Shapovalenko developmental psychology read. Chapter XIX
Name: Developmental Psychology (Developmental Psychology and Developmental Psychology)
Type: textbook
Publisher: Gardariki
The year of publishing: 2005
Pages: 349
Format: PDF
File size: 1.94 MV
Archive size: 1.62 MV
Description: The textbook "Age Psychology" is a detailed course in the discipline "Psychology of Development and Developmental Psychology" developed in accordance with the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education. The book implements a periodization approach to the analysis of age development, the methodological principles of which were laid down by L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin.
The proposed textbook can be used in the training of specialists in a number of specialties - "Psychology", "Sociology", "Social Pedagogy", " Social work"and others.
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Foreword
Section one. SUBJECT, OBJECTIVES AND METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY OF BREAKING AND AGE PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter I. The subject of developmental psychology. Theoretical and practical tasks of developmental psychology
§ 1. Characteristics of developmental psychology, developmental psychology as a science
§ 2. The problem of determining mental development
§ 3. Basic concepts of developmental psychology
Chapter II. Organization and methods of research in developmental and developmental psychology
§ 1. Observation and experiment as the main methods of research in developmental psychology
§ 2. Method of observation
§ 3. Experiment as a method of empirical research
§ 5. Auxiliary research methods
§ 6. Scheme of organization of empirical research
Section two. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter III. The emergence of developmental psychology as an independent field of psychological science
§ 1. Formation of developmental (children's) psychology as an independent field of psychological science
§ 2. The beginning of a systematic study of child development
§ 3. From the history of the formation and development of Russian developmental psychology in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Chapter IV. Theories of Child Development in the First Third of the 20th Century: Statement of the Problem of Mental Development Factors
§ 1. Statement of questions, definition of the range of tasks, clarification of the subject of child psychology
§ 2. The mental development of the child and the biological factor of the maturation of the body
§ 3. Mental development of the child: biological and social factors
§ 4. The mental development of the child: the influence of the environment
Section three. BASIC CONCEPTS OF HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS IN FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter V. Mental development as personality development: a psychoanalytic approach
§ 1. Mental development from the standpoint of classical psychoanalysis 3. Freud
§ 2. Psychoanalysis of childhood
§ 3. Modern psychoanalysts on the development and upbringing of children
Chapter VI. Mental development as personality development: E. Erickson's theory of psychosocial personality development
§ 1. Ego - the psychology of E. Erickson
§ 2. Research methods in the works of E. Erickson
§ 3. Basic concepts of Erikson's theory
§ 4. Psychosocial stages of personality development
Chapter VII. The mental development of a child as a problem of learning the right behavior: behaviorism about the laws of child development
§ 1. Classical behaviorism as a science of behavior
§ 2. Behavioral theory of J. Watson
§ 3. Operant learning
§ 4. Radical behaviorism of B. Skinner
Chapter VIII. The mental development of the child as a problem of socialization: social learning theories
§ 1. Socialization as a central problem of the concepts of social learning
§ 2. The evolution of social learning theory
§ 3. The phenomenon of learning through observation, through imitation
§ 4. The dyadic principle of studying child development
§ 5. Changing ideas about the psychological nature of the child
Chapter IX. Mental development as the development of the intellect: the concept of J. Piaget
§ 1. The main directions of research on the intellectual development of the child J. Piaget
§ 2. Early stage of scientific creativity
§ 3. Operational concept of intelligence by J. Piaget
§ 4. Criticism of the main provisions of the theory of J. Piaget
Section four. MAIN REGULARITIES OF HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS IN RUSSIAN PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter X. Cultural-historical approach to understanding mental development: L.S. Vygotsky and his school
§ 1. Origin and development of higher mental functions
§ 2. The problem of the specifics of human mental development
§ 3. The problem of an adequate method for studying the mental development of a person
§ 4. The problem of "training and development"
§ 5. Two paradigms in the study of mental development
Chapter XI. Stages of human mental development: the problem of periodization of development in ontogenesis
§ 1. The problem of the historical origin of age periods. Childhood as a cultural historical phenomenon
§ 3. Ideas about age dynamics and periodization of development by D.B. Elkonin
§ 4. Modern trends in solving the problem of periodization of mental development
Section five. ONTOGENETIC HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT: AGE STAGES
Chapter XII. Infancy
§ 1. Newborn (0-2 months) as a crisis period
§ 2. Infancy as a period of stable development
§ 3. Development of communication and speech
§ 4. Development of perception and intelligence
§ 5. Development of motor functions and actions with objects of life
§ 7. Psychological neoplasms of the infantile period. One year crisis
Chapter XIII. Early childhood
§ 1. The social situation of the development of a child at an early age and communication with an adult
§ 2. Development of objective activity
§ 3. The emergence of new activities
§ 4. Cognitive development of the child
§ 5. Development of speech
§ 6. New directions in the management of mental development in early childhood
§ 7. Personal development in early childhood. Crisis of three years
Chapter XI V. Preschool
§ 1. The social situation of development in preschool age
§ 2. Game as a leading activity of preschool age
§ 3. Other activities (productive, labor, educational)
§ 4. Cognitive development
§ 5. Communication with adults and peers
§ 6. Basic psychological neoplasms. personal development
§ 7. Characteristics of the crisis of preschool childhood
Chapter XV. Junior school age
§ 1. The social situation of development and psychological readiness for schooling
§ 2. Adaptation to school
§ 3. Leading activity of a younger student
§ 4. Basic psychological neoplasms of a younger student
§ 5. Crisis of adolescence (pre-adolescent)
Chapter XVI. Adolescence (adolescence)
§ 1. The social situation of development
§ 2. Leading activity in adolescence
§ 3. Specific features of the psyche and behavior of adolescents
§ 4. Features of communication with adults
§ 5. Psychological neoplasms of adolescence
§ 6. Personal development and the crisis of transition to adolescence
Chapter XVII. Youth
§ 1. Youth as a psychological age
§ 2. The social situation of development
§ 3. Leading activity in adolescence
§ 4. Intellectual development in youth
§ 5. Personal development
§ 6. Communication in youth
Chapter XVIII. Adulthood: youth and maturity
§ 1. Adulthood as a psychological period
§ 2. The problem of periodization of adulthood
§ 3. The social situation of development and leading activities in the period of maturity
§ 4. Development of personality in the period of adulthood. Normative crises of adulthood
§ 5. Psychophysiological and cognitive development during adulthood
Chapter XIX. Adulthood: aging and old age
§ 1. Old age as a biosociopsychological phenomenon
§ 2. The relevance of the study of gerontopsychological problems
§ 3. Theories of aging and old age
§ 4. Problem age limits old age
§ 5. Age-related psychological tasks and personality crises in old age
§ 6. The social situation of development and leading activities in old age
§ 7. Personal characteristics in old age
§ 8. Cognitive sphere during aging
Appendix
Archive size 1.62 MB
Section Three BASIC CONCEPTS OF HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS IN FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGY.
Chapter V. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT AS PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT: PSYCHOANALYTICAL APPROACH
§ 1. Mental development from the standpoint of classical psychoanalysis 3. Freud.
The foundations of the psychoanalytic approach to understanding the development of the psyche in ontogenesis were laid by 3. Freud (1856-1939). Freud identified three levels of the human psyche - consciousness, preconsciousness and the unconscious. At the center of his scientific interests was the unconscious level of the psyche - the receptacle of the instinctive needs of the body, drives, primarily sexual and aggressive. The unconscious initially opposes society. Freud considered the development of personality as an adaptation (adaptation) of the individual to the external social peace, alien to him, but absolutely necessary. The human personality, according to Freud, includes three structural components - It, I and Super-I, which do not arise simultaneously.
O n o (I d) - the primitive core of the personality; it is innate, lies in the unconscious, and is governed by the pleasure principle. The id contains the life instinct Eros and the death instinct Thanatos.
I (Ego) is a rational and, in principle, conscious part of the personality. It occurs between 12 and 36 months of age and is guided by the reality principle. The task of the Ego is to explain what is happening and build a person's behavior in such a way that his instinctive requirements are satisfied, and the restrictions of society and consciousness are not violated. With the assistance of the Ego, the conflict between the individual and society should weaken during life. Super-I (Super-Ego) is formed last, between 3 and 6 years of life. The super-ego represents the conscience, the ego-ideal and strictly controls the observance of the norms adopted in this society.
The ego creates and uses a series defense mechanisms such as repression, rationalization, sublimation, projection, regression, etc. However, while the child's ego is still weak, not all conflicts can be resolved; The foundation of personality is laid by the experiences of early childhood. Freud did not specifically study the child's psyche, but came to formulate the main provisions of his theory of personality development by analyzing the neurotic disorders of adult patients.
Approaches to understanding children's sexuality were outlined by Freud at the beginning of the 20th century. in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905). He proceeded from the idea that a person is born with a certain amount of sexual energy (libido), which moves to different areas of the body (mouth, anus, genitals). Periodization of age development 3. Freud is called the psychosexual theory of personality, since the central line of his theory is connected with the sexual instinct, understood broadly as obtaining pleasure. The names of the stages of personal development (oral, anal, phallic, genital) indicate the main bodily (erogenous) zone, with which the sensation of pleasure is associated at this age.
The oral stage lasts from birth to 18 months. The main source of pleasure at the initial stage of psychosexual development is connected with the satisfaction of the basic organic need and includes the actions associated with breastfeeding: sucking, biting and swallowing. At the oral stage, attitudes towards other people are formed - attitudes of dependence, support or independence, trust. The mother awakens the sexual desire in the child, teaches him to love. It is the optimal degree of satisfaction (stimulation) in the oral zone (breastfeeding, sucking) that lays the foundations for a healthy independent adult personality. The extremes of maternal attitude in the first six months of life (excessive or, on the contrary, insufficient stimulation) distort personal development, fixation of oral passivity occurs. This means that an adult will use demonstrations of helplessness, gullibility as ways of adapting to the world around him, and will need constant approval of his actions from the outside. Too much parental tenderness speeds up puberty and makes the child "spoiled", dependent. The attachment of the libido to the oral zone sometimes persists in the adult and makes itself felt by residual oral behavior - gluttony, smoking, nail biting, gum chewing, etc.
The anal stage of personality development, associated with the emergence of the Ego, falls on the age of 1 - 1.5 to 3 years. Anal eroticism is associated, according to Freud, with pleasant sensations from the work of the intestines, from excretory functions, with interest in one's own feces
At this stage, parents begin to teach the child to use the toilet and give up instinctive pleasure. The way of toilet training determines the future forms of self-control and self-regulation of the child. The correct educational approach, as a manifestation of self-control, according to Freud, has a long-term positive effect in the development of accuracy, personal health and even flexibility of thinking. With an unfavorable development option, parents behave excessively strict and demanding, children have a kind of protest tendencies in the form of "holding" (constipation) or, on the contrary, "pushing out". These reactions, spreading later to other types of behavior, lead to the folding of a peculiar type of personality: anal-holding (stubborn, stingy, methodical) or anal-pushing (restless, impulsive, prone to destruction).
The phallic stage (3-6 years) is the stage of psychosexual development with the participation of the genital zone itself. In the phallic stage, the child often examines and explores his genitals, shows interest in issues related to the appearance of children and sexual relations. It is during this age period that a certain historical conflict is reborn - the Oedipus complex. The boy manifests a desire to "possess" his mother and eliminate his father. Entering into an unconscious rivalry with his father, the boy experiences the fear of the alleged cruel punishment on his part, the fear of castration, in the interpretation of Freud. The child's ambivalent feelings (love/hate for the father) that accompany the Oedipus complex are overcome between the ages of five and seven. The boy suppresses (forces out of consciousness) his sexual desires for his mother. Identification of oneself with the father (imitation of intonations, statements, actions, borrowing of norms, rules, attitudes) contributes to the emergence of the Super-Ego, or conscience, the last component of the personality structure. In girls, Freud implies a similar dominant complex - the Electra complex. The resolution of the Electra complex also occurs by identifying oneself with the parent of the same sex - the mother and suppressing the attraction to the father. The girl, increasing her resemblance to her mother, gets a symbolic "access" to her father.
Latent stage - sexual lull, from 6-7 years to 12 years, until the onset of adolescence. The energy reserve is directed to non-sexual purposes and activities - study, sports, knowledge, friendship with peers, mostly of the same sex. Freud emphasized the significance of this break in the sexual development of man as a condition for the development of a higher human culture.
Genital stage (12-18 years) - the stage due to biological maturation during puberty and completing psychosexual development. There is a surge of sexual and aggressive urges, the Oedipus complex is reborn on a new level. Autoeroticism disappears, it is replaced by interest in another sexual object, a partner of the opposite sex. Normally, in adolescence, there is a search for a place in society, the choice of a marriage partner, and the creation of a family. One of the most significant tasks of this stage is liberation from the authority of parents, from attachment to them, which provides the opposition of the old and new generations necessary for the cultural process.
The tenital character is an ideal personality type from a psychoanalytic position, the level of maturity of the personality. A necessary quality of the genital character is the ability for heterosexual love without guilt or conflict experiences. A mature personality is multifaceted, and it is characterized by activity in solving life problems and the ability to make efforts, the ability to work, the ability to postpone satisfaction, responsibility in social and sexual relations and concern for other people. Thus, Freud was interested in childhood as a period that preforms the adult personality. Freud was convinced that everything essential in the development of a personality occurs before the age of five, and later a person is only “functioning”, trying to get rid of early conflicts, so he did not single out any special stages of adulthood.
Psychoanalysts insisted that negative children's experience leads to infantilism, self-centeredness, increased aggressiveness of the individual, and such an adult will experience significant difficulties with his own child, in the implementation of the parental role.
K.G. Jung: “We must take children as they really are, we must stop seeing in them only what we would like to see in them, and in educating them, we must conform not to dead rules, but to the natural direction of development”
The further development of the psychoanalytic trend in psychology is associated with the names of K. Jung, A. Adler, K. Horney, A. Freud, M. Klein, E. Erickson, B. Bettelheim, M. Mahler and others.
§ 2. Psychoanalysis of childhood.
A. Freud (1895-1982) adhered to the position traditional for psychoanalysis about the child's conflict with the social world full of contradictions. Her works Introduction to Child Psychoanalysis (1927), Norm and Pathology in Childhood (1966) and others laid the foundations of child psychoanalysis. She emphasized that in order to understand the causes of difficulties in behavior, the psychologist must strive to penetrate not only the unconscious layers of the child's psyche, but also to obtain the most detailed knowledge about all three components of the personality (I, It, Super-I), about their relationship with the outside world, about the mechanisms of psychological defense and their role in personality development.
English psychoanalyst M. Klein (1882-1960) developed her own approach to the organization of psychoanalysis at an early age. The main attention was paid to the spontaneous play activity of the child. M. Klein, unlike A. Freud, insisted on the possibility of direct access to the content of the child's unconscious. She believed that action is more characteristic of a child than speech, and free play is the equivalent of an adult's flow of associations; the stages of the game are analogues of the associative production of an adult.
§ 3. Modern psychoanalysts on the development and upbringing of children.
The child psychoanalyst J. Bowlby considered, first of all, the emotional development of children. His theory of attachment is based on a synthesis of modern biological (ethological) and psychological data and traditional psychoanalytic ideas about development. A variety of violations of the primary emotional connection between mother and child, "attachment disorders" create a risk of personality problems and mental illness (for example, depressive states).
E. Fromm's position on the role of mother and father in the upbringing of children, on the characteristics of maternal and paternal love, has become widely known. A mother's love is unconditional: a child is loved simply for what it is. The mother herself must have faith in life, not be anxious, only then can she convey to the child a sense of security. “In the ideal case, motherly love does not try to prevent the child from growing up, does not try to assign a reward for helplessness.” Fatherly love is for the most part conditional love, it needs to be and, importantly, it can be earned - by achievements, fulfillment of duties, order in business, compliance with expectations, discipline.
The goals of modern long-term psychoanalytic therapy of a child are formulated in a very wide range: from the elimination of neurotic symptoms, alleviation of the burden of anxiety, improvement of behavior to changes in the organization mental activity or the resumption of the dynamic evolution of mental processes of development.
Chapter VI MENTAL DEVELOPMENT AS PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT: E. ERICKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY.
§ 1. Ego-psychology of E. Erickson.
The American psychologist E. Erickson (1902-1994) is known as a representative of the direction of ego psychology. Erickson revised some important psychoanalytic positions, emphasizing the development of the individual's self. However, unlike the Freudian approach, the focus of ego psychology is on normal, healthy personal development, which is associated with the conscious decision of life's problems. Erickson's theory of personality development is usually called psychosocial, since at the center of it is the growth of a person's competence in interacting with the social environment. Erickson emphasized the importance of the historical and cultural context of personality development, its irreducibility to individual relationships with parents at an early age.
§ 2. Research methods in the works of E. Erikson.
Erickson shows the unity of the process of human life, in which three most important aspects(somatic, personal and social) are interconnected and singled out only for the convenience of analysis and study. Man at all times is an organism, a member of society and Ego (I, personality).
§ 3. Basic concepts of Erikson's theory.
the central concept for E. Erickson is the concept of identity. Personal identity is a set of traits or individual characteristics (constant or at least successive in time and space) that makes a person similar to himself and different from other people, this is the “very core, core” of personality. Group identity is a sense of belonging to a given social group. Ego-identity and group identity are formed in vivo and in concert.
The central position of Erickson's theory is that every person goes through eight stages throughout life, at each of which a social demand is put forward to him. The problem facing the individual in his social development creates a crisis situation. A crisis is a turning point in development, from which a person can come out both more adapted strong and weakened, unable to cope with the solution of the conflict. A favorable result is the inclusion in the Ego of a new positive quality (for example, initiative or hard work). But the outcome of the conflict may turn out to be unsuccessful, and then a negative component (basic distrust or guilt) is built into the structure of the Ego. The unresolved problem is transferred to the next stage, where it is also possible to cope with it, but this is much more difficult and requires more voltage forces. Thus, people overcome the characteristic contradictions of the stages with different success and at different speeds - this is the epigenetic principle of Erickson's concept.
§ 4. Psychosocial stages of personality development.
1. Infancy: basal trust / basal distrust. 0-1 years. 2. Early childhood: autonomy / shame and doubt. 1-3 years.
3. Age of the game: initiative / guilt. 3-6 years old.
4. School age: industriousness / inferiority. 6-12 years old.
5. Youth: ego-identity/role-mixing. 12-19 years old. 6. Youth: Achieving intimacy/isolation. 20-25 years old. 7. Maturity: productivity / inertia 26-64 years. 8. Old age: ego integrity / despair. 64 - to death. The sense of ego integration is based on the ability of a person to look back over their entire past life (including marriage, children and grandchildren, career, achievements, social relationships) and humbly but firmly say to themselves: “I am satisfied.”
Chapter VII. CHILD'S MENTAL DEVELOPMENT AS A PROBLEM OF LEARNING CORRECT BEHAVIOR: BEHAVIORISM ON REGULARITIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT.
§ 1. Classical behaviorism as a science of behavior.
At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. the so-called behavioral psychology arose, behaviorism - the science of human behavior, which (as opposed to consciousness) is the only one accessible to objective observation and research. The philosophical basis of this approach was the concept of the English philosopher J. Locke. Locke formulated ideas about the consciousness of a child at birth as a tabula rasa (blank slate) and about the significance at life experience. Education was recognized as the main way of individual development, the source of all knowledge. Locke put forward a number of ideas about the organization of children's education on the principles of association, repetition, approval and punishment.
The simplest type of learning, in which reactive behavior is formed on the basis of involuntary unconditioned reflexes of an innate nature, is called classical conditioning. The first to establish this method of learning was the Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov in the study of the physiology of digestion in a laboratory experiment. Special conditions for feeding the dog were created. For experimental purposes, the sound of the bell repeatedly preceded the appearance of food. Food is an unconditional stimulus; getting into the mouth of a hungry dog, it automatically causes salivation - unconditional reaction or unconditioned reflex. As a result of a systematic combination (the sound of a bell and receiving food), a previously neutral stimulus becomes conditional. Now the sound signal, already as a conditioned stimulus, begins to cause salivation - a conditioned response to the sound of a bell. The conditioned reflex as a new form of response to the impact of the environment has been formed. It has been experimentally proven that the conditioned reflex may die if the sound of the bell is not reinforced by the appearance of food for a long time. However, after a break in the experiments, a new presentation of the stimulus will again cause salivation in response to the sound, i.e. there will be a spontaneous restoration of the conditioned reflex. You can achieve the development of a conditioned reflex to the sound of a particular bell of a special tone (stimulus differentiation), or you can develop a reaction to a similar sound of any bell (generalization).
§ 2. Behavioral theory of J. Watson.
Data on the experimental formation of behavioral responses have been used by behavioral psychologists. J. B. Watson (1878-1958). In The Psychological Care of the Child, Watson outlined some conditions that will help raise physically and psychologically healthy children. First of all, we are talking about a strict daily routine, the presence of a special room for the child, in which he could be protected from the effects of inappropriate stimuli, as well as the dosage in manifestations of tenderness and love towards the child (in order to avoid the position of condescension in an adult and feeling permissiveness in children).
§ 3. Operant learning.
The type of learning, when the subject, as a rule, unconsciously tries different behaviors, operants (from the English operate - to act), from which the most suitable, most adaptive one is “selected”, is called operant conditioning.
Thorndike formulated four basic laws of learning.
1. Law of repetition (exercises). The more often the connection between stimulus and response is repeated, the faster it is fixed and the stronger it is.
2. Law of effect (reinforcement). When learning reactions, those of them that are accompanied by reinforcement (positive or negative) are fixed.
3. Law of readiness. The state of the subject (the feelings of hunger and thirst he experiences) is not indifferent to the development of new reactions.
4. Law of associative shift (adjacency in time). A neutral stimulus, associated by association with a significant one, also begins to cause the desired behavior. Thorndike also singled out additional conditions for the success of a child's learning - the ease of distinguishing between a stimulus and a reaction and awareness of the connection between them.
§ 4. Radical behaviorism of B. Skinner.
The most prominent theorist of strict behaviorism B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) insisted that all human behavior can be known by scientific methods, since it is determined objectively (by the environment). Skinner rejected the concepts of hidden mental processes, such as motives, goals, feelings, unconscious tendencies, etc. He argued that a person's behavior is almost entirely shaped by his external environment. In behaviorism, there is no problem of age periodization of development, since it is believed that the environment shapes the child's behavior constantly, continuously and gradually. Periodization of development depends on the environment. There are no uniform patterns of development for all children in a given age period: what is the environment, such are the patterns of development of a given child.
Chapter VIII. CHILD'S MENTAL DEVELOPMENT AS A SOCIALIZATION PROBLEM: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES.
§ 1. Socialization as the central problem of the concepts of social learning.
At the end of the 30s. 20th century in America, a powerful psychological trend of social learning emerged. The term "social learning" itself was introduced by N. Miller and D. Dollard to denote the lifetime alignment social behavior individual through the transmission of patterns of behavior, roles, norms, motives, expectations, life values, emotional reactions.
§ 2. Evolution of the theory of social learning.
The first generation (30-60s of the XX century) - N. Miller, D. Dollard, R. Sire, B. Whiting, B. Skinner (these researchers are classified both as behaviorism and social learning theories).
The second generation (60-70s) - A. Bandura, R. Walter, S. Bijou, J. Gewirtz and others.
The third generation (since 70 of the XX century) - V. Khartup, E. Maccoby, J. Aronfried, W. Bronfenbrenner and others.
§ 3. The phenomenon of learning through observation, through imitation.
Significance began to be attached to a special type of learning - visual learning, or learning through observation.
Starting from the mid-1980s, A. Bandura pays more and more attention to internal factors of development (self-esteem, self-regulation, success), offers a cognitive mechanism of self-efficacy to explain the functioning and change of personality, although modeling continues to be an important topic of his work.
§ 4. The dyadic principle of studying child development.
The subject of primary attention of another representative of the direction of social learning - R. Sears was the relationship between parents and children.
§ 5. Changing ideas about the psychological nature of the child.
Thus, in the second half of the XX century. in American developmental psychology, the idea of the psychological nature of the child is gradually changing. The child began to be regarded as a more active being, as a subject not only influenced by his environment, but also influencing it himself, i.e. interaction partner.
§ 6. Sociocultural approach.
Most defiantly, these changes can be traced in the so-called ecological approach to understanding human development. W. Bronfenbrenner, D. Kühn, J. Woolville, R. McCall draw attention to the need for a thorough study of the characteristics of everyday behavior of children in the real conditions of their lives, starting with the immediate family environment and including social, historical context. As environmentally significant variables, all types of the child's living space (home, family, class, transport, shops, parks, etc.) are involved in the analysis; social roles and functions (daughter, sister, student); characteristics of behavioral activity (duration, intensity, etc.). W. Bronfenbrenner's model of ecological systems has become widely known. The development of the child is considered by him as a dynamic process, when, on the one hand, a multi-level living environment affects the growing individual and, on the other hand, he himself actively restructures it. Bronfenbrenner identifies four levels of the child's living environment.
