The main stages of the development of geography. Practical work “Working with a source”
ESSAY 3
"STAGES" AND "FLOORS" OF KNOWLEDGE OF THE EARTH WORLD
Despite the large number of works on the history of geographical knowledge, the question of the periodization of the development of geography cannot be considered finally resolved. Meanwhile, it is extremely important, since the history of geography is closely connected with the history of human development. It is not without reason that many outstanding geographers have emphasized the enormous importance of studying the history of geographical knowledge.
The development of geographical science has always gone in parallel with the development of human society, conditioned by the development of productive forces and production relations. Even in the last century, the famous French historian of geography L. Vivien de Saint Martin wrote that at all times and among all peoples, geography followed on the heels of civilization and to some extent served as a measure of its progress... Research globe- not only one of the branches of science, but also a reflection of human history. The words of the outstanding Soviet geographer, Academician L. S. Berg, who repeatedly emphasized that history geographical discoveries and in general, the history of geosciences occupies a very special, exceptional place in the system of geographical sciences. He noted that if it is useful for a specialist in any science to know its history, then for a geographer knowledge of the past of his science is necessary, since the history of geographical science is closely connected with life itself.
As is known, over the course of many centuries of its development, geography has changed: the volume of facts with which it had to operate, its content, the theoretical views of scientists, ideas, and methods of geographical research have changed. In the early stages of the development of geographical knowledge crucial for the development of geography there was a process of expanding spatial horizons, which was associated with territorial geographical discoveries, since it was travelers in the early stages human history: traders, merchants, military leaders, and later explorers brought with them from distant campaigns that large amount of factual material, on the basis of which the very building of geographical science was built.
One of the most important tasks that arises when analyzing historical and geographical material is the need to develop periodization, i.e., the identification of long time intervals (periods) and shorter stages (epochs), differing both in the volume of geographical material and in methods research.
In the historical and geographical literature of the pre-revolutionary period and the first decades of Soviet power, it was customary to traditionally consider the centuries-old path of evolution of geographical concepts as a history of travel and expansion of spatial horizons. At the same time, very little attention was paid to physical and geographical issues. All material was linked to conventionally identified historical periods - the ancient centuries, the Middle Ages and the New Age, as a rule, without highlighting smaller time intervals.
Only since the 60s. Soviet scientists began to make attempts to distinguish several periods and eras within the Middle Ages.
Thus, V. A. Anuchin (1960), considering the historical path of geographical science (albeit without a clear chronological periodization), traced individual stages of the development of geography, which, in his opinion, differed in the directions of research, the degree of differentiation of scientific knowledge and its synthesis. V. A. Anuchin called the first stage the time of the first attempts at synthesis and the insufficiency of specific research and connection with practice. This stage occurred during the ancient and middle ages (until the beginning of the 16th century). The second stage was considered as the time of empirical development and the first attempt to create a theoretical concept of geography on the basis of metaphysical philosophy (XVI- to mid-XVII centuries), etc. Consequently, for V. A. Anuchin, the time of Middle Ages geography was included in the same period with ancient geography , and this period was not divided into any smaller time intervals. This is unlikely to be correct. But the very idea of considering the issues of differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge when analyzing the history of geography is, in our opinion, very progressive.
A very detailed periodization of medieval history was developed by A. G. Isachenko (1971). He divides the time of interest to us into the following periods: the period of the decline of the Roman Empire and the transition to the early Middle Ages (III-V centuries), feudal Europe (VI-XI centuries), the late Middle Ages in Europe (XII-XIV centuries), the period of preparation Great geographical discoveries (XV century), the first period of the Great geographical discoveries (1492-1550) and the second period of the Great geographical discoveries (1550-1650).
In the introduction to his monograph, A. G. Isachenko writes that “the periodization of geographical science should be associated with a change in production methods,” with which, of course, one cannot but agree. However, as the author states, “it would be premature to conclude that the stages of development of geography automatically coincide with the corresponding segments world history" He explains: “Even the history of discoveries is not always in direct connection with the most important turning points in history social development. What about evolution? geographical ideas, then here we are faced with even more complex dependencies. Each new significant expansion of spatial horizons did not immediately cause progress in geographical thought, for this process is based on the achievements of all natural science” (Isachenko, 1971, pp. 8-9). A. G. Isachenko emphasizes that geography as a science, located at the very center of natural science and dealing with the relationships of various forms of movement of matter, could not stand aside from the development of philosophical thought. “The struggle between materialistic and idealistic worldviews has always been reflected - directly or indirectly - in geography,” the author concludes (ibid., pp. 8-9). A. G. Isachenko shows that the path traversed by geography can be schematically represented as a successive change of four main stages: 1) Clarification of the general properties of our planet and the main external features of its surface; 2) Study of individual elements of its nature; 3) Establishment of mutual connections between elements; 4) Study of geographical complexes, or geosystems. A. G. Isachenko calls the external boundaries between these stages: 1) Great geographical discoveries of the 15th century, 2) the end of the 18th century, 3) the last third of the 19th century.
We find an important approach to the question of periodization of the history of geography in N. G. Fradkin (1972). First of all, the author drew attention to the fact that one should distinguish between territorial geographical discoveries and discoveries of physical-geographical patterns. He suggests that both should be considered different levels. Without indicating exact time boundaries, he distinguishes three levels of territorial geographical discoveries: local, regional and global (he considers the beginning of the last level to be the 15th century) and four levels of the discovery of physical-geographical patterns. He calls the first of them embryonic or the level of initial production theoretical problems(this includes discoveries from ancient times and the Middle Ages to the Renaissance). He called the second level elemental-chorological (discoveries from the Renaissance to the 16th century are attributed to it); at this level there was an accumulation and elementary systematization of information about natural objects with the dominance of the metaphysical approach to the knowledge of nature.
Interesting thoughts about the periodization of the history of economic geography are expressed by Yu. G. Saushkin (1973, 1976), who, referring to V. I. Lenin, emphasizes that the development of geographical science occurs in circles or turns of a spiral, and gives examples of the evolution of some geographical ideas in background of the general spiral of development of geographical thought.
The author of a number of works on the history and methodology of physical geography, P. S. Kuznetsov (1970, 1974, 1976), focusing on the question of the subject of physical geography, emphasizes that the history of science is the history of the development of theory and method and that significant changes in the relationship between theory and methods express the beginning of a new period in the development of science and, at the same time, corresponding changes in its relationships with related sciences. Based on this, P. S. Kuznetsov characterizes the periods he identifies as follows: he calls the first period the time of the emergence of elementary geographical ideas; it distinguishes three stages: the first stage - until the end of the 5th century. (i.e. the time of ancient geography), the second stage - from the 5th to the end of the 15th century. (i.e., the time of the early and middle Middle Ages), the third stage - from the end of the 15th to the middle of the 18th century, which, therefore, includes late medieval geography and science of the first decades of the modern era.
A further step in the development of the doctrine of levels and attempts to specify them chronologically are the studies of L. I. Voropai (1972, 1977).
L. I. Voropai distinguishes three levels of development of geographical science: the first level - from ancient times to the beginning of the 15th century, the second - from the 15th century. until the 30s XX century and the third - from the 30s. XX century The author specifically shows how each level differs, and proposes to distinguish five stages, or stages, of geographical knowledge in the first and second levels, linking them chronologically with different historical eras.
According to the author, the levels of development of science differ from each other in the quality, scale and nature of four indicators: a) empirical research, b) territorial discoveries, c) theoretical discoveries, d) the structure of the organization of science, its external and internal relations. Each level consists of five steps, or stages, of cognition. The first stage of knowledge is the stage of predominantly empirical research and accumulation of factual material; The main method of research is analytical, the main process of development of science is its differentiation. The second stage is the stage of systematization, classification and theoretical generalizations, the time of understanding cause-and-effect relationships; the main method of cognition is synthesis; The main process of development of science is integration. The third stage is the stage of active use of scientific achievements in practice, clarification and concretization of general laws; analysis and synthesis are widely used; further differentiation and integration of science is taking place. The fourth stage is the stage of a natural “crisis” in the development of science: practice exhausts the information and theory of science, science loses its face, discussions about the essence and methodology of science develop. The fifth stage is called transitional by L.I. Voropai; this is a stage of deeper and more detailed, qualitatively different research, accumulation of new information, but these studies are still carried out on the basis of previous theoretical concepts; this is the stage of the inception and beginning of the deployment of the ascending branch of the next, higher level.
If the first and second stages create, in the opinion of L.I. Voropai, a branch of the progressive, upward development of science, then the third and fourth stages form branches of its stable development. The author emphasizes that the stage of crisis as a “growing pain” is an inevitable but temporary phenomenon: it is replaced by a new transitional stage, within which the beginnings of a new ascending branch are born.
In addition to the text and drawing of the “spiral” in the works of L. I. Voropai, there is a table “Periodization of the process of geographical knowledge”, which shows the stages - stages, their duration (in centuries and decades; the closer to modern times, the shorter the duration of the stages becomes ).
While agreeing with the interesting and important provisions and conclusions of L. I. Voropai, we are forced to pay attention to some inaccuracies in her scheme that do not correspond to the actual state of affairs. First: in the drawing of the spiral there is an extra turn: after all, according to the table, there should be only 11 steps-stages and the beginning of the 12th, but the drawing shows 15 of them (more precisely, 14 complete and the beginning of the 15th). Second: although the system proposed in the table and in the text is quite harmonious, it is unlikely that the 3rd stage of the first level (the time from the 1st to the 4th centuries) can be called the stage of active use of scientific achievements and the concretization of general laws. After all, this was just the time when slave system ancient society began to experience decline when Christian teaching spread, which did not at all contribute to the development of natural science, including geography.
