarding death.

The process of deritualization of burial customs in the urban countries of Europe and the USA has gone so far today that the younger generation knows about the practice that took place only a few decades ago, only by hearsay. The custom of vigil at the bed of the deceased is gradually disappearing, and the body of the deceased often rests not at home, but in a special funeral hall. The rite of church funerals is preserved, but church processions and last chants are extremely simplified. With the expansion of the practice of cremation, the ritual aspects of burial have received less and less attention.

External manifestations of mourning quickly decline and almost completely disappear. For example, in the United States, where black clothing, black armbands, black-bordered handkerchiefs, mourning-framed note paper, crepe veils, etc. were only recently mandatory, these mourning symbols are now much less frequently used. Black crepe ribbons and flowers no longer hang on the doors. Funeral processions, and with them magnificent hearses, can now only be observed at the funerals of significant persons - political leaders or national heroes or favorites, such as very popular actors and musicians. Messages of condolences and sympathy have become short.

Excessive manifestations of grief and grief are seen as attempts to arouse sympathy and are therefore considered bad manners. In contrast to the sentimental epitaphs on tombstones of the past, the modern epitaph contains only the essentials. The period of mourning has been reduced and is sometimes not observed at all, except for a circle of very close relatives, who in any case can determine the duration of mourning at their own discretion.