The microlevel of the living environment includes the interaction of the individual with his immediate environment (family, kindergarten), characteristic activities and social roles.
The meso-level, or meso-system, is formed when formal or informal links arise between two or more micro-systems (for example, between family and school, family and peer group).
The exolevel covers a wide social environment that is not directly related to the experience of the individual, but indirectly affects him (the nature of the parents' employment, the economic situation in the country, the role of the media).
And finally, the macro level, or macro system, forms the cultural and historical context of values, traditions, laws (government programs), which, according to Bronfenbrenner, has a very significant impact on all lower levels.
Chapter IX. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT AS INTELLIGENCE DEVELOPMENT: THE CONCEPT OF J. PIAGET.
§ 1. The main directions of research of the intellectual development of the child J. Piaget.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) - Swiss and French psychologist, author of 52 books and 458 scientific articles, the most prominent representative of the Geneva School of Genetic Psychology. Piaget studied the mechanisms of cognitive activity of the child. The formation of the intellect is considered by Piaget as the pivotal line of the mental development of the child, on which all other mental processes depend. The main questions posed in Piaget's works are: features of children's logic; the origin and development of intelligence in a child; ways and means of formation of fundamental physical and mathematical representations and concepts (such as object, space, time, causality, randomness); development of perception, memory, imagination, play, imitation, speech and their functions in the process of cognition.
§ 2. Early stage of scientific creativity.
The studies of J. Piaget constituted a whole epoch in the development of the doctrine of speech and thinking of the child, of his logic and worldview. The most significant thing is that Piaget abandoned the position that the child is “sillier” than the adult and that the child’s thinking has quantitative “flaws” compared to the adult’s intellect, and for the first time set the task of studying the qualitative originality of the child’s thinking.
§ 3. Operational concept of intellect by J. Piaget.
Piaget considers the human intellect as one of the forms of adaptation to the environment. Any living organism has an internal need to maintain harmonious relationships with the environment, i.e. the need to adapt to the environment (in balance with the environment). Environmental influences bring the body out of balance. In order to regain balance (adaptation), the body must be in a state of continuous activity to compensate for the imbalance.
The criterion for the emergence of intelligence is the use by the child of certain actions as a means to achieve the goal.
§ 4. Criticism of the main provisions of the theory of J. Piaget.
First of all, the very existence of the phenomenon of the child's egocentric cognitive position is subjected to experimental verification and criticism.
Egocentric decisions can be observed in adults in situations of difficulty, but absent in children who have received adequate training.
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I.V. Shapovalenko DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (Developmental Psychology and Developmental Psychology) Approved by the UMO Psychology Council for Classical University Education as a textbook for students
higher educational institutions studying in the direction and specialties of psychology Moscow GARDARIKI 2005 UDC 159.922.6 LBC 88.37 Sh24 Reviewers:
doctor of psychological sciences L.F. Obukhov;
doctor of psychological sciences O.A. Karabanova Shapovalenko I.V.
Ш24 Developmental psychology (Psychology of development and developmental psychology). - M.: Gardariki, 2005. - 349 p.
ISBN 5-8297-0176-6 (in translation) The textbook "Age Psychology" is a comprehensive course in the discipline "Psychology of Development and Developmental Psychology", developed in accordance with the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education.
The book implements a periodization approach to the analysis of age development, the methodological principles of which were laid down by L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin.
The proposed textbook can be used in the training of specialists in a number of specialties - "Psychology", "Sociology", "Social Pedagogics", "Social Work", etc.
UDC 159.922. BBC 88. ISBN 5-8297-0176-6 © Gardariki, © I.V. Shapovalenko, CONTENTS Preface Section one. SUBJECT, OBJECTIVES AND METHODS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND AGE PSYCHOLOGY Chapter I. The subject of developmental psychology. Theoretical and practical tasks of developmental psychology § 1. Characteristics of developmental psychology, developmental psychology as a science § 2. The problem of determining mental development § 3. Basic concepts of developmental psychology Chapter II. Organization and methods of research in developmental and developmental psychology § 1. Observation and experiment as the main methods of research in developmental psychology § 2. Method of observation § 3. Experiment as a method of empirical research § 4. Research strategies: statement and formation.... § 5. Auxiliary methods of research § 6. Scheme of organization of empirical research Section two. HISTORICAL FORMATION OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY Chapter III. The emergence of developmental psychology as an independent field of psychological science § 1. The formation of developmental (children's) psychology as an independent field of psychological science § 2. The beginning of a systematic study of child development § 3. From the history of the formation and development of Russian developmental psychology in the second half of the 19th - early 20th century Chapter IV. Theories of child development in the first third of the 20th century: posing the problem of factors of mental development § 1. Asking questions, defining the range of tasks, clarifying the subject of child psychology § 2. Mental development of the child and the biological factor of maturation of the body § 3. Mental development of the child: biological and social factors § 4. The mental development of the child: the influence of the environment 6 Contents Section three. BASIC CONCEPTS OF HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS IN FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGY Chapter V. Mental development as personality development: psychoanalytic approach § 1. Mental development from the standpoint of classical psychoanalysis 3. Freud § 2. Childhood psychoanalysis § 3. Modern psychoanalysts about the development and upbringing of children .. Chapter VI. Mental development as personality development: E. Erickson's theory of psychosocial personality development § 1. Ego - psychology of E. Erickson § 2. Research methods in the works of E. Erickson § 3. Basic concepts of Erickson's theory § 4. Psychosocial stages of personality development Chapter VII. The mental development of a child as a problem of teaching correct behavior: behaviorism about the laws of child development § 1. Classical behaviorism as a science of behavior § 2. Behavioral theory of J. Watson. 8 § 3. Operant learning § 4. B. Skinner's radical behaviorism Chapter VIII. The mental development of the child as a problem of socialization:
theories of social learning § Socialization as a central problem of the concepts of social learning § 2. The evolution of the theory of social learning § 3. The phenomenon of learning through observation, through imitation § 4. The dyadic principle of studying child development § 5. Changing ideas about the psychological nature of the child ... § 6 Sociocultural Approach Chapter IX. Mental development as the development of intelligence: the concept of J. Piaget § 1. The main directions of research on the intellectual development of the child J. Piaget § 2. The early stage of scientific creativity § 3. The operational concept of the intellect of J. Piaget § 4. Criticism of the main provisions of the theory of J. Piaget Section four . MAIN PATTERNS OF HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS IN RUSSIAN PSYCHOLOGY Chapter X. Cultural-historical approach to understanding mental development: L.S. Vygotsky and his school § 1. The origin and development of higher mental functions § 2. The problem of the specifics of human mental development § 3. The problem of an adequate method for studying human mental development § 4. The problem of "training and development" § 5. Two paradigms in the study of mental development Table of contents Chapter XI. Stages of human mental development: the problem of periodization of development in ontogenesis § 1. The problem of the historical origin of age periods.
Childhood as a cultural and historical phenomenon § 2. The category of "psychological age" and the problem of periodization of child development in the works of L.S. Vygotsky § 3. D.B. Elkonin § 4. Current trends in solving the problem of periodization of mental development Section five. ONTOGENETIC HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT: AGE STAGES Chapter XII. Infancy § 1. Newborn (0-2 months) as a crisis period § 2. Infancy as a period of stable development § 3. Development of communication and speech § 4. Development of perception and intellect § 5. Development of motor functions and actions with objects .... § 6. Maturation, learning and mental development in the first year of life § 7. Psychological neoplasms of the infancy.
The Crisis of One Year Chapter XIII. Early childhood § 1. The social situation of a child's development at an early age and communication with an adult § 2. The development of objective activities § 3. The emergence of new activities § 4. Cognitive development of the child § 5. Speech development § 6. New directions for managing mental development in early childhood childhood § 7. Development of personality in early childhood. The Crisis of Three Years Chapter XIV. Preschool childhood § 1. The social situation of development in preschool age § 2. The game as a leading activity of preschool age § 3. Other activities (productive, labor, educational) ... § 4. Cognitive development § 5. Communication with adults and peers § 6. Basic psychological neoplasms. Personal development. § 7. Characteristics of the crisis of preschool childhood Chapter XV. Junior school age § 1. The social situation of development and psychological readiness for schooling § 2. Adaptation to school § 3. The leading activity of the junior schoolchild § 4. The main psychological neoplasms of the junior schoolchild .. § 5. The crisis of adolescence (pre-teenage) 8 Table of contents Chapter XVI . Adolescence (adolescence) § 1. The social situation of development § 2. Leading activity in adolescence § 3. Specific features of the psyche and behavior of adolescents, .. § 4. Features of communication with adults § 5. Psychological neoplasms of adolescence § 6. Personal development and the Crisis of the Transition to Youth Chapter XVII. Youth § 1. Youth as a psychological age § 2. The social situation of development § 3. Leading activity in adolescence § 4. Intellectual development in youth § 5. Personal development § 6. Communication in youth. Chapter XVIII. Adulthood: youth and maturity. Normative crises of adulthood § 5. Psychophysiological and cognitive development during adulthood Chapter XIX. Adulthood: aging and old age § 1. Old age as a biosociopsychological phenomenon § 2. The relevance of the study of gerontopsychological problems .... § 3. Theories of aging and old age § 4. The problem of age limits of old age § 5. Age-related psychological tasks and personality crises in old age § 6 Social situation of development and leading activity in old age § 7. Personal characteristics in old age § 8. Cognitive sphere in the period of aging. . Appendix FOREWORD At present, knowledge of the facts and patterns of psychological development in childhood, adolescence, maturity and old age, age tasks and development standards, typical age-related problems, predictable developmental crises and ways out of them is necessary for the widest range of specialists - psychologists, teachers, doctors, social workers, cultural workers, etc.
The proposed textbook is an extended training course in the discipline "Psychology of Development and Developmental Psychology". This textbook will be especially useful for students studying in the evening and correspondence departments of universities. The topics included in the manual cover almost the entire range of developmental psychology courses. The book implements a periodization approach to the analysis of age development, the methodological principles of which are laid down by L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin.
The textbook includes 5 sections, uniting 19 topics.
The first section "Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology and developmental psychology" introduces the methodological, methodological and conceptual foundations of developmental psychology, contains an introduction to the main problems of this branch of psychological science.
Sections two "Historical formation of developmental psychology", third "Basic concepts of human mental development in ontogeny in foreign psychology" and fourth "Basic patterns of human mental development in ontogeny in Russian psychology" are a presentation and analysis of the main theories of human mental development, developed in foreign and domestic psychology. They introduce the reader to the history of child and developmental psychology, classical theories of mental development, trends in modern development, and debatable problems of developmental psychology as a science.
The fifth section "Ontogenetic mental development of a person: age steps" considers the main patterns of mental development throughout a person's life - from birth to old age, describes the psychological ages from infancy to old age.
10 Foreword The Appendix provides a general scheme of the age periodization of human mental development. Each chapter is accompanied by questions and tasks that are designed to draw students' attention to the key points of the topic. The content of the chapters includes examples from psychological research, literary and life illustrations, which facilitates the perception of theoretical material and allows you to refer to your own experience of each reader, encourage you to think about certain important problems that have both theoretical and applied value, connect theory with practice, build bridges from classical theories to modern topical problems of developmental psychology.
Section One SUBJECT, OBJECTIVES AND METHODS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND AGE PSYCHOLOGY Chapter I SUBJECT OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY.
THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL TASKS OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY § 1. Characteristics of developmental psychology, developmental psychology as a science Developmental psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies the facts and patterns of human development, the age-related dynamics of his psyche.
The object of study of developmental psychology is a developing, changing in ontogenesis normal, healthy person. Developmental psychology singles out age-related changes in people's behavior and seeks to explain these changes, to reveal the laws governing the acquisition of experience and knowledge by people1. The focus is on "various forms of mental organization typical of certain periods of a person's life path"2. Developmental psychology sets as its task the study of holistic mental development "on the entire space of human life from birth to death", the super-task is the study of "a changing, developing individual in a changing world"3.
The subject of developmental psychology is the age periods of development, the causes and mechanisms of transition from one age period to another, general patterns and trends, the pace and direction of mental development in ontogenesis.
The following sections of developmental psychology are singled out: infant psychology, early age psychology, preschool psychology, psychology of younger schoolchildren, psychology under See: Craig G. Psychology of development. SPb., 2000. S. 13 - 60.
Butterworth D., Harris M. Principles of developmental psychology. M., 2000. S. 16.
Kon I.S. The child and society. M., 1988. S. 70.
12 Section one. Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology...
sprout, psychology of youth, psychology of middle age, psychology of old age (gerontopsychology).
The most important component of developmental psychology has been and remains child psychology. D.B. Elkonin in his "Introduction to child psychology" defined its subject as the study of the process of becoming "the subject of diverse human activity" from a helpless newborn1.
At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. developmental psychology, precisely as child psychology, has emerged as an independent field of knowledge. The book The Soul of a Child by the German biologist W. Preyer, published in 1882, is considered the starting point for systematic scientific research into mental development in childhood.
Over the past time, the very concept of the subject of child psychology (the understanding of what should be studied) has been repeatedly transformed, which was closely related to changes in research methodology2. Initially, in the second half of the 19th - early 20th century, the task of scientists was to collect and accumulate specific data, empirical information, to study the phenomenology of mental development in childhood. It was a search for answers to questions about what exactly happens in child development, when and in what sequence new skills, competence in one respect or another appear in the child. This task was answered by the methods of objective observation, ascertaining, cross-sectional experiment (C. Darwin, W. Preyer, A. Gesell). Later, the question arose of systematization, ordering of facts, and the identification of certain general patterns of mental development. The solution to this problem is associated with the names of S. Hall (the theory of recapitulation), A. Gesell (the theory of maturation), L. Theremin (the normative tradition of studying children).
In the 1920-1930s. The outwardly observable behavior of the child has become the main object of study from the standpoint of classical behaviorism. It was considered important to establish the reactions of children of different ages and adults to identical stimuli, to describe differences in response to the external environment.
Researchers are increasingly interested in questions about the factors, conditions and driving forces of development. The desire to penetrate into the essence of child development was realized in the transition to methods of comparative study of mental development in the norm and See: El'konin D.B. Introduction to child psychology // Selected works. psychological works. M., 1989. S. 26.
See: Obukhova A.F. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems. M., 1995.
Chapter I. The subject of developmental psychology ... pathology, methods of cross-cultural research, experimental genetic research and led to the creation of a number of theories - 3. Freud, A. Wallon, E. Erickson and others.
In domestic psychology, the main tasks of child developmental psychology were determined by L.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934).
In The Problem of Age, he pointed out the need to study the characteristics of each age, the main types of normal and abnormal development, the structure and dynamics of child development in their diversity1.
Theoretical tasks of developmental psychology:
The study of the driving forces, sources and mechanisms of mental development throughout the life of a person;
Periodization of mental development in ontogenesis;
The study of age-related features and patterns of the course (emergence, formation, change, improvement, degradation, compensation) of mental processes (perception, memory, attention, etc.);
Establishment of age opportunities, features, patterns of implementation of various types of activities, assimilation of knowledge;
The study of the age development of the individual, including in specific historical conditions.
The importance of developmental psychology is also significant in theoretical terms. Let us recall that practically all major scientists who have left their mark on science have also dealt with issues of developmental psychology. The study of child psychology is the key to understanding adult psychology. L.S. Vygotsky assigned a fundamental role to child psychology in solving the problem of creating a “new” psychology, emphasizing that “the only correct way is to go in the study of the psyche from a child to an adult”2.
The path of transformation of psychology is "from descriptive and fragmentary, stating psychology into a scientific-explanatory, generalizing system of knowledge about human behavior, about the mechanisms of its movement and development, about educational management of the processes of its development, formation and growth."
The practical significance of developmental psychology is associated primarily with the scientific elaboration of questions about the normative development of a healthy child, about typical age-related problems. See: Vygotsky A.S. The problem of age // Collection. cit.: In 6 vols. T. 4. M., 1983.
Vygotsky L.S. Sobr. cit.: In 6 vols. T. 1. M., 1982. S. 179-180.
14 Section one. Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology...
problems, ways and means of solving them, stages of formation of an adult full-fledged personality, citizen, professional, parent.
Practical tasks of developmental psychology:
Determination of age norms of mental functions, identification of psychological resources and human creative potential;
Creation of a service for systematic monitoring of the course of mental development, mental health of children, assistance to parents in problem situations;
Age and clinical diagnostics;
Performing the function of psychological support, help in times of crisis in a person's life;
The most optimal organization of the educational process, continuous education (including those aimed at people of middle and old age).
Table Developmental psychology as a science Developing, changing in ontogenesis, a normal, healthy person Object Age periods of development, causes and mechanisms of transition The subject of the course from one age period to another, general patterns and trends, the pace and direction of mental development in ontogenesis Theoretical - The problem of driving forces forces, sources and mechanisms of mental development tasks throughout the life path (problems) of a person - The problem of periodization of mental development in ontogeny - The problem of age-related features and patterns of mental processes - The problem of age-related opportunities, features, patterns of implementation of various types of activities, assimilation knowledge - The problem of age-related development of personality, etc.
Practical - Determination of the age norms of mental functions, you are the task of the phenomenon of psychological resources and human creativity - Age and clinical diagnostics - Control over the course of the mental development of children, providing parents in problem situations - Psychological support, assistance in crisis periods of a person's life - Organization of the process for people of all age categories and Chapter I. The subject of developmental psychology ... Developmental psychology is closely connected with other branches of psychological science. It is based on the ideas about the human psyche developed in general psychology and uses the system of basic concepts of general psychology. At the same time, the study of the origin and initial stages of the formation of higher mental functions (for example, memory or thinking) leads to a deeper understanding of the developed forms of complex mental processes.
The study of the transformation of mental processes in children acts as a special method of understanding the mechanisms of the mental - the genetic method. However, the subject matter of genetic psychology does not coincide with that of developmental psychology. The focus of genetic psychology is the development of mental processes as such;
for developmental psychology, a developing person is important.
Developmental psychology and educational psychology have much in common, especially in their historical development.
The real unity of pedagogical and developmental psychology is explained by the common object of study - a person developing and changing in ontogenesis. But in educational psychology, in the foreground is the training and education of the subject in the process of purposeful influence of the teacher, and developmental psychology is interested in how development proceeds in a wide variety of sociocultural situations.
The mental development of a person takes place within various social communities: families, groups of peers in the yard or in kindergarten, in the school class. As a subject of communication and interpersonal interaction, the developing individual is partly the subject of social psychology.
The ratio of typical and individual, general and peculiar, normal and abnormal, deviant series of development creates common fields for developmental psychology and the psychology of comparative, differential, pathopsychology and clinical psychology.
Developmental psychology has diverse connections with a wide range of areas of science and culture. It is based on knowledge from the field of natural sciences, medicine, pedagogy, ethnography, sociology, gerontology, cultural studies, art history, linguistics, logic, literary criticism and other areas of science. And, in turn, developmental psychology, having revealed the patterns of age-related formation of the psyche, makes them a common property.
16 Section one. Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology...
§ 2. The problem of the determination of mental development The question of the determination (causation) of mental development was originally raised in philosophy. There is a long history of disputes about which factors (driving forces) - biological (internal, natural, related to heredity) or social (external, cultural, environmental) - play the most important role in development. Traditionally, there are two extreme points of view on the conditionality of development - nature (heredity) or environment (upbringing, training).
The natural position - nativism - is associated with the name of the French philosopher J.J. Rousseau (1712-1778), who believed that there are natural laws of development, and children need only minimal influence from adults. There was a trend in biology that interpreted development as the deployment of some predetermined (preformed) biogenetic program, its implementation in the real process of life. Preformism is a doctrine in which the organism is considered as a “biological matryoshka” containing the embryos of all subsequent generations, and therefore nothing new can appear in it, neither improvement nor evolution is needed. Preformist nativists in psychology believed that knowledge and skills are embedded in the very structure of the human body, so their repertoire is innate and, therefore, heredity is a determining factor. In this case, development is equated with the processes of maturation and growth, with the implementation of a hereditary program of behavior, which occurs to a large extent independently of upbringing, training, and the conscious activity of a person and society. So, this type of development, when already at the very beginning the stages that the phenomenon will pass through are predetermined, and the final result that the phenomenon will reach, is called preformed. The preformed type includes, for example, the embryonic (intrauterine) development of the organism. And in psychology, attempts were also made to present the mental development of the child as a whole as preformed (the concept of S. Hall).
On the contrary, the English philosopher J. Locke (1632-1704) argued that a newborn child is like a tabula rasa (blank slate) and therefore learning and life experience, and by no means innate factors, are of the greatest importance in its development.
Chapter I. The subject of developmental psychology... In biology, the doctrine of development through successive new formations, when the path of development is not predetermined in advance, is called epigenesis. In philosophy and psychology, this position is represented by the directions of empiricism and sensationalism. The course of biological evolution, the historical development of society are examples of an unpreformed type of development.
Modern researchers are trying to reveal the nature of the development process by combining the idea of some common end point of development and variable ways to achieve it. Often, as a metaphor for the process of development, the concept of "epigenetic landscape", proposed by the evolutionary biologist C. Waddington (1957), is used. A developing organism is compared to a ball rolling down a mountain. The spatial arrangement of hills and depressions (landscape) over which it can roll reflects the possible natural paths of development and, at the same time, the limitations of its trajectory.
In addition, some event in the environment may lead to a change in the course of the ball, which will now fall into a deeper depression, which is more difficult to overcome than a shallow one. The most important principle of development that the metaphor illustrates is that the same result can be achieved in different ways, more quickly or more slowly.
An original view of the nature of a child's mental development was offered by L.S. Vygotsky2. In his opinion, child development should be called unpreformed in the sense that there is no predestination from below, i.e. hereditary program that dictates the content, forms and level of achievements. But this is still a special process of development, which is determined from above - by ideal forms: historical conditions, the level of material and spiritual culture of society, the forms of practical and theoretical activity that exist in society at this stage. A.N. Leontiev said on this occasion that the final forms of child development, which takes place in the form of the assimilation of social models, ideal forms, are not given, but are “given in the objective phenomena of the surrounding world”3.
See: D. Butterworth, M. Harris. Principles of developmental psychology. pp. 40-42.
See: Vygotsky L.S. The history of the development of higher mental functions // Sobr. cit.: In 6 vols. T. 3. S. 6-40.
Leontiev A.N. On the historical approach to the study of the child's psyche // psychological works: In 2 vol. M., 1983. T. 1. P. 114.
18 Section one. Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology...
§ 3. Basic concepts of developmental psychology The key concept of developmental psychology is the concept of "development".
Development is a process of transition from one state to another, more perfect, transition from an old qualitative state to a new qualitative state, from simple to complex, from lower to higher. The development of the psyche is a regular change in mental processes over time, expressed in their quantitative, qualitative and structural transformations. Growth is a quantitative aspect of development processes. The main difference between development and growth is that growth comes down to quantitative changes, while development is characterized by qualitative transformations, the emergence of neoplasms, new mechanisms, processes, and structures.
It is important to distinguish between the concepts of development and maturation. Ripening for a range foreign theories developmental psychology is the most important factor in development, causally determining certain achievements.
Modern domestic developmental psychology considers maturation as a psychophysiological process of successive age-related changes in the central nervous system and other body systems, which provides conditions for the emergence and implementation of mental functions and imposes certain restrictions. The concept of maturation and maturity is associated with one of the basic principles of developmental physiology - the principle of developmental heterochrony, which fixes the fact that different brain systems and functions mature at different rates and reach full maturity at different stages of individual development. This means, in turn, that each age stage has its own unique psychophysiological structure, which largely determines the potential psychological capabilities of a given age.
A number of features of the development process that are important for psychology and pedagogy1 have been identified:
Tendency towards qualitative change and transition to more advanced levels of functioning;
Irreversibility of development (reverse development as a complete restoration of what was before is impossible);
See: Antsiferova L.I., Zavalishina D.N., Rybalko E.F. Category of development in psychology // Categories of materialistic dialectics in psychology / Ed.
L.I. Antsyferova. M., 1988. S. 22-56.
Chapter I. The subject of developmental psychology ... - a mandatory combination, the inclusion of elements of progress and regress (progressive development as a choice of one of the directions of development leaves many others unrealized);
Uneven development (periods of sharp qualitative leaps are replaced by a gradual accumulation of quantitative changes);
Zigzag development (associated with the formation of fundamentally new structures that, at the initial stages of functioning, work in some respects worse than the old ones - for example, when moving from crawling to walking, a child moves in space more slowly and sometimes with damage to his health);
The transition of stages of development into levels (with the advent of a new, higher stage, the previous ones do not disappear, but remain as one of the hierarchical levels of the new system);
Tendency towards sustainability (successful development is impossible without a strong conservative trend).