We think that L. I. Voropai correctly outlined the path along which research should be conducted in the field of the history of geography and its periodization, generally correctly showing that the history of geography is not a smooth path of gradual accumulation of new facts about the surface of our planet and that the course The development of geography (as well as other sciences) has a “stepwise” character.
The unevenness of the process of development of science was also noted by the American scientist T. Kuhn in his book “Structure scientific revolutions"(1977). The author identifies eras of gradual accumulation of new data and stages of rapid, revolutionary change in established theoretical concepts. At the same time, as Kuhn writes, the paradigm itself changes (as he calls the entire complex of theoretical concepts, methods and other categories associated with the structure of science characteristic of a given period). However, there are no specific stages in the development of any of the sciences in T. Kuhn’s book.
Our work on numerous sources on the history of medieval science, as well as an analysis of the research of the above-mentioned authors, allowed us to make some clarifications in the scheme of periodization of the history of geography proposed by L. I. Voropai, and to compile a table of “The most important periods and stages in the development of geography.”
The historical path of geographical knowledge and the development of geography as a science should be considered at four levels. The beginning of the first level (period) occurs around 3500 BC. e. (when writing appeared among the most ancient cultural peoples), the second - at the beginning of the 13th century. n. e., the third - in the 70s. XVIII century and the fourth (modern) - for the 30s. XX century
Within each level of development of geography, four stages (stages) of geographical knowledge of the Earth are distinguished. It is practically impossible to draw a line between the time of “crisis” and the “transitional” stage (according to L. I. Voropai), since the stage of a natural “crisis” in the development of science (when, according to L. I. Voropai, the tasks facing science, on this level have already been resolved, and practice has exhausted the theory of science) is at the same time a transitional stage, that is, the time when the ascending branch of the next, higher level of geographical knowledge is born and begins to unfold, but new research is still carried out on the basis of theoretical concepts. According to this table, the 4th stage of the first level (from the 3rd to the 12th century) and the 1st stage of the second level (from the 13th to the mid-15th century) occurred during the geography of the Middle Ages.
The development of geographical thought is associated with changes in the socio-economic structure of the world. However, the time of scientific revolutions, which, according to L. I. Voropai, in geography manifest themselves in the form of an “explosion” of new empirical discoveries that strike a blow at previous theoretical concepts, does not at all mark a change in levels. It comes later, at the 2nd stage (when the collected material is systematized and classified and new data is theoretically generalized) or at the 3rd stage (when general laws are clarified and specified). This can be confirmed with examples. So, at the first level, such an “explosion,” i.e., a qualitative leap, occurred at the 3rd stage, precisely when, at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC e. The Alexandrian scientist Eratosthenes first made an attempt to synthesize the geographical knowledge of his time on the basis of mathematics (more precisely, astronomy and geodesy) and physics (more precisely, natural science in general) and created a science that he called geography, i.e., land description. At the second level, such an “explosion” refers to the 2nd stage, i.e., the time when, as a result of the Great Geographical Discoveries of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. There was a radical disruption and restructuring of the system of geographical ideas about the size of the globe, the relative position of continents and oceans, which was reflected in maps created on a mathematical basis by A. Ortelius, G. Mercator and other scientists of that era. At the third level, the “explosion” can again be attributed to the 3rd stage (30-70s of the 19th century), when the relationships between the phenomena of the inorganic and organic world were established and the doctrine of the zonation of natural components, etc., was developed.
If we try to depict the historical path of development of geography in the form of a spiral, then, in contrast to the scheme of L. I. Voropai, we consider it necessary to also distinguish not three, but four levels of development of geography, and within each turn (except for the fourth, modern) we limit ourselves to distinguishing not five , but four stages (stages) of knowledge. At the same time, the historical path of geographical knowledge should be shown in the form of an unfolding spiral, that is, with constantly increasing, and not decreasing, as shown by L. I. Voropai, turns, since the process of knowledge is endless. True, in this case, the clarity of the gradual reduction of “steps” in time at different levels is lost, but the increase in the volume of geographical knowledge with the transition from one level of development to another is more clearly revealed. “Explosions” or leaps, i.e. transitions from one paradigm to another, are depicted as steeper sections of the upper line of the spiral.
It should be noted that the proposed periodization schemes are correct mainly for the general course of geographical knowledge on a global scale. But when studying the history of geography of individual countries or individual historical periods, a more detailed periodization is required. Within each step or stage, it will be necessary to identify smaller time intervals that are qualitatively different from each other. This will allow us to more clearly trace the “struggle” between old and new theories. And in conclusion of the essay, we note that, following the authors of historical and philosophical works (Gulyga, 1962; Sokolov, 1979; Trakhtenberg, 1957; Gorfunkel, 1980; Mayorov, 1979, etc.), we have come to the conviction that consideration of historical geographical material from the early Western European Middle Ages (from the 3rd to the 12th centuries) and the heyday of Western European feudal states (XIII - mid-XV centuries) should be carried out within four eras, differing from each other not only in the breadth of spatial horizons, the volume of geographical knowledge and methods of display them on the map, but also by the nature of the ideological struggle that took place between natural scientific trends and symbolic-mystical concepts in the depths of medieval science (Table 2).
The first era (III-VII centuries) can be called the era of late antique education and the beginning of Latin patristics; the second (VIII-VII centuries) - the era of early scholasticism; the third - the era of late scholasticism (XIII - first half of the XIV century); the fourth - the era of early humanism, coinciding with the first decades of the Italian Renaissance (second half of the 14th - first half of the 15th century). This era precedes the Great Geographical Discoveries.
If we compare these eras with the stages of development of geography (Table 1), we can see that the first two eras fall on the 4th stage of the first level of development of geography. One of the eras will correspond to the time of preservation of elements of ancient geography against the general background of the decline of scientific knowledge and the first attempts by Christian authors to interpret geographical information from a biblical perspective; the second era will be the time of expanding spatial horizons in the North of Europe and the North Atlantic and the first acquaintance of Western Europeans with Arabic-language science. All this ensured the emergence of a new, ascending branch of the development of science.
The next two eras already belong to the 1st stage of the second level. One of them was for geography the time of empirical research and accumulation of new factual material about the nature and population of the ecumene, the time of the beginning of its systematization and the identification of some cause-and-effect relationships, the time of the influence of the ideas of Ibn-Rushd and Ibn-Sina on the natural scientific views of Western European scientists and the emergence of elements a new geography based not on myths, but on facts. The last era was the apogee of medieval Western European geography with its idea of a single ecumene in the world, the threshold of those Great Geographical Discoveries that radically changed the medieval paradigm.