There are several types of mental development: phylogenetic, ontogenetic, functional.
Phylogeny of the psyche - the formation of the structures of the psyche in the course of the biological evolution of a species or the socio-cultural history of mankind.
Ontogenesis of the psyche - the formation of mental structures during the life of an individual.
In developmental psychology, there is an increasing interest in the development of the human psyche in the prenatal period, during the period of embryonic development (from fetus to birth). At present, prenatal development, the embryogenesis of the psyche is considered as a kind of adaptation period, during which the organism adapts to the environment and even some prerequisites for the assimilation of a particular culture are created (for example, the prerequisites for mastering the native language and emotional preferences).
Functional algenesis, functional development of the psyche - the development of mental functions;
the emergence of a new level of solving intellectual, perceptual, mnemonic and other tasks, the process of mastering new mental actions, concepts and images. The functional genesis of the psyche is an integral part of the ontogenetic formation of human mental processes.
There are also normative mental development and individual. Normativity of development assumes that speech 20 Section one. Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology...
It is about the general nature of changes inherent in most people of this age. In some cases, the norm is spoken of as an ideal, the highest possible level of psychological, personal development. Individual development is associated with the variability of the norm, with the identification of the uniqueness of the individual, with an indication of the originality of some of her abilities.
The most important concept of developmental psychology is psychological age. It is defined as a stage of development of an individual in ontogeny - objective, historically changeable, chronologically and symbolically fixed. Depending on the method of periodization, on the chosen base (periodization units), different psychological schools distinguish different psychological ages.
SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS:
1. Define the subject of developmental psychology.
2. What is the difference between modern ideas about the subject of developmental psychology and those that existed before?
3. What are the reasons for the historical change in the understanding of the subject of developmental psychology?
4. A.V. Tolstykh believes that the subject of developmental psychology is "personality through the prism of its ontogenetic development". How do you understand this statement?
5. Explain the concepts of "preformed" and "non-preformed" types of development.
6. List and describe the types of human mental development.
7. Try to make a list of problems (questions) related to the field of developmental psychology, in your opinion, the most relevant or most interesting.
TASK Compare the definitions of the subject of developmental psychology in the works of leading domestic and foreign psychologists. For this purpose, look through psychological dictionaries, textbooks, analyze table of contents and subject indexes (pay attention to key concepts), highlight common and distinctive features in the interpretation of understanding the content of developmental psychology.
Literature for the assignment:
Abramova G.S. Age-related psychology. M., 1997.
Butterworth D., Harris M. Principles of developmental psychology. M., 2000.
Krat G. Psychology of development. SPb., 2000.
Kulagina M.Yu., Kolyutsky V.N. Age Psychology: Complete life cycle human development. M., 2001.
Chapter I. The subject of developmental psychology... Mukhina B.C. Developmental psychology: phenomenology of development, childhood, adolescence.
Rean A..A. Human psychology from birth to death: Infancy. Childhood.
Youth. Growing up. Old age (full course in developmental psychology). SPb., 2001.
Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.M. Psychology of human development: The development of subjective reality in ontogeny. M., 2000.
ASSIGNMENT Compare the positions of a researcher in the field of developmental psychology and a practical developmental psychologist in terms of the specifics of their relationship (in setting tasks, choosing methods, etc.) to a developing subject (child, adult).
Literature for the assignment:
Burmenskaya G.V., Karabanova O.A., Aiders A.G. Age-psychological counseling: Psychological problems of normal childhood. Thematic supplement to the "Journal of a Practical Psychologist" for the 1st half of 1998. M., 1998.
Dubrovina I.V. Practical psychology of education. M., 2000.
Psychological periodicals: Journal of a Practical Psychologist, Psychologist in Kindergarten, Psychologist at School, Family Psychology and Family Therapy, World of Psychology and Psychology in the World, etc.
Additional literature:
Ananiev B.G. Psychology and problems of human knowledge. M.;
Voronezh, 1996.
Burmenskaya G.V., Obukhova A.F., Podolsky A.M. Contemporary American Developmental Psychology. M., 1986.
Vygotsky A.S. Questions of child psychology. SPb., 1997.
Davydov V.V., Zinchenko V.P. The principle of development in psychology // Questions of Philosophy. 1981. No. 12.
Zaporozhets A.V. Conditions and driving causes of the child's mental development // Reader on developmental psychology. M., 1994. S. 23-26.
Zinchenko V.P., Morgunov E.B. A developing person. M., 1994.
Kon I.S. The child and society. M., 1988. S. 6-65.
Processes of mental development: in search of new approaches / Ed. A.I. According to Dolsky, J. ter Laak, P. Heymans. M., 1994.
The role of heredity and environment in the formation of human individuality / Ed. I.V. Ravich-Scherbo. M., 1988. S. 3-18, 292-303.
Rubinstein S.A. Man and the world. M., 1997.
Elkonin B.D. Introduction to developmental psychology. M., 1994.
22 Section one. Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology...
Chapter II ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OF RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND AGE PSYCHOLOGY § 1. Observation and experiment as the main methods of research in developmental psychology time.
At the initial stage of the development of child psychology (in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries), this was primarily a method of observation. Researchers (including biologists and psychologists T. Tideman, I. Tan, C. Darwin, W. Preyer) traced the individual development of their own children, sought to record the real course of child development in natural conditions.
Thus, in Russia in 1879, the journal Semya i Shkola turned to parents and educators with a proposal to report their personal observations on the life of children of early ages and thus contribute to the construction of the child's psychology. In response to this, materials were submitted to the journal (observations on ten children, mainly from the age of their first birthday to 5-6 years old), which made it possible to determine certain features of child development and compare them with data obtained by foreign scientists.
In the future, N.N. took over the task of collecting parental diaries. Lange, who presented his calendar of the development of the mental life of the child. “Such records would be useful in two respects,” he pointed out, “firstly, for the parents themselves, because in this way one can learn to accurately observe their child and correctly explain his mental life, and secondly, for the further development of scientific child psychology. This call did not go unanswered. Some results of parental observations were published already in late XIX in. and developed further.
The Pedological Museum paid considerable attention to the issues of keeping diaries of child development. ON. Rybnikov, editor of the Pedological Library series, noted with regret the “poverty of Russian pedagogical literature devoted to the mental development of the child”, the “unknown to science” of a child up to 5-6 years of age.
In one of the issues of series 2, for example, notes by Father N. Sokolov about the development of his son Bori from birth to 5 years are published. Rybnikov draws the attention of readers to interesting factual data regarding the individual course of development, which testify to the uneven pace of early development, the combination of the processes of progress and regression, the originality of children's speech and thought, etc.
Lange N.N. The soul of a child in the first years of life. SPb., 1892, S. 53.
Sokolov N. The life of a child (according to his father's diary). M., 1917.
Chapter II. Organization and methods of research... However, the shortcomings of the "simple" notes of parents who did not have special training are also obvious - the lack of a pre-compiled program, the uncertainty of tasks, the non-systematic nature of observations and the incompleteness of records, etc. The observations were made with different purposes and were poorly comparable with each other, often emphasized subjectively significant facts and lines of development.
§ 2. Method of observation As a scientific, objective method of observation, it presupposes a systematic and purposeful fixation of psychological facts in the natural conditions of everyday life. Observation as a scientific method of research should not be reduced to a simple registration of facts, its main goal is a scientific explanation of the causes of a particular phenomenon. Necessary conditions for scientific observation: goal setting;
plan development;
choice of object and observation situation;
maintenance of natural living conditions;
non-interference in the activities of the subject;
objectivity and systematic observation;
development of methods for fixing results.
Basov considered objective observation as the main method of child psychology. In 1924, he proposed a special method of psychological observation of children, directed against subjectivism in the description of behavior. They compiled special scheme, in which the features of mental functions (motor sphere, perception, memory, imagination, thinking, speech, sphere of feelings, volitional processes) of preschool children and behavioral moments in which these features usually manifest themselves were correlated. For example, fatigue (performance) was proposed to be assessed by the duration of the effort that the child usually makes when reaching the goal, persistence, or the greater characteristic of an impulse, a one-time effort. When evaluating the sphere of feelings, Basov singled out signs accessible to objective registration, namely: ease of excitement;
stability;
abundance or poverty of external manifestations.
There were scientific institutions where this method of observation was the main one. So, N.M. Shchelovanov in Leningrad in the 1920s.
organized a clinic for the normal development of children2. Round-the-clock See: Basov M.Ya. Experience of methods of psychological observation of children under school age // Izbr. psychological works. M., 1975. S. 103-106.
See: Shchelovanov N.M. The main prerequisites for the organization of educational work in infant homes / / Deprived of parental care: Reader / Ed. B.C. Mukhina. M., 1991. S. 18-21.
24 Section one. Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology...
the observation of specialists over the behavior of children made it possible to identify and describe the features of the development of the child in the first year of life (the appearance of a complex of revival, the formation of grasping and walking).
Difficulties in using the method of objective observation:
extreme laboriousness;
large time costs;
passive, expectant position of the researcher;
the need for psychological education of the observer;
high probability of skipping psychological facts if they are new or merged with many incidental phenomena;
the danger of subjectivity in the collection and processing of data, in the interpretation of results;
impossibility of verification;
limited use of mathematical methods of data processing.
In the process of observation, the researcher fixes only the external manifestations of the child's behavior, symptoms (actions with objects, statements), and he is interested in the mental processes hiding behind them, states about which he can only guess, assumptions. The observer must be very careful in his conclusions and take into account the fact that the subject in the course of any activity may develop a special motivation that can have a significant impact on the result.
In the work of V.I. Lenin “On the Conditions for the Reliability of a Psychological Experiment” (1941) 1, it was shown that younger and older children, while solving seemingly identical problems, actually understand them differently. When presented with an intellectual task, such as Keller's, preschoolers really, without further ado, try to get a remote object with a stick. And older children 7-12 years old seem unable to solve the problem, they do not even try to use a stick that is in sight. It turns out that they reformulated the problem for themselves, complicated it, because the obvious way seemed too easy to them.
Observation can be organized as continuous and selective. Continuous observation simultaneously covers many aspects of the child's behavior for a long time and, as a rule, is carried out in relation to one or several children.
At the same time, a certain selectivity is not ruled out: novelty, the significance of the qualities and capabilities of the child act as selection criteria when recording observations (as in the diary of the psychologist V.S. Mukhina "Gemini"2). During selective observation, any aspect of the child's behavior or behavior in V.I. Lenin is fixed. On the conditions for the reliability of a psychological experiment // Reading on age and pedagogical psychology / Ed. I.I. Ilyasova, Lyaudis: At 2 pm M., 1980. Part 1.
Mukhina B.C. Twins. M., 1981.
Chapter P. Organization and methods of research ... in certain situations, at certain intervals of time (for example, Ch. Darwin observed the expression of his son's emotions, linguist A.N. Gvozdev recorded his son's speech manifestations during the first 8 years of his life).
The value of the observation method lies in the fact that there are no age restrictions for the subjects;
long-term follow-up of a child's life makes it possible to identify turning points - this is how knowledge about critical periods and transitions in development was obtained.
Modern researchers more often use observation as a method of collecting data at the initial stage. However, sometimes it is used as one of the main ones.
Thus, in studying the qualities of a mother necessary for the mental development of a young child, the method of “open observation with hidden goals” was used1. Situations of interaction between a mother and a child aged one to two years (subject game, reading a book) were singled out as the most adequate model for studying the relationship of a mother to a child. The subject of systematic observation, extensive fixation and analysis was the system of relationships between mother and child and the quality of the mother as the subject of communication with the child and the subject of teaching him objective activity.
§ 3. Experiment as a method of empirical research Experiment involves the active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create conditions in which you are a psychological fact. The researcher intentionally creates and changes the conditions in which human activity takes place, sets tasks, and judges the psychological characteristics of the subject based on the results.
Allocate laboratory and natural experiment. A laboratory experiment is carried out under deliberately created conditions, using special equipment;
the actions of the subject are determined by the instruction. In a laboratory experiment, the dependent and independent variables are subject to particularly strict control. The disadvantage of a laboratory experiment is the extreme difficulty of transferring the results to real life conditions.
See: Poptsova E.V. The role of the mother as a subject of teaching communication in the general mental and speech development of a child of early age // Psychological and methodological features of developing methods of teaching a foreign language. Ivanovo, 1994.
26 Section one. Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology...
The idea of a natural experiment was put forward by A.F. Lazursky (1874-1917), who called for an in-depth development of new forms of psychological experiment1. In order to organize a natural experiment, it is necessary, according to Lazursky, to solve the problem of choosing such types of activity in which the typical or individual characteristics of the subjects under study would be especially characteristic. After that, a model of activity is created that is very close to those activities that are usual (natural) for the participants. For example, a natural experiment in a kindergarten group is often built in the form of a didactic game.
Experimental research can be ascertaining and formative. The ascertaining experiment is aimed at revealing the present level of a psychological phenomenon or quality. An example of a stating experimental study can be a test examination of the intellect of children, conducted using various methods (A. Binet's test, Wechsler's test, STUR, etc.). In foreign psychology, ascertaining research is usually opposed to teaching research1. The learning experiment method is based on comparing the results of the subjects, initially similar in all respects, but differing in the amount of experience gained by groups in the learning process, which allows us to put forward a more meaningful hypothesis about the factors influencing development.
The emergence of the formative experiment method in domestic psychology is associated with the name of L.S. Vygotsky3. The idea of a formative (or experimental genetic, genetic modeling, teaching) research is to artificially recreate (model) the process of mental development. The goal is to study the conditions and patterns of the origin of a particular mental neoplasm.
The task is to form a new ability for the subject. The researcher theoretically outlines and empirically selects suitable ways and means to achieve the desired result, striving to achieve pre-planned indicators of the formation of the ability.
See: Lazursky A.F. On the Natural Experiment // Reader on Age and Pedagogical Psychology / Ed. I.I. Ilyasova, V.Ya. Laudis: At 2 o'clock, Part 1.
See: Craig G. Developmental Psychology. pp. 35-60.
See: Burmenskaya G.V., Karabanova O.A., Lidere A.G., Obukhova L.F., Frolov Yu.I. From Vygotsky to Galperin. Special supplements to the Journal of a Practical Psychologist. M., 1996.
Chapter P. Organization and methods of research... The experimental model of formation causally explains progress and reveals the mechanisms of qualitative leaps in mastering a given ability. If the formation naturally, in a repetitive way, leads to the desired result (subject to the identified conditions and means), then it is concluded that it was possible to penetrate into the inner essence of the development of this ability.
Textbook examples of the implementation of the strategy of experimental genesis psychic abilities were the formation of pitch sensitivity as a kind of sensory ability of a person (A.N. Leontiev), the formation of the ability of attention in younger schoolchildren as an action of internal control (P.Ya. Galperin, S.G. Kobylnitskaya)2.
§ 4. Research strategies:
statement and formation The method of observation and the ascertaining experiment are options for implementing the ascertaining research strategy.
The formative experiment is the implementation of a new research strategy in developmental psychology - the formative (genetic) research strategy3.
In modern research in developmental psychology, ascertaining and formative experiments are often combined, constituting its different stages. At the diagnostic stage, a statement is used as a provision for fixing the achieved, current level of ability development. The formative stage is the achievement of a new level in accordance with the assumptions put forward. The control stage, again of the stating type, is designed to determine the severity of the developmental effect.
§ 5. Auxiliary methods of research In addition to the basic methods of empirical research, a number of additional ones can be singled out. Auxiliary research methods (in a huge variety of concrete See: Leontiev A.N. Biological and social in the human psyche // Izbr.
psychological works: In 2 vols. T. 1. S. 79.- 92.
See: Galperin P.Ya., Kobylynitskaya S.G. Experimental formation of attention. M., 1974.
See: Obukhova A.F. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems. S. 28.
28 Section one. Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology...
methods and methodological techniques), as a rule, are used in combination1.
First of all, this is the clarification of knowledge, opinions, ideas, attitudes, etc. on a wide range of issues of people of different age categories with the help of conversations, interviews, questionnaires, testing.
Analysis of the products of activity (drawings, applications, design, musical, literary creativity) is used for a wide variety of purposes.
For example, numerous drawing techniques (drawings of a family, a person, a friend, a school, a house, a tree, an unknown animal) serve as a tool for diagnosing the intellectual sphere, emotional and personal characteristics of both children and adults.
It is important to emphasize that sometimes, for the correct interpretation of a drawing, it is necessary to observe the process of its creation. In addition, the same external signs - symptoms - in the works of subjects of different psychological ages can be regarded differently.
Comparative methods of research are very significant for developmental psychology, among them - twin, comparison of norm and pathology, cross-cultural, biographical. The twin method explores the role of heredity, environment and upbringing in the mental development of the individual. Comparison of the mental development of physically healthy children and children with certain deviations in the state of analyzers (blind, deaf), children with cerebral palsy poses an acute problem of the norm of mental development at different childhood ages. The study of the features of mental development in complicated, pathological morphophysiological conditions provides not only new knowledge about the sick children themselves (which is important for organizing qualified assistance to them, an adequate process of education and upbringing), but also allows you to revise the very formulation of problems in general and age. psychology.
Thus, the psychology of deaf and dumb children is a classic area for studying the contribution of speech and practical activity to the development of the intellect.
The experience of upbringing and education of deaf-blind-mute people is especially striking.
The foundations of a completely new approach to bringing an "organic being" out of the "world of states" into the world of human culture were laid in the 1940s. 20th century
I.A. Sokolyansky (1889-1960). In a review of the system of Sokolyansky's work with the following See: Workshop on Developmental Psychology / Ed. L.A. Golovey, E.F. Ry balko. SPb., 2001.
Chapter II. Organization and methods of research... by deaf-mute children A.R. Luria enthusiastically wrote that this is an amazing material for "experimental humanization of humanoids", "the introduction of a given creature into the world, this is the creation of space, the creation of time, the creation of a task, the creation of experience."
One of the pupils, Alexander Suvorov, went an amazing way from isolation in his state of deaf-blindness to the heights of intellectual, professional and personal development. Doctor of Psychology A.V. Su vorov is now the author of a number of books, including Experimental Philosophy (1998). He himself describes the features of world perception and mental development in a situation of deaf-blindness in this way: “I can neither peer nor listen. I can't always "feel". What to think about? In feelings, in sensations, in intuitive.... My main sense organ is the spiritual culture of humanity”2.
The cross-cultural research method involves comparing and identifying the features of the mental development of the younger generation in different cultures: in the conditions of a European-type culture and Eastern culture, the culture of a modern technological society and the so-called traditional society, etc. A person belonging to a particular society tends to perceive some development models as a kind of natural unconditional norm. Cross-cultural comparison provides an opportunity to look at very familiar things in a new way3.
The works of the American ethnographer, anthropologist, ethnopsychologist Margaret Mead (1901-1978) are widely known in the world. She studied the traditional, closed culture that survived in parts of Polynesia and Latin America.
In particular, M. Mead showed that animistic representations (animation of objects, forces of nature) are not an integral part of the child's way of perceiving the world (as, for example, it was discovered by J. Piaget in studies of the thinking of small Europeans). Animism has a cultural origin. Fairy tales, myths, stories of adults belonging to a certain culture give rise to animistic ideas in children;
otherwise, there is no such phenomenon, and children, even small ones, reason quite realistically.
Sociometric methods provide additional information about the nature of the relationship that develops between members of the group - in kindergarten, school class, work team. The indicators of the presence and number of "leaders", "stars" and "outcasts", the reciprocity of elections, the cohesion of the group, used in compiling the sociogram, represent a "picture" of relationships, but do not reveal the reasons for the current situation.
Luria A.R. The value of Sokolyansky's experience / / Reader on developmental and pedagogical psychology / Ed. I.I. Ilyasova, V.Ya. Laudis: At 2 o'clock.
Suvorov A.V. To feel, to think (about some features of communication in a situation of deaf-blindness) // Psychological journal. 1995. No. 2. S. 152.
See: Kon I.S. The child and society. pp. 20-39.
Mid M. Culture and the world of childhood. M., 1988.
30 Section one. Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology...
Table Strategies, methods and scheme for organizing research in developmental psychology and developmental psychology Research strategies Ascertaining in developmental psychology Formative (genetic)! Research methods - Observation, ascertaining experiment, interviewing, questioning, testing, projective, analysis of activity products, comparative (twin, norms and pathologies, cross-cultural), etc.
Formative experiment (teaching, experimental-genetic, genetic-simulating) Organization schemes | - Longitudinal study (longitudinal studies | sections) - Cross sections § 6. Scheme of organization of empirical research The scheme of organization (construction) of empirical research is essential for developmental psychology. The most specific in relation to the tasks of developmental psychology is the method of sections. The slicing method as a whole is a statement (measurement) of the state of an object at different stages of its development. A sectional study can be organized in two ways: according to the principle of the so-called transverse or longitudinal sections. With cross sections, comparison of people of different ages can be carried out simultaneously. Groups of subjects of different ages are selected and their results are compared (for example, they compare how children of six, eight and ten years of age understand the hidden meaning of proverbs). Based on the data of the study, an average curve is constructed, which clearly demonstrates the picture of the improvement of the process under study - an improvement in understanding the hidden meaning of proverbs with age. At the same time, it remains unknown why, by what mechanisms this occurs.
The method of longitudinal sections (longitudinal study, longitudinal, "longitudinal") is aimed at tracking the change psychological qualities the same people for a long time.
Thus, in the Grant Study, a longitudinal study of adult development begun in 1938, almost 300 undergraduate students at Harvard University took part. Chapter II. Organization and methods of research... university. Researchers were interested in how and why some people succeed in adulthood, while others fail. To do this, we recorded in detail the history of the family of each student, tested, interviewed, analyzed the behavior of students, assessed by 25 personality traits, and monitored their further development. The performance of adult study participants was compared with their youthful personality profiles. It was found that friendliness and sociability, intelligence, a happy childhood and material security do not guarantee mature adaptation.
The traits of young men that most clearly predicted future success turned out to be practicality, organization and integrity of the personality, as well as the acquisition of mentors and role models to follow in early adulthood.
In some areas of developmental psychology, a longitudinal research plan is of particular value, in particular for geronto psychology. Thus, many psychologists doubt the finality of the conclusions regarding the effect of aging in the intellectual sphere, which are made by the cross-sectional method, by comparing the results of solving intellectual problems by people 20, 40 and 70 years old. The subjects belonging to the older group, in addition to age, differ in a host of other characteristics: health indicators, the level and quality of education received, motivation for participation, and so on.
A variant of the longitudinal is the biographical method. This may be the analysis of the biographies of great people (such as Dante, Gandhi or Freud) and the reconstruction of the biographies of ordinary people of different sex and age, race, ethnicity and professional affiliation based on their interviews. This method involves the study of biographies in order to find some stable, regular characteristics of development, such as indicators of development predictability or periods of crises and transitions. To study the life path of a person, a number of techniques of the biographical method are used2.
The individual development curve, constructed using the long-range method, more accurately indicates turning points, moments of qualitative shifts, although the internal causes underlying behavioral phenomena still remain hidden.
A thoughtful choice of design and method of data collection, depending on the purpose of the study, is important. Modern works in developmental psychology, as a rule, are carried out using a whole range of research methods3.
See: Krat G. Psychology of development. S. 674.
See: Loginova N.A. Development of personality and its life path // Principles of development in psychology / Ed. L.I. Antsyferova. M., 1976. S. 156-166.
See: Workshop on Developmental Psychology / Ed. L.A. Golovei, E.F. Ry balko. SPb., 2001;
Psychological diagnostics of children and adolescents: Textbook / ed. K.M. Gurevich, E.M. Borisova. M., 1995;
Uruntaeva T.A., Afon Yu.A. Workshop on child psychology. M., 1995.
32 Section one. Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology...
SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS:
1. List the advantages and disadvantages of the observation method and the experimental method.
2. Describe the ascertaining and formative research strategies in developmental psychology.
3. In your opinion, what is the difference between the use of a learning experiment in the field of developmental psychology and for pedagogical purposes?
4. Give examples of experimental studies of the slice type that you already know from the course of general psychology.
TASK Read an excerpt from M. Mead's book "Culture and World of Childhood". What aspects of mental development does this example make us think about?
“The next step in nautical skills is when the child begins to steer the big canoes. Early in the morning, the view of the village is enlivened by floating canoes, in which adults sit quietly on the middle benches, and little ones of three years old pilot canoes three or four times their size. to the goal, the canoe floats through the village, floats among other canoes, in the team of which the same kids are in the same way.<...>This is part of a whole system that encourages the child to exert his strength as much as possible. The father is in a hurry. He has a lot of work to do today.
Maybe he is going on a long voyage, or he wants to arrange an important celebration. Piloting a canoe in the lagoon is a very familiar thing for him, it is easier for him than walking. But in order to Small child felt himself both needed and suitable for the conditions of complex marine life, the father sits down on the middle bench, and the little pilot leads the canoe. And here again you will not hear harsh words when a child rules the boat clumsily. The father just doesn't care. But at the first successful strike of the pole, directing the boat to the desired course, approval will surely follow.
This type of training can be assessed by its results. Manus children feel at home in the water. They are not afraid of it and do not look at it as something complicated and dangerous. The demands placed on them made their eyes sharp, their reactions quick, and their bodies as skilful as their parents. There is not a five-year-old child among them who does not know how to swim well. A Manus child who could not swim would be as abnormal as an American five-year-old child who could not walk would be pathological ”(Mid M. Culture and World of Childhood.
Additional literature:
Galperin P.Ya. The method of "slices" and the method of stage-by-stage formation in the study of children's thinking // Questions of Psychology. 1966. No. 4.
Kranik A.A. The picture of life: the possibilities of forecast // Life path of the individual.
Chapter P. Organization and methods of research... Lidere A.G., Frolov Yu.I. Formation of mental processes as a method of research in psychology. M., 1991.
Martin D. Psychological experiments. Secrets of the mechanisms of the psyche. SPb., 2002.
Nurkova V.V. The Done Continues: The Psychology of Personality's Autobiographical Memory. M., 2000.
Orlov A.B. Methods of modern developmental and pedagogical psychology. M., 1982.
Romanova V. Cross - cultural studies of infancy in psychology // Questions of psychology. 1997. No. 5. S. 118-129.
Shvantsara J. Diagnostics of mental development. Prague, 1978.
Section Two HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY Chapter III ORIGIN OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY AS AN INDEPENDENT FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE § 1. Formation of developmental (children's) psychology as an independent field of psychological science many critical issues mental development of children.
In the works of the ancient Greek scientists Heraclitus, Democritus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, the conditions and factors for the formation of the behavior and personality of children, the development of their thinking, creativity and abilities were considered, the idea of a harmonious mental development of a person was formulated.
During the Middle Ages, from the 3rd to the 14th centuries, more attention was paid to the formation of a socially adapted personality, the education of the required personality traits, the study of cognitive processes and methods of influencing the psyche.
In the Renaissance (E. Rotterdam, R. Bacon, J. Comenius), the issues of organizing learning, teaching based on humanistic principles, taking into account the individual characteristics of children and their interests.
In the studies of the philosophers and psychologists of the New Age R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, J. Locke, D. Gartley, J.J. Rousseau discussed the problem of the interaction between factors of heredity and the environment and their influence on mental development. There have been two extreme positions in understanding the determination of human development, which See: Martsinkovskaya T.D. History of child psychology. M., 1998. S. 3-59.
Chapter III. The emergence of developmental psychology ... are found (in one form or another) in the works of modern psychologists1:
Nativism (conditionality by nature, heredity, internal forces), represented by the ideas of Rousseau;
Empiricism ( decisive influence learning, life experience, external factors) originating in the works of Locke.
Gradually, knowledge about the stages of the formation of the child's psyche, about age characteristics expanded, but the child was still regarded as a rather passive being, malleable material, which, with the skillful guidance and training of an adult, could be transformed in any desired direction.
In the second half of the XIX century. the objective preconditions for singling out child psychology as an independent branch of psychological science have taken shape. Among critical factors- the needs of society in the new organization of the education system;
the progress of the idea of development in evolutionary biology;
development of objective research methods in psychology.
The requirements of pedagogical practice were realized in connection with the development of universal education, which became a need for social development in the new conditions of industrial production.
Teachers-practitioners needed reasonable recommendations regarding the content and pace of teaching large groups of children, it turned out that they needed teaching methods in a group. Questions were raised about the stages of mental development, its driving forces and mechanisms, i.e. about the patterns that need to be taken into account when organizing the pedagogical process.
Implementation of the idea of development. The evolutionary biological theory of Charles Darwin introduced new postulates into the field of psychology - about adaptation as the main determinant of mental development, about the genesis of the psyche, about the passage of certain, regular stages in its development.
Physiologist and psychologist I.M. Sechenov developed the idea of transition of external actions into inner plan, where they become in a transformed form the mental qualities and abilities of a person, - the idea of internalization of mental processes. Sechenov wrote that for general psychology, an important, even the only, method of objective research is precisely the method of genetic observation.
See: Crane W. Theories of development. Secrets of personality formation. SPb., 2002.
36 Section two. Historical formation of developmental psychology The emergence of new objective and experimental methods of research in psychology. The method of introspection (self-observation) was not applicable to the study of the psyche of young children.
The German scientist, Darwinist W. Preyer, in his book The Soul of a Child (1882), presented the results of his daily systematic observations of his daughter's development from birth to three years of age1;
he tried to carefully trace and describe the moments of the emergence of cognitive abilities, motor skills, will, emotions and speech.
Preyer outlined the sequence of stages in the development of certain aspects of the psyche, and concluded that the hereditary factor is significant. He proposed an exemplary model for keeping a diary of observations, outlined plans for research, and identified new problems (for example, the problem of the relationship between various aspects of mental development).
The merit of Preyer, who is considered the founder of child psychology, is the introduction of the method of objective scientific observation into the scientific practice of studying the earliest stages of child development.
The experimental method developed by W. Wundt for the study of sensations and the simplest feelings turned out to be extremely important for child psychology. Soon, other, much more complex areas of the psyche, such as thinking, will, and speech, became available for experimental research. The ideas of researching the "psychology of peoples" through the analysis of the products of creative activity (the study of fairy tales, myths, religion, language), put forward by Wundt later, also enriched the main fund of methods of developmental psychology and opened up previously inaccessible possibilities for studying the child's psyche.
§ 2. The beginning of a systematic study of child development The first concepts of the mental development of children arose under the influence of Charles Darwin's law of evolution and the so-called biogenetic law2.
Biogenetic law, formulated in the XIX century.
biologists E. Haeckel and F. Müller, based on the principle See: Preyer V. The soul of a child. Observation of the spiritual development of a person in the first years of life. SPb., 1912.
See: Martsinkovskaya T.D. History of child psychology. pp. 89-90.
Chapter III. The emergence of age psychology ... recapitulation (recurrence). It states that the historical development of a species is reflected in the individual development of an organism belonging to a given species. The individual development of an organism (ontogeny) is a brief and rapid repetition of the history of development of a number of ancestors of a given species (phylogenesis). This repetition is never complete, but the stages of the intrauterine development of the individual basically reproduce the stages in the history of the origin of the organism. The history of the development of the human organism is evidenced, for example, by atavisms that arise at different stages of embryonic genesis - gill slits, hairline.
Later, Russian biologists A.N. Severtsov and I.I. Schmalhausen proved that even at the level of biology, there is not a simple reproduction of the historical sequence of stages, but their qualitative restructuring.
However, at one time the principle of recapitulation had a significant impact on the idea of development in psychology. Under her influence, the American scientist S. Hall (1844-1924) created the first integral theory of mental development in childhood.
Hall took up the study of the child's psyche, responding to a public demand for the reorganization of the school and the education system in the United States. To do this, he used the questionnaire method, developing questionnaires for teachers, parents and adolescent children themselves. The scientist was interested in how children imagine the world around them, what feelings they experience in various situations, what are their early memories, how they relate to other people.
Hall collected and statistically processed thousands of questionnaires. He also analyzed children's games, fears, speech, compared the drawings of contemporary children and ancient rock art. Based on all these materials, he tried to "reconstruct" a complete picture of the mental life of children of different ages, using the principle of recapitulation mentioned above. Hall discovered similarities in the development of a particular child and in the development of mankind in past eras (in sociogenesis). He interpreted children's games as an atavism, a residual phenomenon, a revival of the past in the present. Thus, playing with sand is a return to the cave stage in the history of mankind, to the period of the initial gathering and digging up of roots. The games of children aged 5-12 reminded Hall of the hunting instincts of the primitive See: Vygotsky L.S. Biogenetic principle in psychology // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. M., 1936. T. 6. S. 275 - 279.
38 Section two. Historical formation of the age psychology of people;
teenagers' games correlated with the reproduction of the way of life of Indian tribes, the stage of exchange.
According to Hall, the sequence of stages of mental development is laid down genetically (preformed);
the biological factor, the maturation of instincts, is the main one in determining the change in the forms of behavior. From this, a logical conclusion was drawn for pedagogical practice: since it is impossible to abolish innate predispositions, it is necessary to create conditions for the child to pass without delay from the animistic stage to the stage corresponding to the development of modern humanity, and "outlive" all the remnants of the past. This transition from one stage of childhood to another is facilitated by games of a characteristic content given by recapitulation. Thus, biogenetic ideas became the theoretical basis of scouting as a system for educating children and adolescents.
S. Hall came up with the idea of creating pedology - a special science about children, concentrating all knowledge about the development of the child from other scientific fields (pedagogy, medicine, biology, sociology, etc.) Pedology has been actively developing over several decades, focusing on practical needs of the education system.
Table Theory of recapitulation by S. Hall Main subject Search for regularities in the mental development of a child Research Methods Questioning, comparison of drawings of children and primitive research people, analysis of games, fears Basic concepts Recapitulation, play, ontogenesis, phylogeny, pedology The mental development of a child briefly reproduces with Basic ideas of cyogenesis humanity;
periods (stages) of changing forms of children's behavior in a genetically predetermined sequence are identified Development factors] Biological factor, maturation of instincts Directions Proximity of the research method to introspection, superficial criticism of analogies, mythology, overly broad generalizations Statement of the problem of the relationship between historical value and individual human development - the first known theory of mental development in childhood Chapter III. The emergence of developmental psychology ... Actually, Hall's conceptual provisions provoked criticism from many psychologists who emphasized that his very method of collecting data was subjective, the analogies between the evolution of society and individual development are superficial and untenable;
the relationship of the child with the surrounding reality is fundamentally different from the struggle for the existence of an adult primitive man.
However, S. Hall's theory became the first widely known concept of child development, which aroused the interest of other researchers1. The significance of Hall's work lies in the fact that it was a search for the law, the logic of development;
an attempt was made to show that there is a certain relationship between the historical, social and individual development of man, the establishment of the exact parameters of which is still a task for scientists.
§ 3. From the history of the formation and development of Russian developmental psychology in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
The initial stages of the formation of developmental and pedagogical psychology in Russia also date back to the second half of the 19th century. For the Russian culture of the prerevolutionary period, the idea of humanism was organic, the idea of interest in the inner world of a person, including a child (suffice it to recall "Childhood", "Adolescence", "Youth" by L.N. Tolstoy, "Childhood of Bagrov's grandson" ST. Aksakov and many others). Political and economic reforms of the 60s. In the 19th century, the rise of cultural and scientific life, the surge of interest in enlightenment and the hopes associated with education, led to the realization of the need to build a scientific theory of education and training. Problems of the formation of the moral world of the individual enjoyed constant attention in domestic psychology.
Scientists of this period N.I. Pirogov, K.D. Ushinsky, P.D. Yurkevich, N.Kh. Wessel raised the issue of a broad, complex interdisciplinary (psychological, physiological, medical, etc.) study of the child and the scientific foundations for managing its development. N.I. Pirogov was the first to draw attention to the fact that the matter of education is not applied, but philosophical meaning- education of a person See: Obukhova L.F. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems. S. 35.
See: Nikolskaya A.A. Age and pedagogical psychology of pre-revolutionary Russia. Dubna, 1955.
40 Section two. The historical formation of the age psychology of the eternal spirit, Man in man. He insisted on the need to recognize, understand and study the uniqueness of child psychology.
Childhood has its own laws, and they must be respected: “If children have neither the strength nor the means to violate the laws of our life, then we also have no right to subvert with impunity and arbitrarily the equally definite laws of the world of children”1. A powerful impetus was given to the study of the age characteristics of children, to the identification of the conditions and factors that determine child development.
During this period, the fundamental provisions of developmental and educational psychology were formulated as independent scientific disciplines, the problems that should be investigated in order to put the pedagogical process on a scientific basis are indicated. Among major areas: the study of general laws, patterns of child development and individual differences between children;
clarification of the significance of natural prerequisites and the possibilities of education;
development of methods of cognition that take into account the specifics of the child's psyche.
In the 70-80s. 19th century Two types of studies are formed: parents' observations of their children (child development diaries) and scientists' observations of children's development (according to a specific program). The study of the relationship between the mental and physical development of the child, the analysis of the conditions for the correct organization of mental labor and the formation of cognitive activity, the ways of moral formation of the personality (works by P.F. Kapterev, P.F. Lesgaft, I.A. Sikorsky, N.N. . Lange and others).
Along with the study of the general patterns of child development, there was an accumulation of material that helped to understand the developmental trajectories of individual aspects of mental life: memory, attention, thinking, and imagination. A special place was given to observations of the development of children's speech, which influences the formation of various aspects of the psyche. Important data were obtained as a result of studying the physical development of children (I. Starkov). Attempts were made to determine the psychological characteristics of boys and girls (K.V. Elnitsky).
The wide interest in the study of the child and in the scientific substantiation of pedagogical influences had a positive effect on the development of general psychology. The task of studying the child's psyche ruled out self-observation as the main method of cognition, required new research methods, and stimulated the introduction of experiment into the field of psychology. Using the experiment in the conditions of training Pirogov N.I. Fav. ped. op. M., 1985. S. 200.
Chapter III. The emergence of developmental psychology ... niya, first undertaken by I.A. Sikorsky in 1879, at first did not receive a wide response in Russian science. But with the formation of psychological laboratories, starting from the mid-1880s, the experiment became a full-fledged method of Russian psychology.
The genetic approach has received significant development in science.
“The concept of development,” noted P.F. Kapterev, - at the present time plays a very prominent role in science, everywhere they study the development of beings and phenomena;
without understanding the history of development, it seems impossible to correctly and deeply understand the phenomenon itself, the nature of beings. In relation to the upbringing of children, the same truth is recognized: in order to successfully influence children, to strengthen their strength, one must first know the history of their development.
Knowledge of the psychology of the child, the origin and initial development of the psyche has come to be regarded as an invaluable means of understanding man and solving fundamental philosophical questions. The accumulation of facts about the peculiarities of child development raised the question of the norms of the general development of the child, of the laws governing this development.
General provisions were formulated on the main features of child development1:
Development takes place gradually and sequentially. In general, it is a continuous forward movement, but it is not rectilinear, it allows deviations from a straight line and stops.
between the spiritual and physical development there is an inextricable link. The same inextricable link exists between mental, emotional and volitional activity, between mental and moral development. The correct organization of upbringing and training provides for harmonious, all-round development.
Separate bodily organs and various aspects of mental activity do not participate in the process of development all at once, the speed of their development and energy are not the same.
Development can proceed at an average rate, can accelerate or slow down, depending on a number of reasons.
Development can stop and take painful forms.
Kapterev P.F. On the general course of development of children's nature // Education and training. 1893. No. 2. S. 61.
See: Nikolskaya A.A. Age and pedagogical psychology of pre-revolutionary Russia. pp. 94-95.
42 Section two. The historical development of developmental psychology - You can not make early predictions about the future development of the child.
Special talent must be based on broad general development.
It is impossible to artificially force the development of children, it is necessary to allow each age period to "outlive" itself.
Manuals appeared on the organization of the study of child development, recommendations for the care of a healthy and sick child, general guidelines for upbringing and education in the family and at school, based on the wide use of data on the physical, mental, emotional, volitional and spiritual development of children.
End of the 19th century marked by the emerging desire of psychologists and teachers to combine their efforts in the real practice of school life. “The first are the owners of subtle methods of research in the complete absence of the studied material, and the second are rich in material, but without a clear understanding of how it should be evaluated,” wrote A.P. Nechaev1.
By the beginning of the XX century. Russian developmental and educational psychology came into close contact with world psychological science. Russian scientists regularly followed the development of scientific thought in the West, improved their experimental skills in foreign laboratories, many foreign works translated into Russian, abstracted and reviewed in Russian journals.
In turn, the works of Russian scientists began to be published in foreign publications (studies by I.A. Sikorsky, A.P. Nechaev, and others). Russian scientists were actively involved in the study of problems that worried scientists and public figures all over the world.
The development of developmental psychology in Russia since the beginning of the 20th century. firmly stood on scientific foundations, research in this area has taken a leading place in Russian psychological and pedagogical science.
Scientists of various specialties, the best Russian minds, outstanding theoreticians and organizers of science, who enjoyed great prestige, were involved in the development of these problems, in particular, V.M. Bekhterev, P.F. Lesgaft, I.P. Pavlov and others. A whole pleiad of Russian psychologists has formed who are actively engaged in theoretical and organizational issues of studying child development and building the scientific foundations of upbringing and education. Among them P.P. Blonsky, P.F. Kapterev, A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, A.P. Nechaev, M.M. Rubinstein, N.E. Rumyantsev, I.A. Sikorsky, G.I. Chelpanov and others.
Nechaev A.P. To the question of the relationship between pedagogy and psychology / / Russian school. 1899. No. h. S. 50.
Chapter III. The emergence of developmental psychology... On their initiative, specialized research centers began to be created, providing research and educational activities and training for them. An intensive theoretical, methodological and scientific organizational activity unfolded. Small laboratories, circles, classrooms for the study of children at some educational institutions, etc., have become widespread.
The publishing business was established. In the XX century. the number of publications on developmental and educational psychology has increased significantly. There were congresses and conferences at which the problems of child and educational psychology were discussed. As a result of creative searches, the paramount importance of theory was realized and, at the same time, the important role of the accumulation of scientifically reliable facts obtained with the help of objective methods was appreciated.
A significant contribution was made to the development of research methods as essential condition the transition of developmental and pedagogical psychology into the category of independent scientific disciplines. The method of observation was developed, in particular the method of "diaries";
programs and plans for monitoring the behavior and psyche of the child were proposed. The experimental method was introduced into the practice of empirical research;
a natural experiment was intended specifically for child psychology (A.F. Lazursky). The possibilities of the test method were carefully discussed. Other methods have also been developed. An essential addition to information about the psychological characteristics of children was provided by the results of the analysis of works of art.
The main directions of research of that time were the ways of forming a comprehensively developed personality and improving the scientific foundations of the education system. At the beginning of the XX century. the fundamental problems of education were brought to the fore, which were put in close connection with social transformations, with the need for social change. After the October Revolution, all science, including developmental (children's) psychology, began to develop on a new methodological Marxist basis.
Brief review of the historical development of developmental psychology at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. in Russia does not claim to be a complete picture, but still allows us to imagine the huge scientific and public interest that existed at that time in the problems of mental development.
44 Section two. Historical development of developmental psychology SELF-TEST QUESTIONS:
1. How did the formation of developmental psychology as an independent field of psychological science take place?
2. Describe the fundamentally different positions in understanding the determination of a person's mental development.
3. What is the essence of the biogenetic law?
4. What refraction has the biogenetic principle received in psychology?
5. Why couldn't the methods used by S. Hall lead to the creation of a substantiated concept of mental development in childhood?
6. List the questions that were raised and discussed in the works of Russian psychologists and educators in the late 19th - early 20th centuries.
TASK 1. Recall the main characteristics of child development, which were formulated in the works of domestic psychologists of the period under review.
2. Select examples (from everyday observations and studies known to you today) that illustrate each of the above provisions, each feature of child development.
3. In your opinion, what pedagogical conclusions and practical recommendations follow from the above ideas about the nature of development in childhood?
Additional literature:
Galperin P.Ya., Zaporozhets A.V., Karpova S.N. Actual problems of developmental psychology. M., 1976. S. 52 - 76.
Zenkovsky V.V. Psychology of childhood. M., 1995.
Reader on developmental and pedagogical psychology / Ed. I.I. Ilyasova, V.Ya. Laudis: At 2 pm M., 1980. Part 1.
Cairns R.B. The emergence of developmental psychology // W. Kessen (Ed.).
Handbook of child psychology. V. 1. N.Y., 1983.
Chapter IV. Theories of child development in the first third of the 20th century .... Chapter IV THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE FIRST THIRD OF THE 20th century:
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM OF FACTORS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT § 1. Statement of questions, definition of the range of tasks, clarification of the subject of child psychology Claparede, V. Stern, A. Gesell and some others1.
The English scientist J. Selley considered the formation of the human psyche from the standpoint of the associative approach. He singled out the mind, feelings and will as the main components of the psyche. The significance of his work for the practice of child education consisted in determining the content of the child's first associations and the sequence of their occurrence.
M. Montessori, a follower of Selly, based on his findings, developed a system of cognitive development of children up to school age2. She proceeded from the idea that there are internal impulses of child development that need to be known and taken into account when teaching children. It is necessary to give the child the opportunity to master the knowledge to which he is predisposed at a given time - a period of sensitivity (to order, to details, to the possession of hands, etc.). M. Montessori attached particular importance to exercises aimed at training various sensations and movements, their gradual complication, improvement and awareness, which leads to the progress of thinking. Montessori's ideas regarding the organization of the upbringing and education of preschoolers proved to be very fruitful, and at present in Russia some kindergartens or groups work on these principles.
The German psychologist and educator E. Meiman also paid the main attention to the problems of the cognitive development of children and the development of methodological foundations for teaching. In the periodization of mental development proposed by Maiman (up to the age of 16), three stages are distinguished: the stage of fantastic synthesis;
stage of rational synthesis.
See: Martsinkovskaya T.D. History of child psychology. S. 111.
See: Crane W. Theories of development. Secrets of personality formation. pp. 96-120.
46 Section two. The Historical Formation of Developmental Psychology In the experimental school organized at Meiman's laboratory, methods for preliminary diagnosis of children were developed, various training programs and criteria for the formation of classes were tested (for example, according to the level of intelligence, according to interests, according to the style of interaction with the teacher).
The Swiss psychologist E. Claparede criticized Hall's pitulation ideas, noting that the phylogeny and ontogeny of the psyche have a common logic and this leads to a certain similarity of development series, but does not mean their identity.
Claparede believed that the stages of development of the child's psyche are not instinctively predetermined;
he developed the idea of self-deployment for datki with the help of imitation and game mechanisms. External factors (for example, training) influence development, determining its direction and accelerating its pace.
Claparède equated mental development with the development of thinking and singled out four stages, focusing on a change in the type of thinking. At the first stage (up to 2 years) there is predominantly the formation of perception, grasping the appearance of objects;
in the second stage (from 2 to 3 years) -. verbally - the names of objects are assimilated;
on the third (from 3 to 7 years) the child's own thinking, the general mental interests of the child are formed;
on the fourth (from 7 to 12 years old) special interests are formed and individual inclinations of the individual are manifested.
The works of E. Meiman and E. Claparede laid the foundations of child developmental psychology, defining the subject, outlining the range of specific tasks and problems. The development of child psychology, pedology, pedagogy required the development of new reliable and objective methods for studying the mental development of children, primarily cognitive.
The French psychologist A. Binet became the founder of the testological and normative trend in child psychology. Binet experimentally investigated the stages in the development of thinking in children, setting them tasks to define concepts (what is a "chair", what is a "horse", etc.). Summarizing the responses of children of different ages (from 3 to 7 years old), he discovered three stages in the development of children's concepts - the stage of enumeration, the stage of description, and the stage of interpretation. Each stage was associated with a certain age, and Binet concluded that there were certain standards of intellectual development.
By order of the Ministry of Education, Binet developed a method for identifying children who are lagging behind in development from the norm and, investigator See: Binet A. Modern ideas about children. M., 1910.
Chapter IV. Theories of child development in the first third of the 20th century .... but in need of training in an auxiliary school. Later, he created tests for the general diagnosis of the intellectual development of children from 3 to 18 years old. For each age, Binet selected suitable tasks that explore different aspects of intellectual development, with variations in the degree of complexity.
They included tasks to test vocabulary, counting, memory, general awareness, spatial orientation, logical thinking, etc. According to Binet, tasks should be designed for the minimum experience that all children of this age have. Only in this way will children with high innate intellectual prerequisites, "able", but not having special training, and children "trained" find themselves in equal conditions of diagnosis. With the help of a special scale designed by Binet's student T. Simon, the so-called mental age of the child (the level of development of thinking) was calculated.
Later, for a more accurate diagnosis, the German psychologist W. Stern proposed introducing the intelligence quotient (IQ). Binet proceeded from the assumption that the level of intellect (as an innate ability) remains constant throughout life and is aimed at solving various problems. The intellectual norm was considered to be a coefficient from 70 to 130%, mentally retarded children had indicators below 70%, gifted - above 130%.
§ 2. The mental development of the child and the biological factor of the maturation of the body The student of S. Hall, the famous American psychologist A. Gesell (1880-1971) conducted a longitudinal study of the mental development of children from birth to adolescence using repeated sections1. He took significant steps towards putting the study of the problems of the development of young children on a scientific basis, tracing the phases of development of individual components of behavior from birth to adolescence.