Table 1. The main periods and stages of the development of geography
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Levels of development of geography |
Characteristics of the period |
Stages of geographical knowledge of the Earth |
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Ascending branch of development |
Stable branch of development |
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Stages of accumulation and empirical research: the main method is analysis |
Stages of systematization of geographical knowledge and theoretical generalizations; main method - synthesis |
Stages of clarifying general laws, active use of scientific achievements; main methods - analysis and synthesis |
Stages of “crisis” and the emergence of a new ascending branch of science |
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|
FIRST LEVEL - initial formulation of theoretical problems |
The period of clarification of the general properties of the Earth and the main features of its surface; the emergence of elementary geographical concepts (XXXV century BC - XII century AD) |
1st stage - pre-scientific geographical ideas of the most ancient cultural peoples (about 3500 - 7th century BC) |
Stage 2 - the beginning of the scientific systematization of geographers, information and the emergence of the rudiments of general geoscience in philosophical cosmogonies and regional studies in the “periplus” and “periges” in the era of classical Greece (VII - IV centuries BC) |
3rd stage - the first attempts at scientific synthesis of geographer, knowledge based on mathematics and physics in the era of Hellenism and the Roman Republic; development of cartography and chorography (IV century BC - III century AD) |
4th stage - the decline of scientific knowledge in the era of the early Western European Middle Ages and the development of mathematical geography in the countries of the Arab East (from the 3rd to the 12th centuries) |
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SECOND LEVEL - elemental-chorological |
The period of studying individual elements of the Earth’s nature (from the 13th to the 70s of the 18th century) |
Stage 1 - expanding spatial horizons in the heyday of the medieval feudal states(from the 13th to the middle of the 15th century) |
Stage 2 - a radical restructuring of the system of geographical ideas in the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries of the 15th-16th centuries. Development of new map projections to depict the spherical surface of the Earth (from the mid-15th to the mid-16th century) |
3rd stage - search for the “Southern Unknown Land”, North. -Zap. and Sev. -East. passages and great discoveries of explorers in the North. Asia; attempts to create a theoretical concept of geography as a science of the Earth based on metaphysical materialism; stage of the emergence of elements of economics and geography (mid-16th - mid-17th centuries) |
4th stage - measurements and mapping of the Earth's surface and the development of individual geographies. disciplines; discussions about geography without a clear understanding of its subject and content; dividing it into mathematical (related to astronomy), physical (to physics), political (to history) (mid-17th - 70s of the 18th century) |
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THIRD LEVEL - component-historical |
The period of establishing relationships between the elements of nature and the emergence of physical geography as a science (70s of the 18th century - 30s of the 20th century) |
1st stage - the first research expeditions on land and in the ocean and development individual industries geographical knowledge. Formulation of economic geography as geogr. disciplines (from the 70s to the end of the 18th century) |
2nd stage - circumnavigation of the world and research of individual components of physical geography as part of physics; attempts at natural and economic zoning (from the beginning of the 19th century to the 30s of the 19th century) |
3rd stage - outstanding successes of natural science and the development of geography as a science about the general laws of nature and the relationships between the phenomena of the organic and inorganic world (the era of Humboldt and Ritter (30-70s of the 19th century)) |
Stage 4 - the “crisis” of geography, the time of methodological discussions and the emergence of the idea of natural complexes in Russia; emergence of the “chorological” concept of geography in foreign countries ah (from the 70s of the XIX century to the 30s of the XX century) |
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FOURTH LEVEL - complex-dynamic |
The period of studying geographical complexes; development of doctrines about geogr. shell and landscapes; the formation of economic geography of science (since the 30s of the XX century) |
Stage 1 - systematic and targeted study of the World Ocean and geographical research of the entire globe. Formalization of exercises about geographical envelope and landscapes in the USSR; development of economic geography in the USSR; the dominance of the “chorological” concept in foreign countries (from the 10s to the 50s of the 20th century) |
Stage 2 - deep systematization of huge factual material for the development of a theory of science; the formation of a constructive and transformative direction of geographical research in the USSR; the doctrine of territorial production complexes in the USSR; dissemination of Soviet geographical ideas abroad (since the 50s of the XX century) |
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Table 2. Histories of Western European medieval geography (main milestones)
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Major historical events |
Geographical level knowledge |
Era and stage |
Characteristics of the era |
Major travels and discoveries |
Major works |
Most typical cards |
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Cosmographic nature |
Regional studies |
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III century Strengthening Christianity in Gaul and Britain |
The fourth stage (higher) of the first level (period) as a time of “crisis” and the emergence of a higher branch of science (III - XII centuries) |
A) The era of late antique education and the beginning of Latin patristics (III - V II centuries) |
The time of preservation of some elements of ancient geography despite the general decline of scientific knowledge and the first attempts by the “church fathers” to interpret geographical knowledge from a biblical perspective |
"Refutation of all heresies" by Hippolytus |
“Collection of things worthy of mention” by Solin (III century) |
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313 Edict of Milan on Toleration to Christians |
"Divine Ordinance" Lactantius (325) |
“Description of the sea shores” by Anianus Rufus Festus (IV century) |
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395 Division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern |
"On the Marriage of Philology with Mercury" by Capella (c. 400) |
“Complete description of peoples” (IV century) |
Chapel World Map |
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476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire |
“Commentaries of Macrobius” (on “The Dream of Scipio”) (early 5th century) |
Patrick's Description of Ireland (c. 460) "Chronicle" of Cassiodorus (c. 519) |
Map of Macrobian heat zones |
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498-515 Ostrogothic Kingdom in Northern Italy |
550 March of monks from Byzantium to “Serenda” |
"Etymologies" by Isidore of Seville (c. 600) |
“Cosmography” by Anonymous of Ravenna (VI century) "History of the Goths" by Jordan (c. 550) |
Map of the "T-O" type and drawing of Isidore's compass rose |
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The first scriptorium of Cassiodorus in Italy |
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632 Arab conquest of Syria and Iran Arab conquest of Central Asia |
569 Beginning of Zimarch's campaign to Altai "Voyages" of St. Brendan (c.560) 670g. Discovery of the Faroe Islands |
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711 Beginning of Arab. conquests on the Iberian Peninsula |
B) The era of early scholasticism (V III - X II centuries) |
The time of expansion of spatial horizons in the North of Europe and the North Atlantic, acquaintance with Arabic-speaking culture, which led to the emergence of elements of a new ascending branch of science |
Church history" by Beda the Venerable (c. 725) "Life of St. Willibrord" Alcuin (800) |
Merovingian map (720) |
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768-814 Empire of Charlemagne |
795 Discovery of Iceland by monks 830 "Ansgar's Journey" |
"On the Measurement of the Earth" by Dikuil (825) |
"Bavarian Geographer" (IX century) "Chronicle" of Alfred the Great (c. 800) |
Monastic cards of the “T-O” type Wind roses (according to Isidore) |
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9th century Start of paper production in Europe |
860 Discovery of Iceland by the Normans |
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945 Byzantine ambassadors to Cordoba |
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Formation of the Holy Roman Empire |
981 Opening of the shores of Greenland |
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1014 Conquest of the South by the Normans. Italy and Sicily |
1000 Opening of the banks of the North. America |
“History of the Diocese of Hamburg” by Adam of Bremen (1040) |
Kata of the world of Idrisi (1154) |
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Capture of Baghdad by the Turks 1085 Spanish recapture of Toledo |
1050 Opening of the Gulf of Bothnia 1094 Discovery of Swaalbard |
Translation by Adelard of Bath of al-Khwarizmi's Astronomy (1126) |
Turin round map (XI century) |
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1096 Beginning of the Crusades |
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1160-1167 Opening of the first universities 1170 Beginning translation activities from Arabic to Latin |
Translation and commentary by Gerard of Cremona of the works of Aristotle, Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd (1175) |
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1204 Capture of Constantinople by the crusaders 1242 Mongol invasion in the East. Europe |
The first stage of the second level (period) as a time of accumulation of new facts about the nature of the Earth |
B) The era of late scholasticism (XIII - mid-XIV century) |
The time of extensive accumulation of new facts about the nature of the Earth and the influence of the ideas of Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd on the natural scientific views of Western European scientists |
1246 Carpini's journey begins 1271 -1295 The Journey of Marco Polo |
“Royal Mirror” (1240 – 1260) "Great Work" by R. Bacon (1265) "Works" of Albertus Magnus (1320) |
"Historical overview" of Plano Carpini (1248) "Travels" of Rubruk (1256) "The Book of Marco Polo" (1298) |
Hereford Map (1260) Ebstorf Map (1284) |
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1368 Fall of the Mongol dynasty in China |
1396. Beginning of Schiltberger's wanderings |
« The Divine Comedy» Dante (1320) |
"Book of Knowledge" (1345) |
Catalan map (1375) |
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1409 Translation of Ptolemy's Geography from Greek into Latin 1415 Capture of Ceuta by the Portuguese |
D) The era of early humanism (mid-XIV – mid-XV centuries) |
The time of the apogee of medieval geography and the threshold of the great discoveries of the late 15th and early 16th centuries. |
1403 – 1406 Clavijo's journey to Samarkand 1418 Portuguese voyages begin |
“The Face of the Earth” by P. Alliak (1410) |
"The Adventures" of Schiltberger (c. 1400) |
Map of the northern regions of Claus Niger (1427) |
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1423 Translation of Strabo's Geography 1453 Capture of Constantinople by the Turks |
1432 Discovery of the Azores |
Works of N. Kuzansky (mid-15th century) |
“Cosmography”, “Geography of Germany” by E. Piccolomini (mid-15th century) |
Map of the Center. Europe N. Kuzansky (mid-15th century) |
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1492 Columbus's first voyage |
Fra Mauro World Map (1457) |
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(according to A.G. Isachenko)
Geography is undoubtedly one of the most ancient sciences. The history of its development goes back at least six thousand years. According to A.I. Isachenko, the path that modern geography has taken can be schematically represented as a successive change of four main stages: clarification of the general properties of our planet and the main external features of its surface; study of individual elements of its nature; establishment of mutual connections between individual elements of nature Þ study of geographical complexes (geosystems).
These stages are not separated from each other by sharp time boundaries; There are many “overlaps” and “overlays” between them. At the same time, in the development of geography there were several key, epoch-making events that quite clearly separate these periods.
The first milestone for geography was the Great Geographical Discoveries, the beginning of which is considered to be the day of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus (October 12, 1492). However, the Age of Great Discovery was preceded by a long period of slow expansion of knowledge about the Earth. Limited and fragmented spatial horizons are a characteristic feature of this era. Even the most cultured people of Europe and Asia knew only small parts of the globe.
Theoretical ideas in the field of geography were fragmentary and were strongly influenced by the religious and mythological worldview. The geographical views of antiquity, which were advanced at that time, were based not so much on experience as on natural philosophical conjectures and were often naive and fantastic. The official scholastic science of the Christian Middle Ages was also not connected with practice and relied on elements of the same ancient science, but adapted to Catholic teaching (Thomas Aquinas, 1225–1274). This entire long era is divided into two segments, corresponding to the ancient and middle ages of world history.
The great geographical discoveries revolutionized mankind's spatial horizons and made it possible to formulate a general idea of the relationship between continents and oceans. From this time on, a turning point occurred in the medieval worldview and began Scientific research nature and at the same time the second great era in the development of geography.
However, it took more than two centuries after the completion of the Great Geographical Discoveries to clarify and map the outlines of the land, find out the main features of its orography and hydrography, and then collect and systematize material on the main components of the earth’s surface: climate, waters, organic world, etc. d., sufficient for primary scientific generalization. These tasks determined the nature of geography almost until the end of the 19th century.
There is an important boundary between the two indicated turning points, dating back approximately to the beginning of the last third of the 18th century. Until this time, the main role was played by measuring and mapping the Earth. At that time, geography was still in a “topographical” stage and explained many natural and social phenomena from the point of view of ancient natural philosophy.
From the end of the 18th century. Geographers in their conclusions begin to rely on the experimental study of natural and social phenomena and develop their own research methods. At the same time, they put forward the problem of studying the connections between individual geographical components, which gives grounds to consider this time as the beginning of the next, third major period in the development of geographical thought. But still it was a period of analytical study of nature. The most important feature of the development of geography in those years was the ever-deepening differentiation of natural science and scientific geographical knowledge.