Gesell was interested in how children's behavior changes with age, he wanted to draw up an approximate time schedule for the appearance of specific forms of mental activity, starting with the child's motor skills, his preferences in activities, including intellectual interests.
See: Gesell A. Pedology of early age. M., 1930.
48 Section two. The historical development of developmental psychology Gesell himself called his research method "biographically laboratory." In the center (laboratory) he created, special equipment was used for objective recording (photography and filming) of motor skills, speech, social interaction of children, glass with one-sided permeability (“Gesell mirror”) was used. He sought to bring the conditions of observation closer to the natural conditions of a child's life. In a specially equipped experimental room, the child was given the opportunity to choose an occupation - playing with sand or water, cooking, outdoor games (alone or in communication with other children). The diagnosticians and counselors were able to observe the child's characteristic patterns of behavior, rather than being guided only by the parent's reports.
Gesell also used the method of comparative study of the development of twins, development in normal and pathological conditions (for example, in blind children). As a result, he compiled an Atlas of Infant Behavior from 3200 photographs, carefully described the phenomenology of the development (growth) of children up to 16 years of age, and derived indicators of developmental norms in relation to motor skills, speech, and behavior. Gesell's test system formed the basis for the practical diagnosis of a child's mental illness within the framework of a normative approach.
According to Gesell's theory of maturation, there is an innate tendency towards optimal development: “The innate tendency towards optimal development is so ineradicable that the child draws with a handful everything that he finds useful around him, and suffers to a much lesser extent than one might expect, from our ignorance."
Physical growth, motor and mental development go through a number of age stages in a strictly defined sequence.
The stages identified by Gesell differ mainly in the rate of development, the quantitative "increase in behavior." The general law of development formulated by Gesell states that the rate of mental development is highest and achievements are most significant in the first years of life;
as the child grows older, there is a slowdown, attenuation of the rate of development. Periodization of age development (growth) Gesella proposes the division of childhood into periods of development according to the criterion of changes in the internal growth rate: from birth to 1 year - the highest "growth" of behavior, from 1 year to 3 years - average and from 3 to 18 years - low rate of development. In the center of Gesell's scientific interests was precisely the early Gesell A. Pedology of early age. S. 231.
Chapter IV. Theories of child development in the first third of the 20th century .... childhood - up to the age of three. Gesell considered the development of the child as a form of adaptation to the environment, based on the biological factors of the maturation of the organism.
Criticizing Gesell's position, L.S. Vygotsky called it "ultrabiologism" and "empirical evolutionism", when the social is completely dissolved in the biological, when the entire course of child development is subject to the eternal laws of nature1.
Table A. Gesell's theory of maturation The main subject The content and pace of the child's mental development Research from birth to puberty Methods of Observation (in a specially equipped room, research with film and photo recording), tests, parental surveys;
longitudinal;
comparison of the development of twins, healthy children and patients Basic concepts Maturation, development, increase in behavior, sequence of development, growth (development) rate Basic ideas Dependence of mental development (all its components - from motor skills to personality) on the maturation of the nervous system, uneven pace mental development, slowing down the pace throughout childhood.
The need to control development Factors of development Biological factor, genetically predetermined maturation (preformism) Valuable Introduction of new methods, techniques and equipment for psychological research. Powerful empirical base. Thoroughness and thoroughness in the description of the phenomenology of child development. Drawing attention to the importance of maturation processes. Creation of standards for motor development Directions Emphasis on the biological basis of development - criticism of "empirical evolutionism" (L.S. Vygotsky);
absolutization of standards, transfer of data obtained from middle-class children to all others The prominent Austrian psychologist K. Buhler (1879-1973), who worked for some time within the framework of the Würzburg school, created his own concept of the mental development of the child. He intended to present the entire path of development from monkey to adult cultures "See: Vygotsky A.S. The problem of child development in the studies of Arnold Gesell // Gesell A. Pedology of early age. P. 8.
50 Section two. The historical formation of the age psychology of a new person as climbing a single biological ladder, to analyze the process of transforming a child (a being, in his opinion, a passive, helpless, devoid of any spiritual movements) into a person1.
The task of the study, according to Buhler, was to find the eternal, basic laws of development independent of external influences in their pure form. According to Buhler, a suitable form of experiment for the study of child development in the first years of life can be borrowed from the field of animal psychology. These are “experiments on activity”, “planned use of artificial situations”, in fact, the solution of tasks by children of the type that W. Koehler offered monkeys.
K. Buhler is known as the author of the preformist theory of three stages in the development of the child. Every child naturally goes through stages in his development that correspond to stages in the evolution of forms of animal behavior: instinct, training, intelligence.
The biological factor (self-development of the psyche, self-unfolding) was considered by him as the main one. Buhler insisted on the biological conditionality of development in childhood, on the hereditary nature of abilities, but emphasized that without exercise, natural inclinations would not be fully revealed.
Instinct is the lowest stage of development;
hereditary fund of behaviors, ready for use and needing only certain incentives. Human instincts are vague, weakened, split, with great individual differences. The set of ready-made instincts in a child (newborn) is narrow - screaming, sucking, swallowing, protective reflex.
Training (the formation of conditioned reflexes, life-long habits) makes it possible to adapt to various life circumstances, relies on rewards and punishments, or on successes and failures. Children's play, according to Buhler, a natural continuation of play in animals, arises at this stage.
Intelligence is the highest stage of development;
adaptation to the situation by inventing, discovering, thinking about and understanding the problem situation. Buhler in every possible way emphasizes the "chimpanzee-likeness" of the behavior of children in the first years of life. A typical change in behavior in solving intellectual problems by higher apes and children: when presented with a new task, the subject demonstrates excitement and carries out random tests.
reaction”, “aha-experience”, instant grasp of the essence of things See: Buhler K. Essay on the spiritual development of a child. M., 1930.
Chapter IV. The theory of child development in the first third of the 20th century.... and relationships transforms behavior, which turns into a calm, orderly solution to a problem. When the situation is repeated, the solution is found immediately.
During the transition from one stage of the development of the psyche to another, emotions also develop, and there is a shift in pleasure from the end of activity to the beginning. The evolutionary early correlation of action and emotion is as follows: first action, and then pleasure from its result. Further, the action is accompanied by functional pleasure, i.e. pleasure from the process itself. And finally, the representation (anticipation) of pleasure precedes the actual action.
Central to Buhler was the study of thinking, the role of creativity in mental development. Thus, he proposed a theory of the development of speech in a child as a process of its invention, inventing by the child in the process of communication with an adult.
Table The theory of three steps of K. Buhler Main subject Regularities of mental development;
identification of i stages in the development of the child's psyche (instinct, dress study of ra, intellect) Zoopsychological experiment Research methods Instinct, training, skill, intellect, functional Basic conceptual pleasure, anticipating pleasure Consideration of the child's psyche as an evolutionary link between the animal psyche and the psyche of an adult cultured person. The role of emotions in development Factors of development Preformism, heredity Valuable application of the experiment in the study of child development, the idea of development Directions of criticism Biological approach - blindness, ignoring the specifics of human development, belittling the child's capabilities Buhler's main interest is centered around the first years of a child's life. For him, child psychology is first of all the psychology of an early age, and the development of a person as a whole is identified with the development of a child. Buhler believed that the phases of childhood should be determined by interests and developmental success. Some allocated 52 Section two. The historical development of developmental psychology in the Buhler era: chimpanzee-like age;
the stage of questions about the names of objects;
stage of questions "why";
age of fairy tales;
the age of Robinson, etc. Bühler considered the phases of childhood as biological phases of development;
the relative, characteristic of the child of a certain epoch and a certain social environment, was equated with the absolute, universal, necessary law of development.
L.S. Vygotsky emphasized that in Buhler's theoretical constructions there is a valuable idea of development that permeates everything and a tendency to consider mental development in a general aspect. biological development. However, the desire to directly derive the fullness of mental life, mental functions and forms from biological roots, to find the reasons for the typical successes of a normal child in the structural development of the cortex big brain fundamentally limits Buhler's position, making it anti-dialectical. Phylogeny and ontogeny of the psyche turn out to be equally subject to the laws of biological evolution.
§ 3. Mental development of the child:
factors biological and social The American psychologist and sociologist Baldwin was one of many at that time who called for the study of not only cognitive, but also emotional and personal development. The social environment, along with innate prerequisites, was considered by him as the most important factor in development, since the formation of a system of norms and values, a person's self-esteem takes place within society. Baldwin was one of the first to note the social role of the game and considered it as a tool of socialization, emphasizing that it prepares a person for life in a system of complex social relations.
Baldwin substantiated the concept of cognitive development of children. He argued that cognitive development includes several stages, beginning with the development of innate motor reflexes. Then comes the stage of development of speech, and the stage of logical thinking completes this process. Baldwin singled out special mechanisms for the development of thinking - assimilation (internalization of environmental influences) and accommodation (changes in the body). These provisions of Baldwin's theory influenced the views of J. Piaget.
See: Vygotsky L.S. Introductory article to the Russian translation of the book by K. Buhler "Essay on the Spiritual Development of the Child" // Developmental and Pedagogical Psychology: Texts. M., 1992. S. 18-31.
Chapter IV. Theories of child development in the first third of the 20th century.... The German psychologist W. Stern (1871-1938), the author of the theory of personalism, put the analysis of the child's spiritual development and the formation of a holistic structure of the child's personality at the center of his research interests1. Stern believed that a person is a self-determined, consciously and purposefully acting integrity, which has a certain depth (conscious and unconscious layers). He proceeded from the fact that mental development is self-development, self-expansion of the inclinations that a person has, directed and determined by the environment in which the child lives.
Stern understood development itself as the growth, differentiation and transformation of mental structures, as a transition from vague, indistinct images to more clear, structured and distinct gestalts of the surrounding world. The potential possibilities of the child at birth are rather uncertain, he himself is not yet aware of himself and his inclinations. The environment helps the child to realize himself, organizes his inner world, gives him a clear, well-formed and conscious structure. At the same time, the child tries to take from the environment everything that corresponds to his potential inclinations, placing a barrier in the way of those influences that contradict his internal inclinations. This theory was called the theory of convergence (mutual influence) of two factors, since it took into account the role that two factors play in mental development - heredity and environment.
Table The theory of convergence of two factors by V. Stern Main subject Development of the psyche of research Research methods I Observations Basic concepts Inclinations, heredity, giftedness Stages of child development, stages of the formation of mice Basic ideas of speech, speech and other aspects of the child's psyche Development factors Convergence of factors of heredity and environment Valuable Principle the integrity of the individual. Interaction, mutual influence of external and internal factors of development Directions of criticism Emphasis on heredity, and the environment as an external factor that manifests already initially given See: Stern V. Psychology of early childhood. P., 1922.
54 Section two. The historical formation of developmental psychology The conflict between external influences (environmental pressure) and the child's internal inclinations, according to Stern, is of fundamental importance for development, since it is precisely negative emotions that serve as a stimulus for the development of self-consciousness. Thus, Stern argued that emotions are associated with the assessment of the environment, they help the process of socialization and the development of reflection in children.
Stern argued that there is not only a normativity that is common to all children of a certain age, but also an individual normativity that characterizes a particular child. Among the most important individual properties he called the individual rates of mental development, which are manifested in the speed of learning.
Stern also paid attention to questions of cognitive development, investigating the stages in the development of thinking and speech, and for the first time systematically observed the process of speech formation. The results of this work were reflected in Stern's book The Language of Children (1907). Having singled out five main stages in the development of speech in children, Stern described them in detail, in fact, having developed the first standards in the development of speech in children under 5 years of age. He was the first to draw attention to the turning point in the development of children's speech (at the age of about one and a half years), which is associated with the discovery by the child of the "meaning" of the word, namely, that each object has its own name;
identified key trends speech development- the transition from passive to active speech and from word to sentence.
The ideas of V. Stern influenced practically all areas of child psychology (the study of cognitive processes, the study of the development of emotions, personality, periodization of development) and the views of many prominent psychologists who dealt with the problems of the child's psyche.
§ 4. The mental development of the child: the influence of the environment Sociologist and ethnopsychologist M. Mead sought to show the leading role of sociocultural factors in the mental development of children. Comparing the features of puberty, the formation of the structure of self-consciousness, self-esteem among representatives of different nationalities, she emphasized the dependence of these processes primarily on cultural traditions, the characteristics of the upbringing and education of children, and the dominant style of communication in the family. The concept of inculturation introduced by her as a process of learning in the conditions of a specific culture enriches the general concept of socialization.
Chapter IV. Theories of child development in the first third of the 20th century .... Mead identified three types of cultures in the history of mankind - post-figurative (children learn from their predecessors), cofigurative (children and adults learn mainly from their peers, contemporaries) and prefigurative (adults can learn from your children) Her views had a great influence on the concepts of personality psychology and developmental psychology;
she clearly showed the role of the social environment, culture in the formation of the child's psyche.
Thus, we have traced the formulation of the problem of determining the nation of mental development in theoretical positions and empirical research by a number of leading psychologists.
SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS:
1. Outline the main trends in the development of developmental psychology during the first third of the 20th century.
2. What are the fundamental positions on the problem of determining the mental development of a person?
3. How was the issue of determining the mental development of children solved in the approaches of M. Montessori and A. Gesell? What pedagogical conclusions logically follow from their views?
4. What is the main idea of the theory of K. Buhler?
5. What are the limitations of the zoopsychological experiment method in child psychology? What can and cannot be installed with it?
TASK Read an excerpt from the memoirs of a participant in the experiments A. Gesell. Find references to the research organization scheme and methods used by Gesell to study child development:
“I remember Dr. Gesell well. We first met him in New Haven when I was still a child: my mother brought me, a 10-month-old baby, then for another examination in his laboratory. Dr. Gesell was always willing to talk to my mother about me, asking a lot of questions and at the same time writing down everything she told him in his notebook. My father usually did not come with us for these examinations.
As soon as we APPEARED In the laboratory, I was placed under some kind of glass dome and an unimaginable turmoil began around. I couldn't see what all those people in white coats were doing out there, but they were watching everything that was going on under the dome, but I had no idea about that at the time. I was allowed to play with a variety of beautiful toys, and when I learned to speak, they began to ask me a lot of questions.
I was one of hundreds of babies studied at the Yale Children's Clinic, organized by Dr. Gesell in 1911. I was lucky when I grew up to be a participant in the largest research and experiments in the history of science on the development of children, starting from birth.
See: Mid M. Culture and the world of childhood. S. 322.
56 Section two. The Historical Formation of Developmental Psychology Now it is clear to me that those long conversations between Dr. Gesell and my mother were built on the type of interview: he asked questions - first just about my well-being, but when I went to school, about my behavior and success, and my mother answered them in detail.
All my games were recorded on film (the movie camera was attached to the metal parts of the glass dome. These games and questions were a series of tests designed to find out all the changes that happened to me from visit to visit to the famous clinic of Dr. Gesell ”(Flake-Hobson K. , Robinson B.E., Skin P. Development of the child and his relations with others. M., 1992. P. 36-37).
Additional literature:
Galperin P.Ya. To the problem of the biological in the mental development of a person // Age and pedagogical psychology: Texts. M., 1992. S. 34-49.
The nature of the child in the mirror of autobiography: A textbook on pedagogical anthropology / Ed. B.M. Bim-bad and O.E. Kosheleva. M., 1998.
The role of heredity and environment in the formation of human individuality / Ed. I. V. Ravich-Shcherbo. M., 1988.
Rubinstein S.A. Fundamentals of General Psychology. M., 1989.
Leach P. Children first: What our society must do - and is not doing - for our children today. N.Y., 1994.
Section Three BASIC CONCEPTS OF HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS IN FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGY Chapter V MENTAL DEVELOPMENT AS PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT:
PSYCHOANALYTICAL APPROACH § 1. Mental development from the standpoint of classical psychoanalysis 3. Freud The foundations of the psychoanalytic approach to understanding the development of the psyche in ontogenesis were laid by 3. Freud (1856-1939)1. Mental development in psychoanalysis is identified with the process of complicating the sphere of inclinations, motives and feelings, with the development of personality, with the complication of its structures and functions.
Freud singled out three levels of the human psyche (according to the criterion of the fundamental possibility of understanding mental processes) - consciousness, preconsciousness and the unconscious.
At the center of his scientific interests was the unconscious level of the psyche - the receptacle of the instinctive needs of the body, drives, primarily sexual and aggressive. It is the unconscious that initially opposes society. Freud considered the development of personality as an adaptation (adaptation) of the individual to the external social world, alien to him, but absolutely necessary.
The human personality, according to Freud, includes three structural components - It, I and Super-I, which do not arise simultaneously.
It (Id) is the primitive core of personality;
it is innate, lies in the unconscious, and is governed by the pleasure principle. The id contains innate impulsive drives (the life instinct Eros and the death instinct Thanatos) and constitutes the energy basis of mental development.
See: Freud 3. Introduction to Psychoanalysis: Lectures. M., 1991.
58 Section three. Basic concepts of mental development ...
I (Ego) is a rational and, in principle, conscious part of the personality. It occurs as biological maturation occurs between 12 and 36 months of age and is guided by the reality principle. The task of the Ego is to explain what is happening and to construct the behavior of a person in such a way that his instinctive requirements are satisfied, and the restrictions of society and consciousness are not violated.
With the assistance of the ego, the conflict between the individual and society should weaken during life.
Super-I (Super-Ego) as a structural component of the personality is formed last, between 3 and 6 years of life.
The super-ego represents the conscience, the ego-ideal, and strictly controls the observance of the norms accepted in a given society.
Tendencies on the part of the Id and Super-Ego, as a rule, are of a conflicting nature, which gives rise to anxiety, nervousness, and tension in the individual. In response, the ego creates and uses a number of defense mechanisms, such as repression, rationalization, sublimation, projection, regression, etc. However, while the child's ego is still weak, not all conflicts can be resolved. Experiences become prolonged, “fixed”, forming certain type character, i.e. the foundation of personality is laid by the experiences of early childhood. It should be noted, however, that Freud "did not specifically study the child's psyche, but came to formulate the main provisions of his theory of personality development by analyzing the neurotic disorders of adult patients.
Approaches to understanding children's sexuality were outlined by Frey at the beginning of the 20th century. in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905)1. He proceeded from the idea that a person is born with a certain amount of sexual energy (libido), which in a strictly defined sequence moves through different areas of the body (mouth, anus, genitals).
Freud outlined the order in which the psychosexual stages unfold as the organism matures (a biological factor in development) and believed that the stages are universal and inherent in all people, regardless of their cultural level. Periodization of age development 3. Freud is called the psychosexual theory of personality, since the central line of his theory is connected with the sexual instinct, broadly understood as obtaining pleasure. The names of the stages of personal development (oral, anal, phallic, genital) indicate OS See: Freud 3. Three essays on the theory of sexuality // Psychology of the unconscious: Sat. prod. / Comp. M.G. Yaroshevsky. M., 1990. S. 123 - 202.
Chapter V. Mental development as personality development... a new bodily (erogenous) zone, which is associated with a feeling of pleasure at this age.
Stages are a kind of steps along the path of development, and there is a danger of getting "stuck" at one stage or another, and then the components of childhood sexuality can become the preconditions for neurotic symptoms in later life.
1. The oral stage lasts from birth to 18 months. The main source of pleasure at the initial stage of psychosexual development is connected with the satisfaction of the basic organic need and includes the actions associated with breastfeeding: sucking, biting and swallowing.
At the oral stage, attitudes towards other people are formed - attitudes of dependence, support or independence, trust. The mother awakens the sexual desire in the child, teaches him to love. It is the optimal degree of satisfaction (stimulation) in the oral zone (breastfeeding, sucking) that lays the foundations for a healthy independent adult personality.
The extremes of the maternal attitude in the first six months of life (excessive or, on the contrary, insufficient stimulation) distort personal development, and oral passivity is fixed. This means that an adult will use demonstrations of helplessness and gullibility as ways of adapting to the world around him, and will need constant approval of his actions from the outside. Too much parental tenderness hastens puberty and makes the child "spoiled" and dependent.
In the second half of the first year of life, with dentition, when the emphasis shifts to the actions of biting and chewing, the oral-sadistic phase of the oral stage sets in. Fixation on the oral-sadistic phase leads to such traits of an adult personality as love for disputes, a cynical consumer attitude towards others, and pessimism.
The mouth area, according to Freud, remains an important erogenous zone throughout a person's life. The attachment of the libido to the oral zone sometimes persists in the adult and makes itself felt by residual oral behavior - gluttony, smoking, nail biting, gum chewing, etc.
2. The anal stage of personality development, associated with the emergence of the Ego, falls on the age of 1-1.5 to 3 years. Anal eroticism is associated, according to Freud, with pleasant sensations from the work of the intestines, from excretory functions, with interest in one's own feces.
60 Section three. Basic concepts of mental development ...
At this stage, parents begin to teach the child to use the toilet, for the first time demanding that he give up instinctual pleasure. The way of toilet training practiced by parents determines the future forms of self-control and self-regulation of the child.
The correct educational approach relies on attention to the condition of the child, on encouraging children to have regular bowel movements. Emotional support for neatness as a manifestation of self-control has, according to Freud, a long-term positive effect in the development of neatness, personal health, and even flexibility of thinking.
With an unfavorable development option, parents behave excessively strict and demanding, achieve neatness as early as possible, focusing mainly on formal security moments. In response to these inadequate demands, children develop a kind of protest tendencies in the form of “retaining” (constipation) or, conversely, “pushing out”. These fixed reactions, later spreading to other types of behavior, lead to the formation of a peculiar type of personality: anal-holding (stubborn, stingy, methodical) or anal-pushing (restless, impulsive, prone to destruction).
3. The phallic stage (3-6 years) - the stage of psychosexual development with the participation of the genital zone itself. At the phallic stage of psychosexual development, the child often examines and explores his genitals, shows interest in issues related to the appearance of children and sexual relations.
It is during this age period in the individual development of each person that a certain historical conflict is reborn - the Oedipus complex. The boy manifests a desire to "possess" his mother and eliminate his father. Entering into an unconscious rivalry with his father, the boy experiences the fear of the alleged cruel punishment on his part, the fear of castration, in Freud's interpretation.
The child's ambivalent feelings (love/hate for the father) that accompany the Oedipus complex are overcome between the ages of five and seven. The boy suppresses (forces out of consciousness) his sexual desires for his mother. Identification of oneself with the father (imitation of intonations, statements, actions, borrowing of norms, rules, attitudes) contributes to the emergence of the Super-Ego, or conscience, the last component of the personality structure.
In girls, Freud implies a similar dominant complex, the Electra complex. Resolution of the Elek complex Chapter V. Psychic development as a development of the personality ... also occurs by identifying oneself with the parent of one's own sex - the mother and suppressing the attraction to the father. The girl, by increasing her resemblance to her mother, gains symbolic "access" to her father.
4. Latent stage - sexual lull, from 6-7 years to 12 years, until the onset of adolescence. The energy reserve is directed to non-sexual purposes and activities - study, sports, knowledge, friendship with peers, mostly of the same sex. Freud emphasized the significance of this break in the sexual development of man as a condition for the development of a higher human culture.
5. Genital stage (12 - 18 years) - the stage due to biological maturation during puberty and completing psychosexual development. There is a surge of sexual and aggressive urges, the Oedipus complex is reborn on a new level. Autoeroticism disappears, it is replaced by interest in another sexual object, a partner of the opposite sex. Normally, in adolescence, there is a search for a place in society, the choice of a marriage partner, and the creation of a family.
One of the most significant tasks of this stage is liberation from the authority of parents, from attachment to them, which provides the opposition of the old and new generations necessary for the cultural process.
The genital character is an ideal personality type from a psychoanalytic position, the level of maturity of the personality. A necessary quality of the genital character is the ability for heterosexual love without guilt or conflict experiences. The mature personality is characterized by Freud in a much broader sense: it is multifaceted, and it is characterized by activity in solving life problems and the ability to make efforts, the ability to work, the ability to delay gratification, responsibility in social and sexual relations, and concern for other people.
Thus, 3. Freud was interested in childhood as a period that reshapes the adult personality. Freud was convinced that everything essential in the development of a personality occurs before the age of five, and later a person is only “functioning”, trying to get rid of early conflicts, so he did not single out any special stages of adulthood. At the same time, the very childhood of an individual is preformed by events from the history of the development of the human race (this line is represented by the revival of the Oedipus complex, the analogy of the oral stage in the development of a personality and the cannibal stage in the history of the human community, etc.).
62 Section three. Basic concepts of mental development..
The most significant factors in the formation of personality in classical psychoanalysis are biological maturation and ways of communicating with parents. Failures to adapt to the demands of the environment in early childhood, traumatic experiences in childhood and fixation of the libido predetermine deep conflicts and illnesses in the future.
Table Psychoanalysis 3. Freud Main subject Personal development research Methods Analysis of clinical cases, free association research, analysis of dreams, slips of the tongue, etc.
Developmental psychology: lecture notes
Developmental psychology is a branch of comparative psychology that emerged as an independent study at the end of the 19th century. Developmental psychology is considered as an independent science with its own structure and stages of development.
This manual will be of interest not only to students and graduate students, but also to teachers of this specialty. It will become an indispensable assistant in preparing for a session or tests.
T. V. NOZHKINA, T. A. UMNOVA Developmental psychology: lecture notes
1. THE SUBJECT OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY
Developmental psychology is a special area of mental knowledge that focuses on the psychological characteristics of the personality of people of different ages.
The main principle is the principle of the development of the psyche in activity, therefore, developmental psychology cannot be imagined outside of development (genesis), outside of deployment.
At any stage of research, this area never appears as something unchanged.
The subject of developmental psychology is the study and presentation in the form of scientific facts and relevant scientific theories the main features of the psychological development of people, moreover, during their transition from one age to another.
The subject of study always includes detailed, scientifically substantiated psychological characteristics of individuals from different age groups.
Age psychology notes two types of changes occurring in a person: solid, qualitative and stable qualitative characteristics (changes) that occur in two areas - both in the psyche and in behavior. For example, children as they move from one age group to another. These changes cover significant periods of life (from a few months for infants to several years for older individuals). They depend on constant factors:
1) biological maturation;
2) the psychophysiological state of the organism;
3) the place of the child in the system of human social relations;
4) the achieved level of intellectual and mental development.
Slow, quantitative and qualitative transformations are always associated with evolutionary age-related changes both in psychology and in the behavior of the individual.
Revolutionary changes, deeper, occur quickly and in a relatively short period of time. They are timed and coincide with all crises of age development that always occur at the turn of two specific ages, between relatively calm periods of other - evolutionary - changes in the psyche and behavior.
The presence of crises of age development and the revolutionary transformations of the psyche and behavior corresponding to them - this is the basis for dividing childhood into periods of age development.
The third type of change is special. It's called situational change. This is such a special sign of development, which is associated with the influence of a specific situation (in the family, in the team and society in general).
Situational changes include what happens in the psyche and behavior of the child under the influence of organized and spontaneous education and upbringing.
From all of the above, we can conclude that the first two types, i.e., age-related evolutionary and revolutionary changes in the psyche and behavior, are very stable, irreversible and do not require systematic reinforcement, since, once formed, they remain forever. Their function is to transform the psychology of a person as a person in the direction of progress. Situational, on the contrary, are very unstable, reversible, and it is assumed that their consolidation necessarily occurs in subsequent exercises with the help of training. Their peculiarity is that they leave the personality without visible changes and spend only forms of behavior - knowledge, skills, skills. All three described types of changes are the first component of the subject of developmental psychology.
The second component of the subject of developmental psychology is a specific combination of psychology and behavior, designated by the concept of "age". At each age, a person has a unique combination of mental and behavioral characteristics that is characteristic only for him, which is never repeated beyond this age. The concept of "age" in psychology is associated exclusively with the characteristics of psychology and the psyche, as well as behavior, but in no case with the number of years lived. So, there are two types of age: passport and intellectual. For example, a child may look mature and developed beyond his years, and even in his judgments and actions (wunderkind), and vice versa, a teenager, or even a young man, may behave like children, that is, behave infantile. Age features have human cognitive processes, since the general plan for the development of the psyche directly affects perception, memory, thinking and speech. Any characteristics of age are manifested primarily in personality traits, namely, in interests, judgments, attitudes, and motives of behavior. The concept of age, which is psychologically correctly defined for a given period of time, is the basis for establishing all age norms in intellectual and personal development. This term is widely used in tests, along with its criteria, as a starting point for setting the bar (level) for the psychological development of the child as a whole.
The third (main) component of the subject is the driving forces, conditions and laws of the psychological and behavioral development of a person.
Driving forces are those factors that determine the progressive development of the child, are its causes, contain energy stimulating sources of development and always direct it (development) in the right direction.
1.1. HISTORY REFERENCE
The science of mental development originated as a branch of comparative psychology at the end of the 19th century. The starting point for systematic research into the psychology of the child is the book of the German Darwinist W. Preyer, The Soul of the Child. According to the unanimous recognition of psychologists, he is considered the founder of child psychology.
There is practically not a single outstanding psychologist who has dealt with the problems of general psychology, who at the same time would not deal with the problems of the development of the psyche. Such world-famous scientists as V. Stern, K. Levin, Z. Freud, E. Spranger, J. Piaget, S. L. Rubinstein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, D. B. Elkonin and others.
Development is characterized by qualitative changes, the appearance of neoplasms, new mechanisms, new processes, new structures. L. S. Vygotsky and other psychologists described the main signs of development. The most important among them are: differentiation, dismemberment of the previously single element; the emergence of new aspects, new elements in development itself; restructuring of links between the sides of the object. Each of these processes corresponds to the listed development criteria.
At first, the task of developmental psychology was to accumulate facts and arrange them in a temporal sequence. This task corresponded to the strategy of observation, which led to the accumulation of various facts that had to be brought into the system, to identify the stages and stages of development, in order to then identify the main trends and general patterns of the development process itself and understand its cause. To solve these problems, psychologists used the strategy of a natural-science ascertaining experiment, which allows you to establish the presence or absence of the phenomenon under certain controlled conditions, measure its quantitative characteristics and give a qualitative description.
At present, a new research strategy is being intensively developed - the strategy of the formation of mental processes, active intervention, building a process with given properties, to which we owe L. S. Vygotsky. Today, there are several ideas for implementing this strategy, which can be summarized as follows.
Cultural and historical concept of L. S. Vygotsky, according to which interpsychic becomes intrapsychic. The genesis of higher mental functions is associated with the use of a sign by two people in the process of their communication; without fulfilling this role, a sign cannot become a means of individual mental activity.
The theory of activity by A. N. Leontiev is based on the fact that any activity acts as a conscious action, then as an operation, and as it forms, it becomes a function. The movement is carried out here from top to bottom - from activity to function.
The theory of the formation of mental actions by P. Ya. Galperin is based on the formation of mental functions that occur on the basis of an objective action, and proceeds from the material performance of the action, and then through its speech form it passes into the mental plane. This is the most developed concept of formation.
The concept of educational activity is the research of D. B. Elkonin and V. V. Davydov, in which a strategy for the formation of personality was developed not in laboratory conditions, but in real life - by creating experimental schools.
Let us consider and compare in more detail the main concepts and theories of the development of the psyche, belonging to domestic and foreign psychologists, starting with the theory of recapitulation by S. Hall and the psychoanalytic theory of Z. Freud, and up to the theories and concepts of psychologists of our time.
1.2. Bio-and sociogenetic concepts of the development of the psyche
Biogenetic theory focuses on the biological determinants of development, from which socio-psychological properties are derived or correlated. The process of development itself is interpreted mainly as maturation, the stages of which are universal. Types of development and variations of age-related processes are derived from genetically determined constitutional types.
S. Hall's theory of recapitulation.
S. Hall considered the main law of developmental psychology to be the biogenetic "law of recapitulation", according to which individual development, ontogenesis, repeats the main stages of phylogenesis. Infancy reproduces the animal phase of development. Childhood corresponds to an era when hunting and fishing were the main occupations of an ancient person. The period from 8 to 12 years, which is sometimes called pre-adolescence, corresponds to the end of savagery and the beginning of civilization, and adolescence, covering the period from the onset of puberty (12-13 years) to adulthood (22-25 years), is equivalent to the era of romanticism. This is a period of “storm and stress”, internal and external conflicts, during which a person has a “sense of individuality”. Although Hall brought together a large amount of factual material, which contributed to the further development of developmental psychology, his theory was immediately criticized by psychologists, who pointed out that the external similarity of children's play with the behavior of animals or primitive people does not mean the psychological identity of their behavior. Superficial analogies on which the "law of recapitulation" is based make it difficult to understand the specific laws of mental development.
Another version of the biogenetic concept was developed by representatives of the German "constitutional psychology". So, E. Kretschmer and E. Jensch, developing mainly the problems of personality typology based on some biological factors (body type, etc.), suggested that there must be some connection between the physical type of a person and the characteristics of his development. E. Kretschmer believed that all people can be placed along an axis, on one pole of which is cycloid (excitable, spontaneous, extremely unstable in mood), and on the other - schizoid (closed, non-contact, emotionally constrained) types. K. Konrad, a follower of Kretschmer, suggested that these characteristics also apply to age stages, for example preadolescence with its violent outbursts corresponds to cycloid periods, youth with its craving for introspection - schizoid.
Representatives of the biogenetic direction drew the attention of scientists to the study of the interdependence of physical and mental development. This is of great importance for psychophysiology. However, attempts to understand the patterns of development of the psyche, based only on biological laws, of course, were not successful. They underestimate the role of social development factors and overestimate its uniformity. In most cases, the emphasis on the organic nature of the developmental process, typical of the biogenetic approach, is combined with some other provisions.
In contrast to the biogenetic approach, the starting point of which is the processes occurring inside the body, sociogenetic theories try to explain the properties of age based on the structure of society, methods of socialization, and the interaction of the object with other people. So, K. Levin proceeds from the fact that human behavior is a function, on the one hand, of the personality, on the other hand, of its environment. However, the properties of the individual and the properties of the environment are interrelated. Levin connects the mental development of a person with a change in his social position. However, this concept is too abstract. Putting the child's life world in dependence on his immediate environment, microenvironment, Lewin leaves in the shadow of his general social determinants, such as social origin, occupation, general conditions of development.
A common feature of the bio-and sociogenetic approach to the development of the psyche is that they see the sources and driving forces of development mainly in extra-psychic factors. In the first case, the emphasis is on the biological processes occurring in the body, in the second - on the social processes in which the person participates or is exposed to.
1.3. Psychoanalytic theory of Z. Freud
An analysis of the free associations of patients led Z. Freud to the conclusion that the diseases of an adult personality are reduced to childhood experiences. Children's experiences, according to Z. Freud, are of a sexual nature. This is a feeling of love and hatred for a father or mother, jealousy for a brother or sister, etc. Z. Freud believed that this experience has an unconscious effect on the subsequent behavior of an adult, and also plays a decisive role in personality development.
Personality, according to Z. Freud, is the interaction of mutually stimulating and restraining forces. libidinal energy, which is associated with the instinct of life, is also the basis for the development of personality, the character of a person. Freud said that in the process of life a person goes through several stages, which differ from each other in the way of fixing the libido, in the way of satisfying the life instinct. At the same time, Freud pays great attention to exactly how fixation occurs and whether a person needs foreign objects in this case. Based on this, he distinguishes several stages - the stages of mental genesis during the life of a child.
Oral stage (0-1 year). The oral stage is characterized by the fact that the main source of pleasure, and, consequently, potential frustration, is concentrated in the zone of activity associated with feeding. The oral stage is characterized by two consecutive libidinal actions(sucking and biting). The leading erogenous area at this stage is the mouth, the instrument of nutrition, sucking and primary examination of objects. At the oral stage of fixing the libido in a person, according to Z. Freud, some personality traits are formed: insatiability, greed, exactingness, dissatisfaction with everything offered. Already at the oral stage, according to his ideas, people are divided into optimists and pessimists.
Anal stage (1-3 years). At this stage, the libido is concentrated around the anus, which becomes the object of attention of the child, accustomed to cleanliness. Now children's sexuality finds the object of its satisfaction in mastering the functions of defecation, excretion. Here the child encounters many prohibitions, so the outside world appears to him as a barrier that he must overcome, and development acquires a conflict character here. In relation to the behavior of the child at this stage, we can say that the instance of the "I" is fully formed, and now it is able to control the impulses of the "It". Social coercion, the punishment of parents, the fear of losing their love make the child mentally imagine, internalize certain prohibitions. Thus, the “Super-I” of the child begins to form as part of his “I”, where the authorities, the influence of parents and adults, who play a very important role as educators in the life of the child, are mainly laid down. Character traits that are formed at the anal stage, according to psychoanalysts, are accuracy, neatness, punctuality; stubbornness, secrecy, aggressiveness; hoarding, frugality, a tendency to collect.
The phallic stage (3-5 years) characterizes the highest stage of childhood sexuality. The genital organs become the leading erogenous zone. So far, childhood sexuality has been autoerotic, now it becomes objective, that is, children begin to experience sexual attachment to adults. The first people who attract the attention of a child are the parents. Libidinous attachment to parents of the opposite sex Z. Freud called oedipal complex for boys and the Electra complex for girls, defining them as motivational-affective relationship between a child and a parent of the opposite sex. According to Z. Freud, the phallic stage corresponds to the emergence of such personality traits as self-observation, prudence, rational thinking, and in the future - exaggeration of male behavior with increased aggressiveness.
The latent stage (5-12 years) is characterized by a decrease in sexual interest. The mental instance of "I" completely controls the needs of "It"; being divorced from the sexual goal, the energy of the libido is transferred to the development of universal human experience, enshrined in science and culture, as well as to the establishment of friendly relations with peers and adults outside the family environment.
The genital stage (12-18 years) is characterized by the return of children's sexual aspirations, now all the former erogenous zones are united, and the teenager, from the point of view of Z. Freud, strives for one goal - normal sexual intercourse. However, the realization of normal sexual intercourse may be difficult, and then phenomena of fixation or regression to one or another of the previous stages of development with all their features can be observed during the genital stage. At this stage, the instance of "I" must fight against the aggressive impulses of "It", which again make themselves felt. So, for example, at this stage it may again arise Oedipus complex, which pushes the young man towards homosexuality, the preferred choice for same-sex communication. To fight against the aggressive impulses of the id, the instance of the ego uses two new defense mechanisms. This is asceticism and intellectualization. Asceticism, with the help of internal prohibitions, inhibits this phenomenon, and intellectualization reduces it to a simple representation in the imagination and in this way allows the teenager to free himself from these obsessive desires. The two most striking types of character that are formed at this stage are described: psychic homosexuality and narcissism. What is the secret of the enormous influence of Z. Freud on all modern psychology up to the present day? Firstly, this is a dynamic concept of development, and secondly, this is a theory that has shown that the other person, and not the objects that surround him, is of primary importance for human development. Z. Freud was ahead of his time and, like Charles Darwin, destroyed the narrow, rigid boundaries of the common sense of his time and cleared a new territory for the study of human behavior.
1.4. Epigenetic concept of E. Erickson
Erik Erikson, a student of Freud, created a new theory based on Freud's teachings about phases psychosexual development. Erickson's theory is a theory of psychosocial development, it includes eight stages of the development of the "I", at each of which guidelines are worked out and refined in relation to oneself and to the external environment. Erickson noted that the study of personal individuality is becoming the same strategic task of the second half of the 20th century, as was the study of sexuality in the time of Z. Freud, at the end of the 19th century. The difference between Erickson's theory and Freud's theory is as follows.
Firstly, according to Erickson, 8 stages are not limited only to childhood, but include the development and transformation of the personality throughout life from birth to old age, it is argued that adult and adulthood are characterized by their own crises, during which the tasks corresponding to them are solved. .
Second, unlike pansexual theory Freud, human development, according to Erickson, consists of three interrelated, albeit autonomous, processes: somatic development, studied by biology, development of the conscious self, studied by psychology, and social development, studied by the social sciences.
The basic law of development is the “epigenetic principle”, according to which at each new stage of development, new phenomena and properties arise that were not at the previous stages of the process.
Erickson identifies 8 main tasks that a person solves during his life. These tasks are present at all age stages, throughout life. But each time one of them is updated with the next age crisis. If it is solved in a positive way, then a person, having learned to cope with such problems, then feels more confident in similar situations. Having not successfully passed any age period, he feels like a schoolboy who does not know how to solve problems of some type: “suddenly they will ask, suddenly they will convict that I don’t know how.”
This situation is not irreversible: it is never too late to learn, but it is complicated by the fact that the time allotted for solving this problem has been lost. New age crises bring new problems to the fore, each age stage “throws up” its tasks. And for old, familiar ones, there is often not enough strength, time, or desire already. And so they drag on in the form of negative experience, the experience of defeat. In such cases, they say that a “tail of problems” stretches behind a person. Thus, E. Erickson considers the correspondence between the stages of growing up and the problems that a person, not having solved at a certain stage, then drags along his whole life.
Stages of development of the psyche according to Erickson
I stage. Oral-sensory
Corresponds to the oral stage of classical psychoanalysis.
Age: first year of life.
Stage objective: basic trust versus basic mistrust.
Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: energy and hope .
The extent of the infant's confidence in the world depends on the care shown to him. Normal development occurs when his needs are quickly met, he does not feel unwell for a long time, he is cradled and caressed, played with and talked to. The mother's behavior is confident and predictable. In this case, trust is developed in the world into which he has come. If he does not receive proper care, distrust, timidity and suspicion are developed.
As a result of the successful passage of this stage, people grow up who draw vital faith not only in religion, but also in social activities and scientific studies. People who have not successfully passed this stage, even if they profess faith, actually express distrust of people with every breath.
II stage. Muscular-anal
Coincides with the anal stage of Freudianism.
Age: 2-3 years of life.
Stage objective: autonomy versus shame and doubt.
Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: self-control and willpower.
At this stage, the development of independence based on motor and mental abilities comes to the fore. The child learns different movements. If parents leave the child to do what he can, he develops the feeling that he owns his muscles, his impulses, himself, and to a large extent the environment. Independence appears.
If educators show impatience and rush to do for the child what he himself is capable of, modesty and indecision develop. If parents constantly scold a child for a wet bed, soiled panties, spilled milk, a broken cup, and the like, the child develops a sense of shame and insecurity in his ability to control himself and his environment.
External control at this stage should firmly convince the child of his strengths and capabilities, and also protect him from anarchy.
The outcome of this stage depends on the ratio of cooperation and self-will, freedom of expression and its suppression. From the feeling of self-control as the freedom to dispose of oneself without loss of self-respect, a strong sense of goodwill, readiness for action and pride in one's achievements, a sense of one's own dignity, originates. From the feeling of loss of freedom to dispose of oneself and the feeling of someone else's overcontrol comes a steady tendency to doubt and shame.
III stage. Locomotor-genital
Stage infantile genitality corresponds to the phallic stage of psychoanalysis.
Age: 4-5 years - preschool age.
The task of the stage: initiative (enterprise) against feelings of guilt.
Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: direction and purposefulness .
By the beginning of this stage, the child has already acquired many physical skills, begins to invent activities for himself, and not just respond to actions and imitate them. Shows ingenuity in speech, the ability to fantasize.
The preponderance of qualities in character largely depends on how adults react to the child's undertakings. Children who are given the initiative in choosing an activity (running, wrestling, messing around, riding a bicycle, sledding, skating) develop entrepreneurial spirit. It reinforces her parents' willingness to answer questions (intellectual enterprise) and not interfere with fantasizing and starting games.
If adults show the child that his activities are harmful and undesirable, the questions are annoying, and the games are stupid, he begins to feel guilty and carries this feeling of guilt into adulthood. The danger of this stage is in the emergence of a feeling of guilt for one's goals and actions in the course of enjoying a new locomotor and mental power, which requires vigorous curbing. Defeat leads to resignation, guilt and anxiety. Overly optimistic hopes and wild fantasies are suppressed and restrained.
At this stage, the most important separation occurs between the potential triumph of man and the potential total destruction. And it is here that the child becomes forever divided within himself: into a children's set that retains an abundance of growth potentials, and a parental set that supports and strengthens self-control, self-government and self-punishment. A sense of moral responsibility develops.
A child at this stage tends to learn quickly and eagerly, to mature rapidly in the sense of sharing duties and affairs. Wants and can do joint things, together with other children invents and plans things. Mimics ideal prototypes. This stage links the dreams of early childhood with the goals of an active adult life.
IV stage. Latent
Corresponds to the latent phase of classical psychoanalysis.
Age: 6-11 years old.
The task of the stage: diligence (skill) against feelings of inferiority.
Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: system and competence .
Love and jealousy are at this stage in a latent state (which is what its name says - latent). These are the elementary school years. The child shows the ability for deduction, organized games, regulated activities, interest in how things work, how to adapt them, master them. During these years, he resembles Robinson Crusoe and is often interested in his life.
When children are encouraged to make crafts, build huts and aircraft models, cook, cook and needlework, when they are allowed to complete the work they have begun, they are praised for the results, then the child develops skill, the ability for technical creativity.
When parents see in the labor activity of a child only “pampering” and “dirty”, this contributes to the development of a sense of inferiority in him. The danger of this stage is the feeling of inadequacy and inferiority. If the child despairs of his tools and work skills or his place among comrades, then this may discourage identification with them, the child considers himself doomed to mediocrity or inadequacy. He learns to win recognition by doing useful and necessary work.
The environment of the child at this stage is no longer limited to the home. Influence not only of the family, but also of the school. Attitude towards him at school has a significant impact on the balance of the psyche. Being left behind causes a feeling of inferiority. He had already learned from experience that there was no feasible future in the bosom of the family. Systematic learning in all cultures occurs at this stage. It is during this period that the wider society becomes important in relation to providing the child with opportunities to understand significant roles in society's technology and economy.
Freud calls this stage the latent stage, since the violent drives are dormant. But this is only a temporary lull before the storm of puberty, when all the earlier instincts reappear in a new combination to be subordinated to genitality.
V stage. Adolescence and early adolescence
Classical psychoanalysis notes at this stage the problem of "love and jealousy" for one's own parents. A successful decision depends on whether he finds the object of love in his own generation. This is a continuation of the latent stage according to Freud.
Age: 12-18 years old.
Stage objective: identity versus role confusion.
Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: dedication and loyalty .
The main difficulty at this stage is identification confusion, the inability to recognize one's "I".
A teenager matures physiologically and mentally, he develops new views on things, a new approach to life. Interest in other people's thoughts, in what they think of themselves.
The influence of parents at this stage is indirect. If a teenager, thanks to his parents, has already developed trust, independence, enterprise and skill, then his chances of identification, that is, of recognizing his own individuality, increase significantly.
The opposite is true for a teenager who is incredulous, insecure, filled with feelings of guilt and a sense of his inferiority. With difficulties in self-identification, symptoms of role confusion appear. This is often the case with juvenile delinquents. Girls who show promiscuity in adolescence very often have a fragmented idea of their personality and do not correlate their promiscuity with either their intellectual level or their value system.
The isolation of the circle and the rejection of "strangers". Identification marks of "their" - clothes, makeup, gestures, words. This intolerance (intolerance) is a defense against the "clouding" of consciousness of identity. Teenagers stereotype themselves, their ideals, their enemies. Adolescents often identify their self with the opposite of what their parents expect. But sometimes it's better to associate yourself with "hippies" and the like than not to find your "I" at all. Teenagers test each other's ability to be faithful. Readiness for such a test explains the attraction for young people of simple and rigid totalitarian doctrines.
VI stage. early adulthood
Freud's genital stage.
Stage objective: intimacy versus isolation.
Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: affiliation and love .
By the beginning of this stage, a person has already identified his "I" and is involved in labor activity.
Closeness is important to him - not only physical, but also the ability to take care of another person, to share everything essential with him without fear of losing himself. The newly minted adult is ready to exercise moral strength in both intimate and comradely relationships, remaining faithful, even if significant sacrifices and compromises are required. Manifestations of this stage are not necessarily in sexual attraction, but also in friendship. For example, close ties are formed between fellow soldiers who fought side by side in difficult conditions - a model of closeness in the broadest sense.
The danger of the stage is the avoidance of contacts that oblige to intimacy. Avoiding the experience of intimacy out of fear of losing the ego leads to feelings of isolation and subsequent self-absorption. If neither in marriage nor in friendship does he achieve intimacy - loneliness. No one to share your life with and no one to take care of. The danger of this stage is that a person experiences intimate, competitive, and hostile relationships with the same people. The rest are indifferent. And only having learned to distinguish the fight of rivals from a sexual embrace, a person masters an ethical sense - a hallmark of an adult. Only now does true genitality emerge. It cannot be considered a purely sexual task. It is an amalgamation of mate selection, cooperation, and competition.
VII stage. adulthood
Classical psychoanalysis no longer considers this and the subsequent stage, it covers only the period of growing up.
Age: mature.
Stage objective: generativity versus stagnation.
Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: production and care .
By the time this stage is reached, a person has already firmly associated himself with a certain occupation, and his children have already become teenagers.
This stage of development is characterized by universal humanity - the ability to be interested in the fate of people outside the family circle, to think about the life of future generations, the forms of the future society and the structure of the future world. To do this, it is not necessary to have your own children, it is important to actively take care of young people and make it easier for people to live and work in the future.
Those who have not developed a sense of belonging to humanity focus on themselves, and their main concern becomes the satisfaction of their needs, their own comfort, self-absorption.
Generativity - the central point of this stage - is an interest in the organization of life and the guidance of a new generation, although there are individuals who, due to failures in life or special gifts in other areas, do not direct this interest to their offspring. Generativity includes productivity and creativity, but these concepts cannot replace it. Generativity is the most important stage of both psychosexual and psychosocial development.