The foundation of modern geography was the idea of a geographical complex, developed in such specific forms, as the law of zoning (V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903), etc.), the doctrine of landscape (L.S. Berg (1876-1950), etc.), the doctrine of the geographical envelope (A. A. Grigoriev (1883-1968), etc.). The origins of modern geography date back to the last third of the 19th century. (126).
MAIN PERIODS OF GEOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT
(after P. James and J. Martin)
In the history of geographical science, according to American geographers P. James and J. Martin, the following three periods are distinguished:
The first period lasted from ancient times, when geographical thought arose, until 1859. This is a classical period, during which relatively little attention was paid to defining and distinguishing separate branches of science. During this period, knowledge about the world as a whole was not yet so extensive, and each scientist could simultaneously be a specialist and recognized authority in many sciences. So, for example, almost every one of the ancient Greek philosophers, also known as a historian, could with the same success and on the same “legal grounds” also be considered a geographer. Even in the 18th century, when the isolation of individual branches of knowledge had already begun, scientists such as M.V. Lomonosov or Montesquieu, who were not geographers, made a very significant contribution to the history of geographical thought. The last in a series of such encyclopedists was Alexander Humboldt. After his death in 1859, no one managed to achieve such a breadth of knowledge.
A new period began in the second half of the 19th century. It was characterized by the emergence of a professional field of activity called geography, which meant the emergence of professional geographers who, having received the appropriate qualifications, could earn their living by doing research in this field.
In Germany, a new period in the development of geography began in 1874, when the Department of Geography was organized at the University of Berlin, headed by scientists with the rank of professor. Until this time, students listened definite course lectures, and subsequently may have started lecturing themselves, but never before had entire groups of students specialized in geography. Therefore, when the geography department appeared in 1874, there was not a single professional geographer among its teachers.
The innovation introduced in Germany was quickly adopted by universities in other countries, primarily France, Great Britain and Russia. It also reached the United States in different ways. Each of these five countries has formed its own national schools and specific ideas about a new geography that has spread throughout the world. The difference between these schools was primarily in how they answered the question about the essence of geography.
The third period in the history of geography, which began in the 50s of the last century, is called modern. Second World War had an impact on science a huge impact. Scientific activity geographers in those years were aimed at studying issues related to very complex policy problems. In those years, geographers achieved serious success in cartography and in analyzing the significance of location, that is, in those areas that were usually not noticed by representatives of other sciences.
The experience of war was reflected in the creation general theory systems of Ludwig von Bertalanffy (367), in the development of new methods that made it possible to solve problems in the analysis of many variables, when it is necessary to use probability theory to predict the behavior of the system. It was at this time that electronic computers, or computers, came into use. They made it possible to quickly and accurately calculate the parameters of a huge variety of indicators. Then there was a real revolutionary revolution in data collection methods: electronic devices appeared for scanning the Earth's surface from orbiting space satellites. These innovations, which appeared mainly after the 50s of our century, opened a third period in the history of geographical science.
Currently, geographers approach the definition of geography without prioritizing the issue of its demarcation from other disciplines. The new trend is that all sciences are making joint efforts to solve individual problems. The process of separation (differentiation) has now been replaced by a process of integration, in which scientists from each discipline apply their special knowledge and skills to solve such problems. global problems, such as uncontrolled population growth, race relations, habitat degradation, the fight against hunger, etc. The strictly geographical ones include issues related to the significance of location and spatial (territorial) connections of objects and phenomena (110.367).
Main stages in the development of geography
Lecture outline
What is geography? The first stage is from ancient times to the middle of the 17th century. The second stage - from the middle of the 17th to the middle of the 11th century. The third stage is from the mid-11th to the 20s of the 20th century. The fourth stage - from the 20s of the twentieth century. until now.
1. What is geography?
The purpose of mastering the discipline:
- Introduce students to the professional world of geography related to natural and social sciences. A discipline that lays the foundations of a geographical worldview, thinking and knowledge. A kind of “bridge” between school and university geography.
Geogr A fiya in BSES(from geo... and...graphy), a system of natural and social sciences that study natural and industrial territorial complexes and their components. Combining natural and social geographical disciplines within unified system sciences is determined by the close relationship between the objects they study and the generality of the scientific task, which consists in comprehensive study nature, population and economy in order to make the most efficient use of natural resources, rational location of production and create the most favorable environment for people's lives.
Geographical sciences study the surface of the Earth, the surrounding and underlying layers of matter (spheres), both natural (part of the lithosphere, troposphere, hydrosphere, biosphere) and non-natural (sociosphere, technosphere). Taken together, they constitute a special kind of geographical object of study, which has not yet received an unambiguous definition and explanation in the system of geographical sciences. The reason is complex structure this geographical reality, which is often called the geographical picture of the world. Therefore, geography took the path of differentiation of sciences, that is, from a multitude of facts to their generalization into separate sciences, in which the object of study is well defined.
Object a component of such an approach can be the geoverse as an integral phenomenon in a special geospace of the Earth with its own structure and patterns of functioning according to the principle of two subsystems - nature and society. Subject studies of such a complex object are components (abiotic, biotic, social), geosphere and local geosystems of the Earth's surface - natural, social, integral, etc.
Modern geography is a complex complex (system) of sciences that closely interact with each other. With all the complexity of this system, there are usually three main, stem branches.
The first branch is physical geography, which includes general geosciences, landscape science, geomorphology, climatology, hydrology, soil geography, biogeography, etc. The second branch is economic and social geography, which includes the geography of population, industry, agriculture, transport, services, etc.
The third branch is cartography. At the junctions between physical and economic geography, as well as between them and other related sciences, many “borderline” areas of geographical research arose: political geography, historical geography, medical geography, recreational geography, geography of natural resources, etc.
Depending on the approaches and breadth of territorial coverage, a distinction is also made between general geography, the subject of which is more general, primarily on a global scale, issues of both physical and economic and social geography, and regional geography, which studies individual natural territories, countries and regions.
The first stage - from ancient times to the middleXVII century
This stage is characterized by the initial accumulation of geo gpa physical knowledge. In general terms (at an accessible level), at this stage almost the entire surface of the Earth was studied, i.e., by the end of the stage, humanity had formed a global geographical horizon, many important ideas and ideas for geography were born, inherited and developed by other generations of scientists.
Geographical concepts arose in ancient times in connection with practical activities people - hunting, fishing, nomadic cattle breeding, primitive agriculture. The range of factual (existential) knowledge was determined by the nature of human activity and the immediate natural environment. The ability to navigate in space is also closely related to observation. Observation and good knowledge of individual facts were combined with underdevelopment of thinking. Hence the inability to explain many natural processes and phenomena (droughts, earthquakes, floods, etc.), the birth and death of a person, which is expressed in animism(idea of spirits and soul) and magic (witchcraft, sorcery, witchcraft). Performance primitive man the origin of things was inevitably fantastic and passed down orally from generation to generation. It took the form of myths, that is, folk tales about gods and legendary heroes, about the origin of the world.
Already in ancient times the spherical shape of the Earth was recognized (Parmenides,VI -V centuries BC e., Aristotle,IV century BC e., Eratosthenes, 111 11th centuries. BC e.). On this basis the idea arose geographical zoning(Eudox,IV century BC e., Posidonius, centuries. BC e., Strabo,I century BC e. and etc.). Philosophical thought approached the idea of changes in the earth's surface (Heraclitus,VI -V centuries BC e.). General geography and geographical regional studies, cartography and hydrology arose.
Among the most important philosophical and geographical achievements of the era ancient culture can be attributed:
The formation of a spatial (geospatial) approach, which played a major role (in the methodology of geography) at all other stages of the formation of geographical sciences. Its methodological essence, of course, taking into account the temporal characteristics of different eras, has been preserved and has survived to this day.
The formation of natural philosophy on the basis of the holistic thinking of the time, which combined many aspects of history, mathematics, natural science, ethnography and other areas. Geographical ideas were formed in the unity of these views and did not constitute an independent direction. “I believe,” Strabo wrote, “that the science of geography, which I have now decided to study, just like any other science, is included in the scope of philosophy.”
In geography, a descriptive and regional studies direction is being formed, which contributed to the accumulation geographical facts about various regions (spaces) of the Ecumene and education unified (descriptive) geography (chorography). The first regional descriptions were periplus(description of the shores), periegesis(descriptions of sushi) and periods(detours of the earth). Generalizations of similar works were made by Hecataeus, Strabo, Ptolemy and others. It was a regional studies area of geography closely related to history. J. O. Thompson called it general geography.
The emergence of a natural science or general earth science direction (Aristotle's line) is taking place, associated with an attempt to explain the described natural phenomena. Here we can see the foundations of theoretical understanding through a system of conceptual apparatus: about the figure and spheres of the Earth, thermal zones, the relationship between land and sea, climate and climate zones, the geocentric model of space, geography, chorography, etc. These ideas were formed not only in the works of Aristotle, but also Thales, Eudoxus, Heraclitus, Funidides, etc.
A mathematical-geographical direction appears, which laid the foundations mathematical geography, geodesy and cartography. The works of Eudoxus, Anaximander, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, and Ptolemy introduced such concepts as topography, latitude and longitude, map projection, meridian length, etc.
Environmental motives in geography are traced, associated with thoughts about the natural determination (conditionality) of human existence (Democritus), the role of climate in people's lives, the formation of their character, traditions and customs (Hecataeus, Hippocrates). These thoughts apparently influenced C. Montexier when he formulated the concepts of geographical determinism.
In the early Middle Ages, the collapse of the Roman Empire weakened land trade relations Europe with the East. Low shipbuilding technologies, religious isolation of countries, superstitions and myths prevented long journeys. Overland travel was mainly carried out by pilgrims or missionaries. Educational process began with Latin patristics, i.e., a set of theological and philosophical doctrines of Christian thinkers (church fathers). In the history of geography, it was a time of preservation of elements of ancient knowledge against the general background of their decline and the first attempts by Christian authors to interpret geographical information from a biblical perspective. An example is the works of Kozma Indikoplov, written in the 6th century. This was reflected in the early medieval “wheel maps”, which was associated with flat shape of our planet. Jerusalem, the location of the “Holy Sepulcher,” was recognized as their center, the axis of the universe.
In the Middle Middle Ages, there was an expansion of spatial horizons in the North of Europe and the North Atlantic (the voyages of Irish sailors and Scandinavian Vikings) and the acquaintance of Europeans with Arabic-language science. This was the time of scholasticism (religious philosophy with the premises of rationalism), the time of empirical research and the accumulation of new factual material about the nature and population of the Ecumene, the beginning of its systematization and the identification of some cause-and-effect relationships in the works of Ibn Batuta, Ibn Sina and others. The Arabs assimilated cultural achievements and indigenous sciences, created large scientific centers in Baghdad, Cordoba and Palermo, in which the works of Greek, Roman and other thinkers were translated into Arabic. They learned the decimal counting system from India, the compass from the Chinese, improved the system of irrigated agriculture, built new canals, and produced silk. Arab geography was primarily a science of the routes connecting individual territories and of the territories themselves. However, Arab geography in theoretical positions did not advance further than ancient geographers. Its merit lies in expanding spatial horizons (trade was the engine) and in preserving the ideas of antiquity for posterity. Until the 15th century, the maps of Arab geographers remained without a grid.
This time ends with the emergence of early humanism, which became the apogee of medieval geography with its idea of a single world-wide Ecumene and the threshold of the VGO, which radically changed the medieval paradigm. This was preceded by a number of circumstances related to book printing and the publication of regional studies descriptions of the countries of the East rich in gold, precious stones and spices. Reliable cartographic material is also appearing, ensuring predictability of travel. Venice becomes the center of geographical thought, which, according to K. Ritter, has become “the highest school of geographical and historical sciences.” Numerous manuscripts of ancient, Persian and Arab authors were collected in the city's libraries. Collections of travels and locations were compiled. The first ones appear educational establishments, called voluntary "academies".
VGOs have pushed the boundaries of the geographical world. It was an unusually difficult process, requiring enormous personal heroism and energy, of understanding the world in the space of the Earth, which no science other than geography knew. The era of the VGO, according to F. Engels, was the era of titans in strength of thought, passion and character, in versatility and scholarship. Emerging capitalism required reliable data on land and sea routes, about natural conditions known and again open areas. IN European countries the process of accumulating knowledge about geographical space began, replacing the iconographic ideas of the world. In the modern world, the most significant are “horizontal”, desacralized relationships between cultures and countries.
The main achievements of geography in the Middle Ages can be called:
The development of cartography, the formation of a modern world map, the publishing of maps, which became possible thanks to the spread of printing and copper engraving. In the 16th century, Antwerp became the center of cartography with its famous Flemish school, famous for the names of A. Ortelius and G. Mercator. The first left his memory with the publication of a collection of maps called “Theatrum”, which included 70 titles. The second developed the mathematical foundations of cartography. M. Beheim made the first globe that has come down to us. Unfortunately, most of the maps were published as an appendix to Ptolemy’s Geography, which created many contradictions.
Coverage of geographical discoveries in literature. Letters and diaries of H. Columbus, A. Vespucci, Pigaffeta and others were published. Pedro Martir compiled the first chronicle of the history of discoveries. Later, the literature of voyages and travels was published in multi-volume collected works. In 1507, the Lorraine geographer M. Woldseemüller, influenced by the letters of A. Vespucci, proposed calling New World America.
The appearance of the first regional and statistical descriptions. For example, the books of the Florentine merchant L. Gricciardini “Description of the Netherlands,” which describes nature, population, economy and cities.
Development of ideas of mathematical geography. The best known are the works of M. Waldseemüller “Introduction to Cosmography” and P. Apian “Cosmography”, in which the main attention was paid to navigation rather than geography. They continued the traditions of the geological direction of ancient authors about the place of the Earth in the Universe and the features of its structure, and also summarized knowledge of astronomy, physics and geography.
Ideas arise about the occurrence of layers of the earth's crust (Leonardo da Vinci), about the general structure of the Earth (R. Descartes, Leibniz), and the processes of mountain building (N. Stenon). At the end of the stage, the first works appear, summarizing the accumulated geographical knowledge that has to a certain extent theoretical in nature (work by B. Varenius and others).
Second stage - from the middleXVII to mid-XI X century
The crisis of geography in the 18th-19th centuries arose not so much from a misunderstanding of geographical reality, the complexity of its structure (the relationship between part and whole, the general and the individual, the place of biota and humans in it), but rather from the level of development and state of methodology (the sum of research methods), its possibility explore only simple geographical features. For example, individual components of nature. However, already in the 19th century, the basic principles of the theory of physical geography began to take shape and it ceased to be part of natural philosophy, becoming an independent science.
The emergence of the capitalist mode of production in Europe led to a change in ideological criteria and a desire for liberation from religious dogma and the tutelage of the church. Philosophical doctrines are created, called metaphysical (mechanistic) materialism.
The worldview was based on experimental natural science, the foundations of which were laid by Copernicus, G. Galileo, I. Newton and others. With the comprehension of the vast factual material of the era of the Higher Geography, there is a change in the principles of knowledge from the worldview of the surrounding reality to its worldview. A scientific method of cognition is introduced, answering the question of how to obtain new reliable knowledge. F. Bacon, using the position of philosophical positivism, substantiated inductive method of cognition. In geography, this marked the beginning of the formation of branch sciences that study individual components of nature.
R. Descartes laid the foundations of methodology as the philosophical essence of the process of scientific knowledge. Being the founder of rationalism (reason is the basis of knowledge), he substantiated deductive method knowledge, assigning a large role to mathematical methods in it. An example of such deductive analysis in geography can be considered the work of B. Vareniya “General Geography”, which was the prototype of the general geological direction in physical geography. For the first time, the object of study of geography is defined (the author calls it a subject) - an “amphibious globe”, which is considered both as a whole (model-image) and in parts (regional formations of the Earth’s surface). Therefore, he divided geography into universal, cognizable through sensory experience, and private - chorography and topography, using a descriptive method. The second experience of deductive analysis is I. Kant’s idea of space as an absolute container of things independent of matter (Newtonian interpretation). He considered such a space to be the object of study of a single geography.
An important event of this time was the appearance of the first textbooks on geography: I. Gübner’s “Amphibian Circle” short description”, S. Nakovalnin “Political Geography”, G. Kraft “A Brief Guide to Mathematical and Natural Geography”, H. Chebotarev “Geographical Methodological Description of the Russian Empire, etc.
For the development of geographical science, it is extremely important that this stage ends with the formation of evolutionary concepts in natural science. The idea of global unity of the earth's surface is being realized. Geography begins to be taught in schools and universities. However, the strengthening of its differentiation leads to a deepening of the crisis of unified geography, which calls into question its existence as a science. At the same time, disciplines that study individual components of nature are actively developing. Beginning withIn the 18th century, experimental sciences and technology were intensively developing, new branches of natural science were being formed, enriching geography and stimulating geographical research. The growth of productive forces and the expansion of industrial production contribute to active geographical study of natural conditions and resources. The historical approach is firmly established in geography.
The third stage - from the middle of XI X up to 20-x years of the twentieth century.
This stage is marked by overcoming the crisis of a unified geography, the formulation of chorological (A. Gettner) and genetic () concepts, the creation of the foundations of the doctrine of the geographical envelope and the doctrine of economic zoning, and the development of the principles of landscape science. For geographers, the study of the past nature of the earth's surface is becoming increasingly interesting, since the task of explaining the structure and changes occurring in the geographical shell can only be solved by combiningpoc of spatial analysis with historical. This was facilitated by the traditions of Russian geography, starting with the first to introduce the idea of development into the interpretation of geographical phenomena, brilliantly continued in the works of V. V. Dokuchaev (in relation to relief and soils).
Geography of Novogo time is laid down first ince go the ideas of K. Ritter, starting from the 30-40s.XIX century, but the stage in our country ends in the 20th centuryx - early 30s. XX century
The earth's surface is beginning to be recognized by geographers as a special integral spatio-temporal system consisting ofe natural-historical zones. Ideas are being developed about the geographical envelope as a hierarchy of landscape systems, an object of physicaleo gpa phy, designed not only to describe the nature of the earth's surface, but also to explain its patterns. Geocomponent anda ntpopoecological paradigm.
At the same time, departments were founded at universities.eo gpa fiies, geographical faculties, and also specialized research institutes are being created, the network of scientific geographical societies is expanding.