When this enrichment is not achieved, there is a regression to the need for pseudo-intimacy, with a sense of stagnation and impoverishment of personal life. The man begins to pamper myself as if he were his own child. The very fact of having children or the desire to have them is not yet generative.
The reasons for lagging behind are excessive selfishness, intense self-creation of a successful person at the expense of other aspects of life, lack of faith, trust, feeling that he is a welcome hope and concern of society.
VIII stage. Maturity
Age: retired.
Stage objective: ego integrity versus despair.
Valuable qualities acquired at this stage: self-denial and wisdom.
The main work in life is over, it is time for reflection and fun with the grandchildren.
The feeling of wholeness, meaningfulness of life arises in someone who, looking back at the past, feels satisfaction. To whom the life lived seems to be a chain of missed opportunities and unfortunate blunders, he realizes that it is too late to start all over again and the lost cannot be returned. Such a person is overcome by despair at the thought of how his life could have developed, but did not. Hopelessness. The absence or loss of the accumulated integrity is expressed in the fear of death: the one and only life cycle is not accepted as the end of life. Despair expresses the consciousness that there is little time left to live in order to try to start a new life and experience other paths to wholeness.
Disgust hides despair, albeit in the form of a "mass of small disgusts" that do not add up to one big repentance.
Comparing this stage with the very first, we see how the circle of values closes: integrity (integrity) of an adult and infantile trust, confidence in honesty (integrity) Erickson designates with the same word. He argues that healthy children will not be afraid of life if the old people around them have sufficient integrity not to be afraid of death.
1.5. The concept of the development of intelligence by J. Piaget
Jean Piaget is a psychologist who paved new paths in science. He created new methods, discovered the laws of the spiritual life of the child, unknown before him. He developed a cognitive concept of child development, which he considered as a gradual process that goes through several stages.
Piaget built his theory of children's thinking on the basis of logic and biology. He proceeded from the idea that the basis of mental development is the development of the intellect. In a series of experiments, he proved his point of view, showing how the level of understanding, intelligence affect the speech of children, their perception and memory. He also developed the idea that the child's thinking cannot be derived only from innate psychobiological factors and from the influences of the physical environment, but must be understood also and predominantly from the relations that are established between the child and the social environment surrounding him.
The study of the stages in the development of thinking in Piaget himself proceeded gradually. In 1919 he was invited to Paris to work on scales for measuring intelligence, worked in a baby's home; The materials he received during this period formed the basis of his first books: "The Judgment and Reasoning of the Child", "Thinking and Speech of the Child", where he sets out the foundations of his concept of the cognitive development of the child. Piaget said that in the process of development, the organism adapts to the environment, that the stages of mental development are the stages of the development of the intellect, through which the child gradually passes in the formation of an increasingly adequate scheme of the situation. The basis of this scheme is precisely logical thinking.
Also in the 1920s Based on the connection between thinking and speech, he built his studies of the development of thinking through the study of the development of children's speech and came to the conclusion that the process of development of thinking is exteriorization process, i.e., thinking appears as autistic, internal, and then, having passed the stage of egocentrism, it becomes external, realistic. This is also the process of development of speech, which from egocentric (speech for oneself) becomes social speech, speech for others. Later, L. S. Vygotsky and V. Stern proved the inconsistency of these conclusions, but, however, during this period Piaget made discoveries that were of great importance for understanding the formation of the intellect of children. First of all, this is the discovery of such features of children's thinking as egocentrism, syncretism (non-segmentation), transduction (transition from the particular to the particular, bypassing the general), artificialism (artificiality), animism, and insensitivity to contradictions.
The next stage of Piaget's research, which began in the 1930s, was associated with the study operational side of thinking. He comes to the conclusion that mental development is associated with interiorization, since the first mental operations - external, sensorimotor - subsequently pass into the internal plane, turning into logical, actually mental ones. Piaget also discovers the main property of these operations - their reversibility.
Research led Piaget to the conclusion that the process of development of the intellect is a change of three large periods, during which the formation of the three main intellectual structures takes place.
First, sensory-motor structures are formed - systems of sequentially performed material actions. Then structures of specific operations arise - systems of actions performed in the mind, but based on external, visual data. Even later, the formation of formal-logical operations takes place.
Formal logic, according to J. Piaget, is the highest stage in the development of the intellect. The intellectual development of a child is a transition from lower to higher stages. But at the same time, each previous stage prepares the next, is rebuilt at a higher level.
The sensorimotor period covers the first two years of a child's life. At this time, speech is not developed and there are no ideas, and behavior is based on the coordination of perception and movement. Having been born, the child has congenital reflexes. Some of them, such as the sucking reflex, can change. After some exercise, the child sucks better than on the first day, then he begins to suck not only during meals, but also in between - his fingers, any objects that touched his mouth. This is the stage of reflex exercise. As a result of reflex exercises, the first skills are formed. At the second stage, the child turns his head in the direction of the noise, follows the movement of the object with his eyes, and tries to grab the toy. The skill is based on primary circular reactions - repetitive actions. The child repeats the same action over and over again (say, pulling the cord) for the sake of the process itself. Such actions are reinforced by the child's own activity, which gives him pleasure.
Secondary circular reactions appear in the third stage, when the child is no longer focused on his own activity, but on the changes caused by his actions. The action is repeated in order to prolong interesting impressions. The child shakes the rattle for a long time in order to prolong the sound that interests him, runs all the objects that are in his hands along the bars of the crib, etc.
The fourth stage is the beginning of practical intelligence. Action schemes formed at the previous stage are combined into a single whole and used to achieve the goal. When a random change in an action produces an unexpected effect - a new impression - the child repeats it and reinforces the new scheme of action.
At the fifth stage, tertiary circular reactions appear: the child already deliberately changes actions in order to see what results this will lead to. He is actively experimenting.
At the sixth stage, the internalization of action schemes begins. If earlier the child performed various external actions in order to achieve the goal, tried and failed, now he can already combine schemes of actions in his mind and suddenly come to the right decision.
About 2 years an internal action plan is formed. This ends the sensorimotor period, and the child enters a new period of representative intelligence of specific operations. Representational intelligence is thinking with representations. A strong figurative beginning with insufficient development of verbal thinking leads to a kind of childish logic. At the stage of preoperative representations, the child is not capable of proof, reasoning. The child does not see things in their internal relations, he considers them as they are given by direct perception. (He thinks that the wind is blowing because the trees are swaying.) J. Piaget called this phenomenon realism. The preschooler slowly, gradually moves from realism to objectivity, to taking into account other points of view and understanding the relativity of assessments.
A child who has preoperative ideas is also characterized by insensitivity to contradictions, lack of connection between judgments, a transition from the particular to the particular, bypassing the general, a tendency to connect everything with everything, etc. Such a specificity of children's logic, like realism, is due to the main feature of thinking child - his egocentrism.
1.6. Cultural and historical concept of L. S. Vygotsky
All the scientific activity of L. S. Vygotsky was aimed at ensuring that psychology could move "from a purely descriptive, empirical and phenomenological study of phenomena to the disclosure of their essence." He introduced a new experimental genetic method for the study of mental phenomena, since he believed that "the problem of the method is the beginning and basis, the alpha and omega of the entire history of the child's cultural development." L. S. Vygotsky developed the doctrine of age as a unit of analysis of child development. He proposed a different understanding of the course, conditions, source, form, specifics and driving forces of the mental development of the child; described the epochs, stages and phases of child development, as well as the transitions between them in the course of ontogenesis; he revealed and formulated the basic laws of the mental development of the child. The merit of L. S. Vygotsky is that he was the first to apply the historical principle in the field of child psychology.
According to L. S. Vygotsky, higher mental functions initially arise as a form of the child's collective behavior, as a form of cooperation with other people, and only later do they become individual functions of the child himself. So, for example, at first speech is a means of communication between people, but in the course of development it becomes internal and begins to perform an intellectual function.
L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that the attitude to the environment changes with age, and, consequently, the role of the environment in development also changes. He emphasized that the environment should be considered not absolutely, but relatively, since the influence of the environment is determined by the experiences of the child. L. S. Vygotsky formulated a number of laws of the mental development of the child.
Child development has a complex organization in time: its own rhythm, which does not coincide with the rhythm of time, and its own pace, which changes in different years of life. Thus, a year of life in infancy is not equal to a year of life in adolescence.
The law of metamorphosis in child development: development is a chain of qualitative changes. A child is not just a small adult who knows less or can do less, but a being with a qualitatively different psyche.
The law of uneven child development: each side in the child's psyche has its own optimal period of development. This law is connected with the hypothesis of L. S. Vygotsky about the systemic and semantic structure of consciousness.
The law of development of higher mental functions. Distinctive features of higher mental functions: mediation, awareness, arbitrariness, consistency. They are formed in vivo, formed as a result of mastering special tools, means developed in the course of the historical development of society. The development of external mental functions is associated with learning in the broadest sense of the word, it cannot occur otherwise than in the form of assimilation of given patterns, therefore this development goes through a number of stages. The specificity of child development lies in the fact that it is not subject to the action of biological laws, as in animals, but to the action of socio-historical laws. The biological type of development occurs in the process of adaptation to nature through the inheritance of the properties of the species and through individual experience. A person does not have innate forms of behavior in the environment. Its development occurs through the appropriation of historically developed forms and methods of activity.
One of the proofs of the influence of education on the mental development of a child is the hypothesis of L. S. Vygotsky about the systemic and semantic structure of consciousness and its development in ontogenesis. He believed that human consciousness is not the sum of individual processes, but a system, their structure. No feature develops in isolation. The development of each function depends on what structure it is included in and what place it occupies in it. So, at an early age, perception is in the center of consciousness, at preschool age - memory, at school - thinking. All other mental processes develop at each age under the influence of the dominant function in consciousness. According to L. S. Vygotsky, the process of mental development consists in the restructuring of the systemic structure of consciousness, which is due to a change in its semantic structure, i.e., the level of development of generalizations. Entry into consciousness is possible only through speech, and the transition from one structure of consciousness to another is carried out due to the development of the meaning of the word, in other words, generalization.
1.7. The concept of D. B. Elkonin
D. B. Elkonin made an assumption that was exceptional in its psychological depth and insight. According to his hypothesis, in the process of child development, the motivational side of activity should first be mastered (otherwise objective actions would make no sense!), and then the operational-technical one; in development, one can observe the alternation of these types of activity. In the concept of D. B. Elkonin, one of the serious shortcomings of foreign psychology is overcome, where the problem of splitting two worlds constantly arises: the world of objects and the world of people. D. B. Elkonin showed that this splitting is false, artificial. In fact, human action is two-faced: it contains a proper human meaning and an operational side. Every object contains a social object. In human action, one must always see two sides: on the one hand, it is oriented towards society, on the other, towards the way of performance. This microstructure of human action, according to the hypothesis of D. B. Elkonin, is also reflected in the macrostructure of periods of mental development.
D. B. Elkonin discovered the law of alternation, the periodicity of different types of activity: the activity of one type, orientation in the system of relations is followed by the activity of another type, in which orientation occurs in the ways of using objects. Each time there are contradictions between these two types of orientation. They are the reason for development. Each era of child development is built on the same principle. It opens with an orientation in the sphere of human relations. The action cannot develop further if it is not inserted into the new system of the child's relations with society. Until the intellect has risen to a certain level, there can be no new motives.
Developing the ideas of L. S. Vygotsky, D. B. Elkonin proposed to consider each psychological age on the basis of the following criteria.
Social situation of development
This is the system of relations that the child enters into in society. This is how he orients himself in the system of social relations, in what areas of public life he enters.
The main, or leading, type of activity of the child during this period. At the same time, it is necessary to consider not only the type of activity, but also the structure of activity at the appropriate age and analyze why this particular type of activity is leading.
Major neoplasms of development
It is important to show how new achievements in development outgrow the social situation and lead to its "explosion" - crisis. Crises are turning points on the curve of child development, separating one age from another. The hypothesis of D. B. Elkonin, taking into account the law of periodicity in child development, explains the content of developmental crises in a new way. So, 3 years and 11 years - crises of relations, after them there is an orientation in human relations; 1 year, 7 years - worldview crises that open orientation in the world of things. The hypothesis of D. B. Elkonin creatively develops the teachings of L. S. Vygotsky, it overcomes the intellectualism of his teachings about the systemic and semantic structure of consciousness. It explains the emergence and development of the motivational-need sphere of personality in a child.
1.8. View of V. S. Mukhina on the development of the psyche
The condition for the development of man, in addition to the reality of nature itself, is the reality of culture created by him. Determined by cultural development, historically conditioned realities of human existence V. S. Mukhina classifies as follows.
The reality of the objective world is the objects of nature and man-made objects that man created in the process of his historical development, as well as the system of relations to these objects. These relationships are reflected in language, mythology, philosophy and human behavior.
The reality of figurative-sign systems is a system of signs that influence the internal mental activity, determining it, and at the same time determine the creation of new objects of the real world. Modern sign systems are divided into linguistic and non-linguistic (signs-signs, signs-copies, autonomous signs, signs-symbols, etc.).
The reality of social space is the entire material and spiritual side of human existence along with communication, human activities and a system of rights and obligations.
Natural reality is the condition and source of human life and activity. Man introduced nature itself and its elements into the content of the reality of the figurative-sign system created by him and formed an attitude towards it as a source of life, a condition for development, cognition and poetry.
The process of mental development of the person himself, according to numerous studies of ethnologists, psychologists, occurs according to historical laws, and not according to biological ones. Thus, it has been proven that the process of brain formation in an animal basically ends by the time of birth, while in humans it continues after birth and depends on the conditions in which the child develops. Consequently, these conditions not only fill the "blank pages" of the brain, but also affect its very structure. If in the animal world the achieved level of development of behavior is transmitted from one generation to another, like the structure of the body, through biological inheritance, then in humans, the types of activity characteristic of him, and with them the corresponding knowledge, skills and mental qualities are transmitted in another way - through social inheritance. The natural properties of the child, without giving rise to mental qualities, create the prerequisites for their formation. The qualities themselves arise due to social inheritance. So, from nature, the child receives the structure of the auditory apparatus and the corresponding parts of the nervous system, suitable for distinguishing speech sounds. But speech hearing itself develops only in the process of mastering a particular language under the guidance of adults. Consequently, in the process of assimilation of social experience, individual reflex mechanisms are combined into complex forms - the functional organs of the brain.
During childhood, an intensive maturation of the child’s body takes place, in particular, the maturation of his nervous system and brain, which is very important for mental development: due to this, the possibilities of mastering various actions increase, the child’s working capacity increases, conditions are created that allow for more systematic and purposeful training and education. .
The course of maturation depends on whether the child receives a sufficient number of external impressions, whether adult education provides the conditions necessary for the active work of the brain.
Each age is characterized by a selective increased susceptibility to different types of learning. There are age periods of special sensitivity, when certain educational influences have the greatest influence on the course of mental development.
V. S. Mukhina offers a fundamentally new approach to understanding the mechanisms of development and being of a person through identification and isolation.
Identification- a mechanism for the appropriation by one individual of a comprehensive human essence.
Isolation- a mechanism for upholding by the individual of his natural and human essence.
Mukhina considers identification and isolation as dialectically connected mechanisms, in their deep essence being in unity and opposition.
Many psychological trends fill the concept of isolation with an exclusively negative content, insisting that alienation arises as a result of social development as something that fetters the freedom of the individual, his needs and dignity. However, society has always needed an independent and active personality, and personality - in harmonious interaction with society. This circumstance led to the formation of a certain mechanism in the genesis of human development.
Identification and isolation are two equally significant and at the same time dialectically contradictory elements of a pair of a single mechanism that develops a personality and makes it psychologically free. Derivatives from the main pair (conformity - independence, empathy - envy, etc.) get their development in specific social situations: from situationally arising behavior in certain conditions, personality traits are formed. In the structure of personality, the prevailing member of the couple determines personal characteristics. In extreme terms, each member of the couple is asocial.
The periods that represent age-related achievements in mental development within the most typical limits are defined by V. S. Mukhina as follows.
Infancy (from 0 to 12-14 months) is a period when a child develops physically, mentally and socially extremely quickly, going through a colossal path in a short time from a helpless newborn with a small set of innate reactions to an active baby who is able to watch, listen, act , solve some visually perceived situations, cry for help, attract attention, rejoice at the appearance of loved ones. In an infant, one can already observe such reflexes as protective, orienting, orienting-food, as well as sucking, clinging and repulsion reflexes. Under the influence of external impressions, the child undergoes intensive development of the brain and sensory organs. Communication with an adult during this period develops into a joint activity, and the actions that the child masters under the guidance of an adult create the basis for mental development. By the end of the first year, the child has a connection between the name of the object and the object itself - the initial form of speech understanding. By the end of infancy, on the basis of movements and actions organized by adults, the child develops initial ideas about the world around him and elementary forms of perception and thinking arise.
Early age (from 1 to 3 years). The main achievements of early childhood, which determine the development of the child's psyche, are: mastery of the body, mastery of speech, development of objective activity. These achievements are manifested: in bodily activity, coordination of movements and actions, upright posture; in the development of correlative and instrumental actions; in the rapid development of speech; in developing the capacity for substitution, symbolic action and the use of signs; in the development of visual-effective, visual-figurative and sign thinking; in the development of imagination and memory; in feeling oneself a source of imagination and will; in the allocation of one's "I" and the emergence of the so-called sense of personality.
Preschool age (from 3 to 6-7 years old) is the period of ownership of the social space of human relations through communication with close adults, as well as through gaming and real relationships with peers. Communicating with adults and peers, the child learns subtle reflection on another person, intensively develops the ability to identify with people, fairy-tale characters, toys, images, etc. At the same time, the child discovers the positive and negative sides of isolation. A preschool kid learns the accepted positive forms of communication that are appropriate in relationships with other people, advances in the development of verbal and emotional communication. The child begins to acquire an interest in sexual differences, which contributes to the development of gender identity. Throughout the entire period from three to seven years, this tendency of early ontogenesis of a person is visible: an unstoppable, rapid development of mental properties, interrupted by pronounced stops - periods of stereotypical reproduction of what has been achieved. At this age, the self-awareness of the child develops so much that it gives the right to talk about the child's personality.
Junior school age (from 6-7 years to 10-11 years). By the beginning of primary school age, the child is, to a certain extent, a person. He discovers a new place for himself in the social space of human relations. His reflexive abilities are already sufficiently developed; a significant achievement in the development of the child's personality is the predominance of the motive "I must" over the motive "I want". This age promises the child new achievements in a new field of human activity - teaching. A child in elementary school learns special psychophysical and mental actions that should serve writing, arithmetic, reading, physical education, drawing, manual labor and other types of educational activities, on the basis of which, under favorable learning conditions and a sufficient level of mental development of the child, the prerequisites for theoretical consciousness and thinking. Educational activity requires the child to have special reflection associated with mental operations: analysis of educational tasks, control and organization of performing actions, as well as control over attention, mnemonic actions, mental planning and problem solving. The new social situation tightens the child's living conditions and acts as a stressful one for him. Every child who enters school has increased mental tension. At school, the standardization of the child's living conditions takes place, as a result, many deviations from the intended development path are revealed: hyperexcitability, hyperdynamia pronounced retardation. General sensitivity to the influence of the surrounding conditions of life, characteristic of childhood, contributes to the development of adaptive forms of behavior, reflection and mental functions. In most cases, the child adapts himself to standard conditions. Education becomes the leading activity.
Adolescence (from 11-12 to 15-16 years old) is the period when a teenager begins to re-evaluate his relationship with his family. The desire to find oneself as a person gives rise to the need for alienation from all those who habitually, from year to year, influenced him, and this primarily applies to the parental family. This is the period when a teenager begins to appreciate his relationships with peers. The desire to identify oneself with one's own kind gives rise to the need for a friend, so valued in the universal culture. It is through friendship that a teenager learns the features of high interaction between people: cooperation, mutual assistance, mutual assistance, risk for the sake of another, etc. Friendship in adolescence, due to the desire of adolescents for mutual identification, increases conformity in relationships. If the youths in the family are negativists, then among their peers they are often conformists. Reflections on oneself and others reveal in adolescence the depths of one's imperfection - and the teenager goes into a state of psychological crisis. Subjectively, this is a difficult experience. But the crisis of adolescence enriches the adolescent with knowledge and feelings of depths that he did not even suspect in childhood.
1.9. findings
According to the concepts presented above, one can trace how views on the development of the psyche have changed over the course of a whole century: from primitive and naive theories to modern mature ideas and views. Of course, each approach, each concept has positive and negative sides, but all of them are of great value not only for developmental psychology, but also for all psychology in general and each of its branches in particular.
Thus, the work of V. Preyer, where he considered the psychological development of the child as a particular version of the biological, despite its limitations and naivety, is the first work where the psyche was considered objectively, and not introspectively. It was his work “The Soul of a Child”, as well as similar works by N. Menchinskaya and V. Stern, that laid the foundation for child psychology.
A little later, there are attempts to understand the patterns of development of the psyche, based on biogenetic laws, and in parallel with them, opposite, sociogenetic theories are created. The followers of the biogenetic theory underestimated the social factors of development. Sociogenetic theory is generally too abstract, since, by emphasizing social processes, it leaves the general and biological conditions of development in the shade. However, despite all the shortcomings, the biogenetic principle is interesting in that these were the first attempts to scientifically comprehend the facts of development, to put them in a known biological sequence, to affirm the fact that development is subject to known laws. If it weren't for this - albeit incorrect, but still theoretical concept - then for a long time there would be no other theoretical concepts.
Z. Freud, with his theory of personality, which is based on the conflict between the instinctive sphere of human mental life and the requirements of society, turned the whole understanding of the human psyche of that time on its head. According to Freud, every person is born with innate sexual desires. Until now, despite numerous criticisms, the influence of Z. Freud's ideas on modern psychology is enormous. His theory was the first to show that for the development of a person the main thing is the other person, and not the objects that surround him, and also his concept was the first dynamic concept of development. Z. Freud opened up a vast and yet unexplored territory for the study of the psyche, mental processes and human behavior.
E. Erikson, a student of Z. Freud, expanded the Freudian concept, went beyond it. The difference and advantages of his theory over Freud's theory is that Erickson considered not only childhood, but throughout life, and also that Erickson linked human development with somatic development, the development of the conscious "I" and social development, which distinguishes his views from the pansexual views of Z. Freud. The works of E. Erickson mark the beginning of a new way of studying the psyche - the psychohistorical method, which is the application of psychoanalysis to history.
The teaching of J. Piaget, in the opinion of many psychologists, is the highest achievement of the psychology of the twentieth century. There is a huge gap between what was in child psychology before Piaget's work and the level of development of theory that exists now thanks to his work. He created new methods, discovered the laws of the spiritual life of the child, unknown before him.
A huge, indisputable contribution to the development of modern developmental psychology was made by the Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky, who described the principle of the cultural and historical development of the child, according to which the interpsychic becomes intrapsychic. According to Vygotsky, the main source of the development of the psyche is the environment in which the psyche is formed, while in previous concepts the environment was considered only as a condition, one of the factors of development. L. S. Vygotsky managed to move from a purely descriptive study of phenomena to the disclosure of their essence, this is his colossal merit to science. The cultural-historical concept is also remarkable in that it overcomes the biologism that reigned in developmental psychology, in the main theories and concepts, such as the theory of recapitulation, the theory of convergence of two factors, psychodynamic theory development of the personality of Z. Freud, the concept of intellectual development of J. Piaget, etc.
D. B. Elkonin, a student and follower of L. S. Vygotsky, developed Vygotsky’s legacy in his writings, overcame the intellectualism of his scientific concepts, and also suggested that in the process of child development, the motivational side of activity should first be mastered, and then the operational and technical ; in development, one can observe the alternation of these types of activity.
V. S. Mukhina proposed a fundamentally new theory of personality development through the mechanisms of identification and isolation. Also, a feature of the concept of V. S. Mukhina is its universality for any segments of the population, geographical and ethnological features, social groups.
2. ONTOLOGICAL ASPECT OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY
2.1. abstract
Human development combines biological and social factors. By creating the noosphere, humanity changes the natural components of the environment, which leads to negative consequences not only for nature in general, but also specifically for humanity itself as a biological species. Sociobiology offers one approach to solving these problems.
Man is inferior to animals in many individual functions, but his plus is maximum adaptability to biological and social conditions.
After the birth of an animal, the biological program unfolds almost without individual differences, and as a result it is ready for adult life, that is, there is a so-called natural path of its development. At the same time, a newborn child goes through a natural path of development - the path of maturation of hereditarily given structures - during infancy. In the future, throughout life, individualized development of the psyche is carried out.
Each age has its own leading types of activity, which are the determining factors of mental development. In the early periods, this is emotional communication with adults; at the age of 1-7 years - this is a game; at school age - this is teaching; Next is work.