The era under consideration was characterized by the following features:
The ideas of A. Humboldt and K. Ritter are considered, on the one hand, as completing the classical period of unified geography, on the other, as beginning the construction of modern geographical science. A. Humboldt and K. Ritter occupied a very high place in the scientific community, but had significant differences in ideological positions on geography. He wrote about this: “Humboldt, in addition to brilliant generalizations, introduced many new facts into science. Ritter only systematized what had previously been, illuminating it with a well-known idea... Humboldt recognized the influence of nature on man, but did not try to build an independent, separate science on this motto; he considered the earth not only as a physical body, but also as a world body; he sought to expand and comprehend general ideas about the universe. Ritter wanted to use the main motto (about the influence of nature on humans) to create a completely new, but impossible science,” that is, regional geography. Therefore, the divergence of scientists' views on geography is increasing. One part went into “pure” natural science (Unitarians), developing the ideas of physical geography. Another group developed problems regional geography(dualists), where nature, in their words, was viewed “as something fatally connected with the history of the peoples inhabiting the Earth, and the specificity of social relations was associated with the determining influence of natural conditions.”
The 19th century was the “silver age” in the development and establishment of geography as a science, although there were still vast “blank spots” of practical knowledge, especially in the polar countries. Travelers and explorers who “erased” these spots on geographical maps became national heroes(F. Nansen, D. Cook, D. Levingston, etc.).
Geography is an attempt to determine its place in the system of sciences as one of the Earth sciences (along with geology, geophysics, biology) with a powerful installation of geographical natural science. In addition to the abiotic spheres, the structure of the amphibious sphere also includes the “sphere of life” of A. Humboldt. It was he who first raised the question of a new quality of the Earth - a complex shell where the abiotic and biotic substrate of matter is united. This was due to the fact that geographical expeditions contributed to the development of bioecological teachings, which in the second half of the 19th century complemented the subject of geography and determined the departure from topographical descriptions.
At the end of the 19th century, through the works of F. Richthofen and F. Ratzel, the geospheric general earth science concept. Defined for the first time shared object physical geography, consisting of four spheres: litho-, atmospheric-, hydro- and biosphere. Different authors, unfortunately, called it differently: Richthofen called the earth’s surface, Petri called it the outer cover, Brownov called it the outer shell, and Abolin called it epigenema. In parallel, a regional direction developed, called landscape concept(, Z. Passarguet). This concept received theoretical justification already in the 30-60s of the twentieth century.
Under the influence of the modeling philosophy and physics, a significant change in geography was the understanding space– from a subjective approach (divine or “empty” physical space) to objective understanding, i.e., the space of bodily things. In this case, the leading concepts become “territory” (space according to Hettner), “terrain” and “district” as part of the territory. As a consequence, the idea of a multitude of private spatial objects on the Earth's surface begins to dominate. K. Retter argued that geography must deal with spatial categories, with a description of filled spaces, starting from the specific realities of nature and ending with the sphere of the spirit. The idea of the unity of the home and its inhabitants elevated the doctrine of space into the problem of the relationship between man and nature. He singled out the “cultural sphere” as a special category of nature modified by man. IN further development went within biological determinism and passibilism. The first direction (F. Ratzel, E. Reclus) tried to extend the ideas of Darwinism and biological laws to human society. F. Ratzel in his work “Political Geography” likened the state to a living organism that fights to expand its space in order to survive. E. Reclus imagined the globe as a whole, as a kind of living organism with the functioning of various elements of nature and society, the interaction of organic and inorganic nature with man. Second direction - possibilism(lat. possibilis - possible), later developed by Vidal de la Blache, was associated with a description of the mechanisms of adaptation of the economy and human life with the environment, i.e., spatiotemporal geoadaptation processes. These were the foundations of the future cultural landscape concepts.
According to data, in Russia, when studying regional differences in mid-19th centuries, the terms “spaces”, “strips” (), “belts” (), “natural areas” (). In 1979, having developed a network of agricultural “districts” in Russia, he introduced the term “district” into the geographical literature, which subsequently became widespread in our country. In most foreign countries it is not used and the concept of region corresponds to it.
The formation of institutional formations that strengthened the position of geography in world science. The role of geographical societies in organizing complex expeditions is strengthening. Geography departments are being established at major universities various countries. Professional institutes are being formed. International geographical congresses are held.
University geographical education, which determined the formation of professional activity and the emergence of professional geographers. This predetermined the formation of two directions in the development of theoretical principles of geography: “university geoscience”, formed in the course of understanding the empirical material reflected in the literature and the personal experience of geographical professors (E. Reclus, Vidal de la Blache, F. Ratzel, A. Gettner, etc. ), and “geographical natural science” emerging under the influence of joint expeditionary research (Tyan-Shansky, V. Davis, etc.).
One of the largest generalizations of the century was the substantiation of the law of world zoning in the brochure “On the Doctrine of the Laws of Nature” (1899), where he wrote about the close connection “between the plant, animal and mineral kingdoms, on the one hand, man, his life and even the spiritual world , with another". The largest theoretical achievements are associated not only with the law of zonality, but also with Dokuchaev’s emergence of a general scientific worldview generalization: “in the world, fortunately, not only one law of the great Darwin reigns - the law of the struggle for existence, but also another - the opposite - the law of love, help , especially clearly manifested in the existence of our zones.”
The fourth stage - from the 20s of the twentieth century. until now.
At this newest stagec inoe go development, world geographical science has proven itself to be an important component ince go process of scientific, technical and cultural development humanity. The main trends in its development were determined by the need to solve the problems that faced human society complex tasks, especially in the “nature-society” system, the need for in-depth knowledge of patterns natural environment Earth and nearby space, research on current problems of the spatial organization of productive forces, settlement and movement of the planet's population, socio-political development of countries and regions of the world.
" The interests of geography undergo changes in accordance with changes in the sphere of dominant interests of society: the search for renewable (and, less often, non-renewable) resources, the assessment of naturalpecyp of sparsely populated spaces - territorial organization of production (Land Use, industrialization, TPK) "organization of social life of society" improvement of co-creation of society and nature. In this regard, the idea of the status of geography in the system of sciences also changed...
IN Research notes the development of two theoretical paradigms of regional geography - chorological (A. Göttner, R. Hartshorn) and landscape (Z. Passarge, O. Schlüter), and in research methods - zoning, factor and functional analysis, mathematical and statistical processing. Applied areas are developing: research resource potential countries, territorial organization of government (zoning, district planning, settlement systems). There is a growing interest in political geography (the global nature of world wars and the impending collapse of the colonial system) and military-geographical topics.
For Soviet geography it was a difficult period associated with the continuity of pre-revolutionary geography and modern geography. There has been a slowdown in a number of areas of science (social and political geographies) and excessive ideologization of the philosophy of specific sciences in the form of sharp criticism of geographical determinism and rejection of the chorological concept (Hettnerism as a bourgeois ideology).
The main achievements of the geography of this stage:
The leading methodological installation of this era is becoming a spatially complex installation associated with the approach to the study of objects of earthly reality as complexes in which the most important properties are the interconnections and relationships between elements. This setting determined the formation of ideas about general geographic objects: the geographic envelope (,), natural-territorial and territorial-production complexes (,), and economic region (,). The subject focus of geographical research focuses both on spatial morphology (countries, zones, regions) and external factors of this morphology, as well as on consideration of the processes of this morphological heterogeneity. Thus, the concepts of a physical-geographical process are introduced, which were based on the characteristics of heat and moisture exchange; geochemical processes of landscapes; energy production cycles of TPK.
Integrative ideas in the geography of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were generalized and developed, which assigned to the biosphere the concept of a “complex shell” as an area of existence of life, living organisms on Earth in the form unified education. He considered the biosphere as a special geological “body”, the structure and functions of which are determined by the characteristics of the Earth and Space, and living organisms, populations, species and all living matter are the forms and levels of its organization. Another aspect stood out, connected with humanity as a new geological force on the scale of the Earth. For the first time, two important planetary phenomena of the global geospace of the Earth were identified: the biosphere and something new - humanity.
The doctrine of the biosphere was supplemented by the concept of Geomeris, which meant the entire living cover of the Earth. Humanity is also “part of the living surface of the Earth and is gradually becoming its main organizing principle.” This concept is one of the first concepts of global ecology, that is, the problem of subject-object relations: It complemented the doctrine of the biosphere, introduced into it biocenological and ecological characteristics, and the concept of the ecosphere. According to the opinion, the concept of “geomerid” emphasized the element of integrity inherent in this higher biocenosis, while the term “biosphere” does not mean a higher biocenosis, but a higher biotope.
The ideas allowed us to look at the essence of the natural landscape in a new way. On the one hand, understand it as part of the general, i.e., the biosphere. On the other hand, understand the landscape as invariant conditions of existence and functioning in its structure certain groups bioecosystems in the rank of facies, which are, in hierarchical terms, the primary basis of the ecosphere and determine the self-regulation of its environment. However, these ideas found theoretical understanding in the second half of the twentieth century.
General problems of geography that were formed in scientific directions landscape science, geomorphology, soil science, anthropogeography, comparative regional geography. The predominant scientific methodology was the chorological and landscape approaches. According to the chorological concept, the most prominent founders of which were A. Höttner and R. Hartshorne, geography is a “unified” science that embraces both nature and man. The philosophical basis of this concept was the views of the neo-Kantians on “filled space,” that is, the space that includes elements from rivers and thunderstorms to fairy tales, customs and crimes. Regional studies should deal with their description, since the entire earth's surface is a complex or system of countries and localities. At the same time, the essence of space as an object of study is not revealed either in the works of Getner or in the works of modern socio-economic geography, taking into account the geographical approach. In this case, space became synonymous with “territory” (country). The essence of geography in such a contest is the knowledge (description, classification) of many individual territorial entities, taking into account the principle of uniqueness.
Territorial studies in the USSR, aimed at studying natural conditions and natural resources, led to the identification of the smallest object of physical geography - the landscape, which fit well into the concept of the new biosphere from the standpoint of holism, i.e., the factor of integrity (abiotic and biotic matter). As a result, one of the leading branches of physical geography is being formed - landscape science. Works, etc., create methods for landscape research and landscape mapping. At the same time, he singled out landscape as the main object of physical geography (the influence of the ideas of the chorological concept).
Economic geography is becoming established. V. Gotz introduces the term economic geography into science. In Christaller and A. Lesh they create a spatial model of the location of settlements and economies, and also highlight the non-production sphere in geography. In Russia, its founder was the head of the first department of economic geography. Scientific school Deny had an industrial and statistical direction. Methodological basis economic geography was based on the provisions of economic science, based on statistical information (market laws). Under the influence of the ideologization of science, this direction was sharply criticized by its supporters, who believed that the main subject of study was the economic region as the basis for state regulation of the economy. This approach assumed the development of industry based on the use of local resources and the formation of ideas about the region as a territorial complex with specialization on a national scale. However, the victory of the “regional direction” caused de-economization (the disappearance of market relations) and the growth of macro-technological areas (plants, industrial zones, production and technological connections, etc.).
Changing priorities for the development of foreign and Soviet geography. The first considered the problems of society and nature as a common part of spatial relations, the center of which was man, his active activities and the living environment. Therefore, the theoretical basis of such relations was possibilism, and the leading laws were social and economic. In contrast to natural geography, social geography begins to rapidly develop: the doctrine of the cultural landscape of R. Hartshorne, K. Sauer and O. Schlüter, the environmentalism of E. Sample, etc. In the Soviet school, natural geography remains the leading direction, largely associated with the demands of production for resource provision. Social geography was dominated by economic geography, aimed at the development of sparsely populated areas, and population geography, based on statistics.
There is a change in the priorities of applied research. The spatially complex concept played a role in solving spatial and morphological problems - natural and agricultural zoning, economic zoning, as well as in assessing natural conditions, the development of poorly populated areas and the territorial organization of production, the location of enterprises, and the creation of territorial production complexes.
The development of geography was affected by the tendencies of ideologization of geographical works with geopolitical goals. On the one hand, they influenced the development of erroneous methodological positions and “nationalist motives.” This was most clearly manifested in pre-war Germany and was associated with the idea of a “national landscape” (cultural landscapes form a special “German spirit”), “living space of the state”, and the right of domination of the Aryan race over others. This circle of ideas actually nurtured the geopolitics of K. Haushofer with fascist ideology and largely predetermined the outbreak of the Second World War. On the other hand, the ideologization of geography contributed to its division into two camps - socialist and capitalist (bourgeois), which affected the inhibition of the ideas of theoretical geography, especially in the USSR. Scientific topics were often replaced by labels: “idealism,” “saboteurs,” “denovism,” “followers of the bourgeois Hettner school,” etc. Even world-famous scientists were criticized: , etc. “Ideological struggle” led to: 1) to “divorce » physical and economic geographies, refusing to discuss their common foundations. After lengthy discussions, in 1954, by the decision of the Second Geographical Congress of Russia, physical and economic geography were finally divided into two independent sciences; 2) to the loss of such an important categorical concept of the theory of geography as “geospace”; 3) to the exclusion of “man” from geography, a complete break with demography and ethnography. On the other hand, the process of division of geography was determined by the general course of evolution of this science. As soon as geographers began an in-depth study of the phenomena of interaction between society and nature, they encountered qualitatively different patterns, which predetermined the polarization of physical and economic geographies.
The main forms of geographical generalizations in the works of geographers remained regional studies and monographic publications, very diverse in volume, content and scientific merit. These are the works of A. Penk on geomorphology, W. Christaller “Central places of southern Germany”, on the location of industry in the USSR, “Subarctic”, “Elements of the water balance of the rivers of the globe”, “ Geographical zones Soviet Union", "Palaeogeography", etc.
Geography is emerging as a field of special professional activity. The organizers of expeditionary work are specialized research institutes (Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of British Geographers). The formation of a mass profession was also underway, associated with an increase in the number of geography departments, faculties, industry courses, and the publication of textbooks for higher and secondary schools. National schools of R. Hartshorne and others are being formed.
At 70e go Yes, there is a desire to accept the ideology of the human sciences before ince go sociology... With sociologization, gManization and ecologization are also associated with the desire to take a worthy place in the sciences that ensure the survival of humanity in a rapidly changing world.
In the geography of this period, interest in issues of the unity and integrity of science, complex problems and research was clearly expressed. A geocomplex paradigm is emerging, associated with the statistical (morphological) and paleographic (genetic) study of landscapes, as well as ecological and geostructural paradigms. Such general scientific approaches and methods as math modeling, system analysis, etc.
Significant influence on the formation of the main directions and improvement of methods of geographical research in the second half of the twentieth century. had a scientific and technological revolution.
This stage, in particular, is characterized by the so-called “quantitative revolution” in geography, which began in the 60s.x years and expressed in the active use of mathematical and statistical methods in Geographical Studies (using computer programming).
It is important to note the search by geographers for spatial patterns in the distribution of productive forces, population settlement (the “theory of central places”, the theory of “growth poles” and “development centers” and other concepts), and the development of “regional science”. In world geography, there are three main approaches to understanding the object of science - spatial, regional complex and ecological-geographical.
By the end of the twentieth century. Geography has taken one of the leading places among branches of knowledge in the study of problems of environmental management, global and regional problems of interaction between society and nature, and improving the territorial organization of social life. At the same time, the desire for development increased international cooperation geographers, which is due to the increase in their responsibility for solving pressing problems of humanity, the increase in the constructive, transformative role of science.
The history of geographical ideas goes back several thousand years. It cannot be separated from human history. Primitive people received geographic information during hunting and gathering, visiting territories adjacent to their residence.
Invention of the compass, images of the Earth, sphericity
The purposeful and systematic study of the surrounding nature and human interaction with it dates back to the birth of scientific thought. European science originates in the works of ancient thinkers, but its roots go even deeper - to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. In the “cradle” of sciences – Egypt – methods (methods, techniques) of understanding the world first arose: observation, measurement, generalization. The Egyptians knew how to determine the meridian line (north-south direction), they invented writing, and possessed mathematical, astronomical and other knowledge. The earliest known maps were created in Sumer around 2700 BC. e.
The invention of the compass greatly facilitated the exploration of new territories. A compass is a device that makes it easier to navigate the terrain. Presumably, the compass was invented in China about 900-1000 years ago.
Military campaigns, trade and travel in the civilizations of the Ancient World expanded human horizons. But still, this horizon covered certain regions of the Earth, i.e. he was regional.
The development of trade and navigation in ancient times was impossible without special (geographical) knowledge about the surrounding lands and peoples. The need for this knowledge was satisfied by the so-called logographers. They made descriptions of the coasts (periples) and countries (perigeses). The first scientific method with which a person learned about the world around him was the descriptive method. People have tried to depict the surface of the Earth and the planet itself in different ways.
Later, based on his works, the Greek scientist Ptolemy managed to make the first perfect maps. More than 2000 years ago, scientists determined that the Earth has the shape of a ball (sphere). The hypothesis that the earth is round was put forward by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle: He observed the movements of the Moon and the Sun during the day, which allowed him to draw a similar correct conclusion. In the Middle Ages, the sphericity of the earth was a general scientific fact.
The ancient Greek mathematician Eratosthenes made a significant contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. He was the first to develop a system of meridians and parallels and determine the size of the planet. Eratosthenes's work on geography has survived to this day in relatively large fragments. In addition, based on his observations and calculations, Eratosthenes created a map of the Earth's surface.
Eratosthenes Map
In subsequent times, many geographic maps were also created as new territories were discovered. Of course, these maps were far from ideal, but they were still of great importance and were an indicator of the progress of geographical knowledge.
Ptolemy's Map
Discovery of America, Australia, Antarctica
Sea travel was very dangerous, but merchants who grew rich from overseas trade and conquerors who wanted to annex new territories sent one expedition after another.
During the period of the Great Geographical Discoveries, the first globe was created in Germany. Noteworthy is the fact that it did not depict the territories of Northern and South America since the legendary journey Christopher Columbus was still in the future.
Aristotle's version that the Earth is spherical was finally confirmed only in 1522, when Magellan's round-the-world expedition crossed the Pacific Ocean.
Australia was discovered in the 17th century.
Antarctica was discovered on January 16 (28), 1820 by a Russian expedition led by Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev, who approached the mainland on the Vostok and Mirny boats.
The names of discoverers and explorers are preserved on geographical maps; various geographical objects are named after them (for example, Cook Island, the Laptev Sea, the Strait of Magellan, etc.).
Modern research
Now all the continents, islands, seas, oceans are open, and the Earth is clearly visible from space. Currently, there is a more detailed study of the surface of the planet, the ocean floor, the interior of the Earth, the study of the Earth from space, cause-and-effect relationships, climatic phenomena using modern devices and knowledge. When studying the Earth, not only geographical methods and knowledge are actively used, but also the achievements of many other sciences.
Bibliography
Main
1. Basic course in geography: Textbook. for 6th grade. general education institutions / T.P. Gerasimova, N.P. Neklyukova. – 10th ed., stereotype. – M.: Bustard, 2010. – 176 p.