2.2. Correlation between biological and social in human development
For all its social nature, humanity does not cease to be a species of Homo sapiens.
By creating the noosphere, humanity changes the natural components of the environment, which leads, among other things, to negative consequences not only for nature in general, but also specifically for humanity itself as a biological species.
2. Demographic problem of population.
3. Genetic problems, an increase in hereditary pathologies, including mental ones.
One approach to solving these problems is offered by sociobiology, which considers humanity as one of the species inhabiting the Earth.
Let's compare the dynamics of human development and the resources that support it on the planet as a whole.
1. The number of people doubles in 35 years.
2. Production of food resources doubles in 30 years.
3. Energy consumption doubles in 14 years.
Let us pay attention to the fact that the production of food and energy today is mainly associated with the cost of irreplaceable resources of the planet (oil, coal, soil, etc.).
Statistical calculations show that while maintaining the current level of consumption per capita due to the energy of the Sun, only 500 million people can exist on Earth indefinitely. At the same time, the population of the Earth is about 5 billion people and tends to further increase.
It is known from biology that the number of any species increases until it exhausts the resources for its existence; after that, its number is reduced due to the direct action of external factors. What are these factors?
If the average amount of food decreases, then the energy spent on finding it is no longer covered by the found food. This leads to a decrease in the vital activity of the weakest specimens (apathy), and then to their death. The total number of specimens in the population decreases, and the average per capita amount of food is restored.
The problem of hunger on Earth is very acute. According to statistics, today 500 million people have food in abundance, 2 billion people lack food or starve, 20 million people die of hunger a year.
Species competitors
As the population grows, the load on its habitat increases, which improves the living conditions of species competitors. An example is the forest after the invasion of the silkworm.
In humans, the main species competitors are agricultural pests and weeds. Mankind is waging a fierce struggle against them (the growth in the production of pesticides is 10% per year, while the growth in energy production is only 7% per year), but these measures are fundamentally ineffective. At the same time, rich countries can afford to simply “give away” part of the harvest to species competitors. In this case, their numbers stabilize, and it becomes possible to produce environmentally friendly, chemical-free food.
But in nature, there are other mechanisms that reduce in advance the growth of the animal population when it approaches a possible limit - the mechanisms of signal regulation. Let's list these mechanisms.
Aggressiveness
In this case, when two individuals communicate, one of them seeks to suppress the other. A group of the repressed is singled out in the population, who experience constant stress, which reduces their fertility and life expectancy. Under the influence of this stress, the repressed are less concerned about their own hygiene, which leads to the development of diseases. There is robbery by aggressive individuals and theft by suppressed individuals, which also reduces the quality of life of the population as a whole. Dominant individuals do not allow others to eat, although there could be enough food for everyone, i.e. starving individuals appear.
Aggressiveness in people can manifest itself at various levels of community - in a separate group (in a family with problems), between groups (clashes between gangs, clans, etc.).
Associations
Stress narrows aggression in repressed individuals to such an extent that, instead of biologically conditioned individualism (defending their life area, protecting offspring, etc.), they develop a desire for aggregation and lose the instinct of self-preservation. Young individuals form flocks in which individuals almost do not breed, their main occupation is hypertrophied communication. Such groups either roam, dying in foreign territory (for example, migrations of locusts or lemmings), or stay in place, separated from the main population.
In humans, such mechanisms take place in large cities. The city “sucks” young people with low individual potential from the countryside and reduces fertility to the level of 0.7 daughters per mother. This figure is typical for large cities in any era (for example, Rome during the Empire, modern megacities in Latin America, etc.). Statistical studies show that without a constant influx of population from outside, megacities would be reduced by 2 times in 2 generations.
Today, rampant urban growth takes place mainly in the developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America, and the young people who come, as a rule, do not “find themselves”, but simply drag out a useless existence.
Decreased fertility
Offspring ceases to be the main value. Birds lay their eggs not in the nest, but anywhere, care for offspring is reduced, it is born and grows up weak. Biology has shown that a single ("emancipated") female, on average, raises 2.5 times fewer children than a pair of animals.
There are many examples of such behavior in humans.
Example: in Rome I-III centuries. fruitless appeals were made to Roman women to give birth to children, and not to replace them with dogs, lion cubs or monkeys.
As world historical experience shows, methods of birth control by political or social measures turn out to be ineffective.
Example: the number of French people has been stable for the last 100 years, despite all the government measures aimed at increasing the birth rate. India's population growth rate, on the contrary, remains extremely high, despite all the efforts of the government.
Thus, humanity, despite all its intellectual potential, in many respects remains an ordinary biological species, for which general biological regulatory mechanisms are valid. They have a different expression - from the most cruel (for example, the stratification of society) to quite harmless (setting on a one-child family).
The uniqueness of humanity as a species lies in the fact that it is a species with the slowest generational turnover, but the fastest possible change in the environment. Therefore, relying only on sociobiological mechanisms for solving universal problems is, of course, unacceptable.
Man is inferior to animals in many separate functions; but its plus is the maximum adaptability to biological and social conditions.
We single out the main characteristics of a person as a biological being (unlike other animals):
a) non-specialization at birth;
b) universality of adaptability.
Example : a person lives throughout the Earth at a temperature of +40° to -40°. In this respect, few animals are comparable to him - a rat, a cockroach.
1. High degree of activity.
2. At the neurodynamic level (including the second signaling system), he has abstract thinking and asymmetry of the hemispheres, which creates unlimited opportunities for progress not only in the cognitive sphere, but also in life in general.
3. Individual characteristics prevail over individual ones.
4. In the process of human development, unlike animals, social factors predominate, i.e., socialization occurs. The specificity of the relationship between the biological and the social in ontogenesis lies in the fact that the natural capabilities of a person can be realized only in social conditions (communication, study, work, sports, etc.). This is how the socialization of the secondary properties of the individual takes place.
So, a baby animal was born. What happens after birth? The biological program is unfolding almost without individual differences, and as a result he is ready for adulthood. True, the higher the animal on the evolutionary ladder, the longer this path; maybe he needs some training, but still there is a so-called natural way of his development (that is, it is almost known exactly what will come of this cub).
This process looks completely different in a newborn child. He also goes through the natural path of development, but in a relatively short period of time, mainly during infancy, when the mechanisms of all forms of the psyche in their elementary form are formed through the maturation of hereditarily given structures. On this basis, in the future, throughout life, the social development of the psyche is carried out, which is extremely diverse in nature. As a result, both the transformations of mental forms of natural development and the effects of social influence (psychic neoplasms of varying degrees of complexity) take place at the same time.
All this is easy to understand if you imagine the psyche of an adult Mowgli and an adult city dweller.
2.3. Genetic development of mental functions
A person is born with only 2 forms of the psyche ready for action - sensory and motility, and specialized to varying degrees.
Maximum specialized sensorics-. a person is born with a completely ready sensory system. Example: in infants, the structure of sensory is the same as in adults, then only a quantitative increase in its indicators occurs. As the child grows up to a certain age, all sensitivities increase - visual acuity, taste, etc.
Motor development consists in the construction of new movement systems based on the interaction of phylogenetically specified specialized motor acts and undifferentiated movements. Examples: the formation of a drink from a cup based on the sucking reflex, the act of grasping based on the palmar reflex, etc.
The development of perception (perception of a holistic image) also occurs on the basis of a combination of general and specific mechanisms in the interaction of sensory and motor skills. A newborn has a genetically predetermined reaction to color (red - black, etc.), shape (distinguishes a circle from a square, etc.), movement. It has now been shown that the same genetic mechanisms take place in animals (in particular, they react selectively to straight lines, to borders, etc.). The child also has a genetically predetermined general mechanism for comparing environmental objects: a newborn prefers moving figures to stationary ones; centered complexes - diffuse; complex complexes - simple; volumetric - planar, etc.
On this basis, perception develops along with motor activity, and not along the path of direct growth, but along the path of system genesis, when one system uses the achievements of another, and a dynamic synthesis of components of different systems occurs.
Naturally, the formation of both perception and complex forms of motor skills is based not only on primary sensory-motor mechanisms, but also on the genetically early ability to imprint traces of various kinds of influences (a kind of memory). The vital importance of the richness of the presented stimuli and situations for the correct development of perception should now be understood. With their shortage, a hospital effect, characteristic of children's homes, occurs, the consequences of which are irreparable.
On the basis of perception, the final product of the development of sensorimotor schemes is formed - visual-effective thinking (by the end of the first year of life). It manifests itself in the fact that a one-year-old child solves various problems using detours and means to achieve the goal (for example, bypassing an obstacle placed between him and a toy). This happens on the basis of a genetically specified mechanism of comparison (comparison).
Example: a moving object hides behind the screen and appears after 1 second - the baby has a slight change in heart rate. The same experience, but the object has changed in shape - the speed of the heartbeat changes much more.
There is also a genetically predetermined path for the development of speech (which animals do not have). The infant already has a primary vocal reaction, that is, there is a certain structure of the infant's cry, similar to the intonations of the adult's narrative speech. In other words, a genetically predetermined relationship between vision, hearing, and speech-motor analyzer is shown.
Let's summarize all the above in Table 1. readiness for the functioning of the mechanisms of the mental organization of the individual at the time of birth.
Table 1.
During infancy (from 1 month to 1 year), psychological readiness for socialization is formed on the basis of the development of the structure of inclinations. Speech communication and almost all natural forms of the psyche are formed (except for representations). Emotional selectivity of behavior takes place, as well as diverse (gestures, voice, motor and general emotional reactions) effects of a child on an adult.
The emotional communication of a child with an adult is the leading activity of the infant. This activity is difficult for the child, so you can not constantly squeeze the baby, carry him in your arms and demand his attention, as is often done.
The play of children fulfills the needs for education, etc. It corresponds to system genesis (in contrast to the games of animals, where instincts are trained).
The types of children's games change in ascending order of age.
The main motive in the game is to get pleasure (other positive emotions). It is process oriented, not result oriented. Therefore, in the 1st grade, one of the components of inclusion in studies is the reorientation of the child to the result. At school, the game motive persists, but it negatively correlates with academic success and may even block a positive attitude towards work. Thus, at preschool age, it is necessary to simultaneously form a motive for study / work.
Let us formulate the main elements of a child's readiness for school, adopted in Russia.
1. Development of arbitrary behavior.
2. Formation of a focus on results.
3. Formation of useful skills.
Note that in the American school during grades 1-3 only games are used, i.e. children behave spontaneously (I want to sit down, I want to lie down), and volitional regulation of behavior is not expected from them. This, of course, is comfortable, but forms infantilism.
Adult games, while remaining a game in form, are focused on socially significant goals, that is, not on the process, but on the result. Therefore, in learning activities, the game enriches the learning process, especially in a probabilistic situation. Example: business games (a person can use those ways of behavior that are most adequate to his psyche).
Teaching is a directed influence that forms various aspects of the personality. The doctrine creates the socialization of the individual (forms value orientations, structures of social ties, self-esteem, etc.) and the socialization of the cognitive process (voluntary attention, verbalizations, etc.).
Thus, at school age, not only the accumulation of knowledge should occur, but also personal self-determination (orientation, motivation, etc.) should be formed.
Labor activity supports all vital functions of a person.
After 50 years, the aging process of sensory functions slows down more and more, that is, what a person has retained by the age of 70 will practically not worsen before death.
We will separately consider the most important social functions - visual and mnemonic.
Visual function: for visual acuity A = 4.3 years, for visual field A = 6.2 years; In statistically not detected; C = 79 years.
The memory function is oscillatory; in the period from 7 to 40 years, there is an irregular alternation of moments of increase and decrease in the productivity of all types of memory; the amplitude of these fluctuations is maximum in the period of 12-27 years, then decreases. At the same time, the higher the productivity of this type of memory, the greater its fluctuations in the course of age dynamics.
Law of heterochrony- the difference in timing of the passage of the main stages and the internal inconsistency of the somatic, sexual and neuropsychic development of a person.
Heterochrony of development exists both in early (childhood) and late (aging) ontogeny. The general pattern is as follows: those functions that are of greatest importance at the moment are developing; this saves the total supply of energy released to a person for life.
Intrasystemic (intrafunctional) and intersystemic (interfunctional) heterochrony is distinguished.
An example of intrafunctional heterochrony is an age-related decrease in sensitivity to color perception. The perception of the middle section of the spectrum (yellow-green), as well as trainable functions (red - for steelworkers, does not fall at all for pilots) last the longest.
Intersystem heterochrony manifests itself in the fact that different systems are formed at different times; at the same time, older formations in the phylogenetic sense are formed first.
An example of intersystem heterochrony
1. In a child, the evolutionarily older areas of the brain (ancient brain, midbrain) are fully formed by the time of birth; at the same time, the frontal and parietal parts of the brain complete their formation only by the age of 2 years.
2. Achievement of various types of maturity: physiological - 16 years (puberty); personal - 18-22 years (graduation); maturity as a subject of activity - 34-40 years.
Regarding the development of all mental functions in childhood and adolescence, we will speak separately and in detail. Now consider the periods of early adulthood and adulthood/aging.
In early adulthood (18-21 years) there is a multidirectional development of mental functions: the field of view, the eye, spatial representations, attention, identification and recognition characteristics increase; decreased visual acuity, short-term memory; stable observation.
In the period of aging, heterochrony performs a compensatory function, contributing to the preservation of some functions at the expense of others, and the most important and trainable functions are preserved: verbal-logical memory (compared to figurative memory); all functions of the hand; speech-auditory and visual orientations. In particular, all visuo-spatial functions of transport drivers, as the main components of their ability to work, almost do not change until old age.
The ontogenetic development of intelligence in the adult period is controversial: non-verbal characteristics (practical intelligence) gradually decrease after 30-35 years; progress after 30-35 years and reach a maximum after 40-45 years. In general, verbal-logical functions, being formed in early childhood, are characterized by the greatest safety and are a significant factor that resists human aging.
These data, which have an obvious economic explanation, are quite fair from the point of view of sociobiology. The development of the human population has led to a lengthening of the period of growing up; therefore, an increase in life expectancy is required (for the reproduction of the next generation and the creation of at least a minimum of conditions for its existence).
From the point of view of physiology, these data also find an explanation. The development of the organism begins with the first division of a fertilized egg. On the 5th day, by the time the egg is implanted into the wall of the uterus, a small organism already consists of 128 cells, by the time of birth there are 800 billion of them, and in the prime of life, between 20 and 30 years, about 50 trillion. Many scientists support the opinion that the number of successive divisions in the offspring of one cell in humans throughout life is limited to fifty. Given the rhythm of fission processes, it must be assumed that a person's life expectancy (with rare exceptions) cannot exceed 110 years. Apparently, unless some sensational discoveries are made, this "ceiling" is unlikely to be surpassed.
We emphasize that if life expectancy has increased by 15–20 years over the past half century, this does not mean that the life of an adult has become 15–20 years longer. In the West, a person who has reached the age of 60 today can hope to live another 17 years, which is only 1 year more than it was 50 years ago. The increase in life expectancy is mainly associated with a significant drop in child mortality due to mass vaccinations.
Example: a person occupies a certain average position in life expectancy among all representatives of wildlife: a bacterium lives for several minutes, a cypress - up to 10,000 years, a baobab - up to 5,000 years.
individual life expectancy
Individual life expectancy ( IPJ) depends on a number of factors.
1. Socio-economic factors (economic development of the state, improvement of hygienic conditions, reduction of child mortality, advances in medicine). So, in underdeveloped countries, life expectancy is 32-45 years; and in developed countries - 68-73 years.
2. Environmental factors (temperature, air environment, etc.). It has been shown that a decrease in body temperature, i.e., life in the cold, slows down the intensity and rate of metabolic processes and thereby slows down aging. So, in Drosophila at a temperature of 10? ILI is 177.5 days, and at a temperature of 30? - 15.2 days. Similar data were obtained for mice and rats.
3. A decrease in the oxygen content in the air leads to the under-oxidation of many substances in the body (the problem of free radicals) and premature aging. Recall that most centenarians live in rural areas.
4. Genetic factors. There is a correlation between the life expectancy of children and parents. So, 86% of people over 90-100 years old have long-lived parents; twins have approximately the same life expectancy; cardiovascular diseases are easier if the parents are centenarians.
5. Sexual dimorphism. In women, the reliability of self-regulation systems is higher, therefore, the life expectancy of women is higher than that of men.
6. Heterosis (mixing of different racial groups). Children from mixed marriages live longer on average.
7. Lifestyle (diet, motor mode, human activity as a person and as a subject of activity). A high correlation (0.8-0.9) was obtained between the total calorie content of food, the intensity of protein metabolism and species life spans.
Example: the higher the protein intake by 1 unit. body weight, the lower the life expectancy. Obesity by 25-34% of the norm leads to an increase in mortality by 41%, while life expectancy falls by 6-8 years. Chronic overexertion of the central nervous system reduces life expectancy. Undervoltage also works badly (this has been shown in rats). Selye's theory of the role of stress is very well confirmed here, i.e., an optimal level of stress is required, including emotional .
8. Creative activity. The life expectancy of outstanding scientists and artists is 3-3.5 years higher than the average. Persons of creative professions are less susceptible to the most common disease of old age - atherosclerosis of cerebral vessels. Among them, cases of senile dementia (dementia) are extremely rare, that is, there is no decline in creative activity until the very old age. Thus, the late completion of activity is one of the main factors of longevity, because only in activity all the main human resources are not only realized, but also reproduced.
3.2. Species changes in the temporal structure of life expectancy
Basically, these are phenomena such as acceleration and retardation.
Acceleration - acceleration of development (mainly physical) in early ontogenesis, starting from the neonatal period.
Example: doubling the weight of newborns 100 years ago was achieved by 6 months, and today by 4.5 months; the onset of puberty is at 17 and 13 years, respectively. The same applies to mental functions. Thus, it is shown that children, regardless of the forms and methods of education in the 1960s. read faster than in the 1920s. There are also negative manifestations of acceleration. For example, young people in the 1990s 20th century an increase in intelligence and a decrease in fantasy were revealed.
Retardation - slowing down the aging process. As a result, the period of acme (the most productive life) is extended.
1. Newborn (0-1 month).
Age-related psychology. Shapovalenko I.V.
(Psychology of development and developmental psychology.)
M.: Gardariki, 2005 - 349 p.
The textbook "Age Psychology" is a detailed course in the discipline "Psychology of Development and Developmental Psychology" developed in accordance with the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education.
The book implements a periodization approach to the analysis of age development, the methodological principles of which were laid down by L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin.
The proposed textbook can be used in the training of specialists in a number of specialties - "Psychology", "Sociology", "Social Pedagogy", "Social Work" and others.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword
Section one. SUBJECT, OBJECTIVES AND METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY OF BREAKING AND AGE PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter I. The subject of developmental psychology. Theoretical and practical tasks of developmental psychology
§ 1. Characteristics of developmental psychology, developmental psychology as a science
§ 2. The problem of determining mental development
§ 3. Basic concepts of developmental psychology
Chapter II. Organization and methods of research in developmental and developmental psychology
§ 1. Observation and experiment as the main methods of research in developmental psychology
§ 2. Method of observation
§ 3. Experiment as a method of empirical research
§ 5. Auxiliary research methods
§ 6. Scheme of organization of empirical research
Section two. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter III. The emergence of developmental psychology as an independent field of psychological science
§ 1. Formation of developmental (children's) psychology as an independent field of psychological science
§ 2. The beginning of a systematic study of child development
§ 3. From the history of the formation and development of Russian developmental psychology in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Chapter IV. Theories of Child Development in the First Third of the 20th Century: Statement of the Problem of Mental Development Factors
§ 1. Statement of questions, definition of the range of tasks, clarification of the subject of child psychology
§ 2. The mental development of the child and the biological factor of the maturation of the body
§ 3. Mental development of the child: biological and social factors
§ 4. The mental development of the child: the influence of the environment
Section three. BASIC CONCEPTS OF HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS IN FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter V. Mental development as personality development: a psychoanalytic approach
§ 1. Mental development from the standpoint of classical psychoanalysis 3. Freud
§ 2. Psychoanalysis of childhood
§ 3. Modern psychoanalysts on the development and upbringing of children
Chapter VI. Mental development as personality development: E. Erickson's theory of psychosocial personality development
§ 1. Ego - the psychology of E. Erickson
§ 2. Research methods in the works of E. Erickson
§ 3. Basic concepts of Erikson's theory
§ 4. Psychosocial stages of personality development
Chapter VII. The mental development of a child as a problem of learning the right behavior: behaviorism about the laws of child development
§ 1. Classical behaviorism as a science of behavior
§ 2. Behavioral theory of J. Watson
§ 3. Operant learning
§ 4. Radical behaviorism of B. Skinner
Chapter VIII. The mental development of the child as a problem of socialization: social learning theories
§ 1. Socialization as a central problem of the concepts of social learning
§ 2. The evolution of social learning theory
§ 3. The phenomenon of learning through observation, through imitation
§ 4. The dyadic principle of studying child development
§ 5. Changing ideas about the psychological nature of the child
Chapter IX. Mental development as the development of the intellect: the concept of J. Piaget
§ 1. The main directions of research on the intellectual development of the child J. Piaget
§ 2. Early stage of scientific creativity
§ 3. Operational concept of intelligence by J. Piaget
§ 4. Criticism of the main provisions of the theory of J. Piaget
Section four. MAIN REGULARITIES OF HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS IN RUSSIAN PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter X. Cultural-historical approach to understanding mental development: L.S. Vygotsky and his school
§ 1. Origin and development of higher mental functions
§ 2. The problem of the specifics of human mental development
§ 3. The problem of an adequate method for studying the mental development of a person
§ 4. The problem of "training and development"
§ 5. Two paradigms in the study of mental development
Chapter XI. Stages of human mental development: the problem of periodization of development in ontogenesis
§ 1. The problem of the historical origin of age periods. Childhood as a cultural and historical phenomenon
§ 2. The category of "psychological age" and the problem of periodization of child development in the works of L.S. Vygotsky
§ 3. Ideas about age dynamics and periodization of development by D.B. Elkonin
§ 4. Modern trends in solving the problem of periodization of mental development
Section five. ONTOGENETIC HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT: AGE STAGES
Chapter XII. Infancy
§ 1. Newborn (0-2 months) as a crisis period
§ 2. Infancy as a period of stable development
§ 3. Development of communication and speech
§ 4. Development of perception and intelligence
§ 5. Development of motor functions and actions with objects of life
§ 7. Psychological neoplasms of the infantile period. One year crisis
Chapter XIII. Early childhood
§ 1. The social situation of the development of a child at an early age and communication with an adult
§ 2. Development of objective activity
§ 3. The emergence of new activities
§ 4. Cognitive development of the child
§ 5. Development of speech
§ 6. New directions in the management of mental development in early childhood
§ 7. Personal development in early childhood. Crisis of three years
Chapter XI V. Preschool Childhood
§ 1. The social situation of development in preschool age
§ 2. Game as a leading activity of preschool age
§ 3. Other activities (productive, labor, educational)
§ 4. Cognitive development
§ 5. Communication with adults and peers
§ 6. Basic psychological neoplasms. personal development
§ 7. Characteristics of the crisis of preschool childhood
Chapter XV. Junior school age
§ 1. The social situation of development and psychological readiness for schooling
§ 2. Adaptation to school
§ 3. Leading activity of a younger student
§ 4. Basic psychological neoplasms of a younger student
§ 5. Crisis of adolescence (pre-adolescent)
Chapter XVI. Adolescence (adolescence)
§ 1. The social situation of development
§ 2. Leading activity in adolescence
§ 3. Specific features of the psyche and behavior of adolescents
§ 4. Features of communication with adults
§ 5. Psychological neoplasms of adolescence
§ 6. Personal development and the crisis of transition to adolescence
Chapter XVII. Youth
§ 1. Youth as a psychological age
§ 2. The social situation of development
§ 3. Leading activity in adolescence
§ 4. Intellectual development in youth
§ 5. Personal development
§ 6. Communication in youth
Chapter XVIII. Adulthood: youth and maturity
§ 1. Adulthood as a psychological period
§ 2. The problem of periodization of adulthood
§ 3. The social situation of development and leading activities in the period of maturity
§ 4. Development of personality in the period of adulthood. Normative crises of adulthood
§ 5. Psychophysiological and cognitive development during adulthood
Chapter XIX. Adulthood: aging and old age
§ 1. Old age as a biosociopsychological phenomenon
§ 2. The relevance of the study of gerontopsychological problems
§ 3. Theories of aging and old age
§ 4. The problem of age limits of old age
§ 5. Age-related psychological tasks and personality crises in old age
§ 6. The social situation of development and leading activities in old age
§ 7. Personal characteristics in old age
§ 8. Cognitive sphere during aging
Appendix
The great Russian language lives and develops
Change is a small life Why school changes are needed
“Not strong are the best, but honest