2. Geography. 6th grade: atlas. – 3rd ed., stereotype. – M.: Bustard, DIK, 2011. – 32 p.
3. Geography. 6th grade: atlas. – 4th ed., stereotype. – M.: Bustard, DIK, 2013. – 32 p.
4. Geography. 6th grade: cont. cards. – M.: DIK, Bustard, 2012. – 16 p.
Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical collections
1. Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia / A.P. Gorkin - M.: Rosman-Press, 2006. - 624 p.
Materials on the Internet
1. Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().
Chapter 2
The history of science is a special branch scientific knowledge, which analyzes facts, hypotheses, theories, teachings related to different periods. The historical process of development of all sciences has similar features: science, as a rule, reflects the characteristics of the life of society in a given period; the development of scientific knowledge proceeds in a spiral, each turn of which is a collection of facts and their generalization at a level appropriate to a given era; processes of differentiation and integration take place in the sciences; the depth of theoretical thought depends both on the quality and quantity of facts, and on the influence of philosophical teachings that determine the methodology of private science; As scientific knowledge accumulates, the mutual influence of the sciences increases.
The history of geography is no exception - a branch of geographical science that studies in mutual connection the history of the territorial discovery of the Earth (the history of travel) and the history of the development of geographical ideas. The history of science in general and geography in particular allows us to correctly evaluate the experience of accumulated scientific knowledge and its benefits for the modern period of development of science. Poor knowledge of the history of science often leads to repeated “discoveries” of thoughts and positions that were well known in the past. It is no coincidence that they say: “The new is the well-forgotten old.” Thus, geographers of the 19th – early 20th centuries. Integration research has been quite successfully developed, which we are now trying to revive. Issues of environmental protection were not alien to them, although the human impact on nature was incomparably less in those days. We do not know the “secrets” of the creation of scientific geographical schools both in pre-revolutionary and Soviet times.
The history of geography is complex science, requiring from the researcher not only deep geographical knowledge, but also great erudition in matters of history and the history of philosophy. It is no coincidence that major works on the history of geography (including the history of geographical ideas) belong to such prominent scientists as D. N. Anuchin, L. S. Berg, V. A. Obruchev, O. Peshel, K. Ritter, P. P. Semenov and others, and detailed reports were compiled by M. S. Bodnarsky, V. A. Esakov, A. B. Ditmar, A. G. Isachenko, I. P. Magidovich and others.
§ 1. GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE
PRIMITIVE PEOPLES
We find the beginnings of geographical knowledge among primitive peoples. They can now be judged by individual “traces” of the past, for example, by rock paintings, or by analogy with the knowledge of currently existing tribes that are at a low level of development. In addition, practical skills related to the perception of the natural environment were inherited. It also allows us to draw some conclusions about geographical knowledge in the distant past.
Of course, our ancestors were pragmatists: they were forced to acquire geographical knowledge a vital necessity. First of all, this was knowledge about the location of individual territories that were used for economic purposes. Thus, hunters needed to know and be able to find places rich in game, and fishermen needed to find places rich in fish. When people took up productive activities (livestock raising, agriculture), the importance of geographical knowledge increased: Nomadic tribes needed places convenient for grazing and shelters for livestock. It is no coincidence that modern pastoralists - Arabs, Turkmens, Kazakhs, etc. - use a large number of names that characterize the quality of pasture lands. People began to evaluate areas even more differentiated when they began farming. Initially it was slashing, i.e. The forest was burned out and a field was built in its place. It did not exist for long - the soil lost fertility (people did not know fertilizers) and was abandoned by farmers. Thus, significant areas of forest were burned in the tropical and temperate zones. It is typical that the places of old cuttings were remembered and information about them was passed on to descendants. In addition, the farmers knew well the places where they could build a new field.
Representatives of primitive peoples were distinguished by keen powers of observation and were well oriented in space. The famous Russian traveler and writer V.K. Arsenyev characterizes his companion, the goldfish Dersu Uzal, as follows: “What was incomprehensible to me seemed simple and clear to him. Sometimes he noticed traces where, with all my desire to see something, I saw nothing. And he saw that the old mother of the red deer and the one-year-old calf had passed by. They plucked the leaves of the meadowsweet, then quickly ran away, obviously frightened by something... There were no secrets for this amazing man. He knew everything that happened here" 1.
N. N. Miklouho-Maclay repeatedly noted the great observation skills of representatives of the Papua tribe.
It is amazing how the inhabitants of Oceania swam across open (without islands) areas of the ocean, guided by the position of the stars and the regular lines formed by the waves, which they crossed at a certain angle. The famous scientist Thor Heyerdahl repeated individual routes of ancient navigators, proving their feasibility even in the most unfavorable circumstances. The ancient inhabitants of tropical rainforests, steppes, and tundra never got lost, were well oriented and always skillfully found their way. This is evidenced by modern travelers who communicated with their distant descendants.
§ 2. GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
ANCIENT CULTURAL PEOPLES
To the hearths ancient civilization in the East include primarily Babylonia, Egypt and Ancient China. On the geographical knowledge of ancient cultural eastern peoples can be judged from written sources. It is known that they invented writing - first cuneiform and hieroglyphs, then the alphabet. Thus, reliable geographical information has reached us since the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. (the famous French scientist J.F. Champollion was the first to decipher ancient Egyptian writing in the last century). In addition to travel tales, there have been preserved ancient maps and plans. So, there is a plan for Babylon, which flourished in the 19th-6th centuries. BC e. city-states on the river Euphrates, a map of gold-bearing areas located between the Nile and the Red Sea, a map of the world on a clay tablet, etc.
The ancient Egyptians who lived in the river basin. Nile, had ideas about the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, discovered the Sinai Peninsula, and sailed the Red Sea. In the south they reached Nubia, apparently to the first tributary of the Nile - the river. Barns, subjugating this territory. In the west they penetrated into the Libyan Desert, and in the north, probably into the Aegean Sea. Apparently, they had no idea about the western part of the Mediterranean Sea. The Egyptian Sinuhit traveled east through South Asia.
The ancient Phoenicians, who lived on a small area of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea between the sea and the Lebanese mountains, were also brave sailors. In addition to the Mediterranean Sea, which they knew well, they had an idea of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. In the VI century. BC e. Phoenicians initiated Egyptian pharaoh Necho II made a three-year journey around Africa. In the 5th century BC e. Carthaginian envoy Hanno led a naval expedition to West Africa, apparently reaching the shores of Sierra Leone.
Culture and science achieved great development in Mesopotamia, in the area between the Tigris and Euphrates, where for many centuries there were two states: Babylon in the south and Assyria in the north. These kingdoms are characterized by the construction of huge stone buildings, swimming pools, irrigation systems, active trade, developed agriculture and livestock breeding.
Trade, as we know, is a good incentive to get to know other countries and establish cultural and other contacts with them. It also leads to the accumulation of geographical knowledge. Sometimes military campaigns play a similar role, especially when scientists take part in them, and military leaders are educated and inquisitive. The Babylonians traded with peoples living in the interior of the Iranian plateau, east of the Caspian Sea, and possibly with India. The Assyrians fought a lot: they defeated Elam, the southern province of modern Iran, attacked the Medes who lived along the shores of the Caspian Sea, and conquered Israel. They had connections with Urartu, a state located on the Armenian Highlands, and with Phenicia. The first ideas about the Caspian Sea, recorded in sources, date back to the 6th century. BC e. Already the ancient Persians considered it as a huge lake. Having overcome the Kopet Dag, they penetrated into Central Asia - into the Karakum desert, the upper reaches of the Syr Darya, the Fergana Basin, etc. It is also known that the ancient Persians, having overcome the Hindu Kush, entered the Indus basin. All these campaigns were prepared with the goal of seizing the territory of neighboring and even distant countries. The ancient Persians also organized sea expeditions. The most interesting are the results of the expedition of Skilak of Karnad, who, having descended the Indus and passed the Arabian Sea, entered the Red Sea and ended his journey in the Gulf of Suez. Hearth highly developed civilization ancient Chinese was located in northeast China, in the Yellow River basin. The geographical horizons of the Chinese were quite broad. This was due to the expansion of the state's borders to the east and west, the establishment of trade relations with neighboring countries, as well as the attention they paid to geographical descriptions and mapping. The movement of the Chinese to the east began 1000 BC. e. They reached the Pacific Ocean, sailed along the marginal seas, discovered the Japanese islands of Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and were on the Korean coast and in Vietnam. On the west of the border Chinese state reached the Tibetan Plateau.
Of great interest is the geographical information of the ancient Chinese about mountains, lands (they compiled special reports on the profitability of land), and rivers, partly included in the book “Shi-jin” (8th century BC). The Chinese knew how to draw maps, according to G.S. Tikhomirov they even had a special mapping bureau. They knew the properties of the magnetic needle, the gnomon; cards were made from wooden cliches.
For a long time, the Chinese did not have sufficient information about the regions located to the northwest of the Chinese state, that is, about Central and Central Asia. The first to visit there was the famous traveler and ambassador Zhang Tsang. He circled the Pamirs, got acquainted with the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, the outskirts of the Taklamakan desert and other areas. The path laid by the traveler was later followed by merchants who established close trade ties with the peoples of Central and then Western Asia. Ties between China and India have also improved.
The importance of the information obtained by the ancient Chinese can hardly be overestimated: long before the new era, they had a correct (at that time) understanding of the geographical features of Asia, and compiled unique descriptions and maps. Only the isolation of China did not allow Europeans in ancient times and the Middle Ages to become acquainted with these materials.
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