The place of grammar in linguistics.

GRAMMAR

B. Litvinov

"____" ___________________ 2012

Comments and suggestions on the content of the lecture: _______________________

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In order to build a statement expressing a certain thought, it is not enough to choose the appropriate words and pronounce them one by one. The chosen words, or rather, the words selected by the speaker as the speech unfolds, must be connected to each other in a certain order and framed as a single complex purposefully included in the communication situation.

The totality of the patterns of constructing such complexes from individual words through their categorical change and ordered combination with each other constitutes the grammatical structure of the language studied by the science of grammar.

Grammar(Greek Grammatike, from gramma - letter, spelling):

1) the structure of the language, i.e. a system of morphological categories and forms, syntactic categories and constructions, methods of word production;

2) a branch of linguistics that studies such a system, its multi-level organization, its categories and their relationship to each other;

3) the term "grammar" is sometimes also used to refer to functions of individual grammatical categories or lexico-grammatical sets. So, for example, they talk about the grammar of a particular part of speech or the grammar of a particular case, infinitive, individual prepositions.

The grammatical structure of the language is historical category, it is in a state of constant movement and development and is subject to the general laws of language development. At each stage of its history, the grammatical structure of the language is quite perfect and serves to form and express the thoughts of native speakers, meeting its historical purpose.

At a certain point in its development, the grammatical structure of a language is, on the one hand, a relatively stable system organized according to strict and firm laws; on the other hand, this system is in a state of constant and active functioning, presenting its means for organizing an infinite number of individual, specific words and utterances.

In linguistics, there are theoretical and practical grammar.

Subject of study theoretical grammar. Grammar as a science studies the grammatical structure of a language.

The goals of theoretical grammar are to reveal what is really, really used in the process of communication: what are the language units, what is the form of these units and what meanings are expressed by these forms.

Theoretical grammar deals with questions of grammatical meaning, grammatical form and grammatical category.

Grammar is practical. Traditionally, grammar is defined as a system of rules for changing words and rules for combining words in a sentence.

Hence the division of grammar into two parts: morphology (rules for changing words) and syntax (rules for combining words in a sentence). This is true of practical grammar. Its task is to teach how to use the language correctly, to avoid mistakes in oral and written speech.

Grammar sections. Each complete scientific grammar represents the following departments:

1) phonetics or the doctrine of the sound system of a given language, which contains an accurate description of sounds and their presentation mutual relations;

2) morphology - the doctrine of the external form of the language, decomposing into two parts: a) word formation (from roots, suffixes and prefixes) and b) inflection, or inflection (declension, conjugation); the doctrine of the morpheme as the minimum two-way linguistic unit;

3) syntax , or the doctrine of the combination of words in a sentence and the combination of sentences among themselves.

Ultimately, all language tools serve the same purpose - the implementation of meaningful communication. The rules of morphology and syntax are organically intertwined in the functioning of the language system. It is important to understand the dynamics of their interaction.

Practical English Grammar

Larisa Romanova

Foreword

The collection of exercises is intended for teachers of English in schools and universities, high school students, applicants and a wide range of people who study English and want to repeat the main sections of grammar.

The purpose of the textbook is to systematize the knowledge gained at school and prepare for entrance exams to higher educational institutions.

The manual contains exercises covering the following sections of English grammar: article, noun, adjective, pronoun, adverb, numeral, verb (infinitive, tense, voice, modal and “problem” verbs), tense agreement, use of prepositions and etc. The manual consists of 22 sections (Units), each of which is devoted to a specific grammatical topic (The Noun, The Verb, etc.). The types of exercises are quite diverse: this is substitution, and the creation of logical chains, paraphrase, multiple choice, translation from Russian into English and from English into Russian,

text assignments, etc. The system of exercises within the sections is built on the principle “from simple to complex”. This allows you to use the collection at the initial, continued to the advanced stages of learning English.

The manual contains 10 tests, the task of which is to check the learned material. The first eight tests are located after sections united by a common topic (for example, the first test is given after studying the topics The Noun, Noun Structures and The Possessive Case). The last two tests (Final Tests) are generalizing, so it is recommended to perform them after mastering all the grammatical material.

All exercises and tests are provided with answers. This makes it possible to check the correctness of the tasks and pay attention to gaps in the knowledge of grammar.

Exercise 1.

Write the plural form of the following. A regular noun

story, play, glass, flag, photo, name, match, knife, bush, chief, page, radio, roof, prize, set, key, factory, wolf, piano, class, cup, city

The irregular nouns

child, goose, man, foot, mouse, woman, sheep, person, deer, tooth, ox

With nouns of Greek or Latin origin

criterion, datum, formula, crisis, stimulus, index, phenomenon, medium, oasis, nucleus, memorandum, basis, radius, analysis, symposium, hypothesis

D compound nouns

fellow-worker, merry-go-round, man-of-war, passer-by, sister-in-law, forget-me-not, room-mate, lily-of-the-valley, ticket-holder, commander- in-chief, governor-general

Divide the following words into two columns: countable and uncountable nouns (you must get 25 uncountable nouns).

furniture, coffee, leaf, food, computer, list, blood, job, work, language, country, advice, information, money, progress, permit, permission, baggage, luggage, beach, traffic, weather, window, knowledge, air, water, holiday, damage, accommodation, scenery, scene, pigeon, bread, mountain, kick, news, accident, laugh, flour, laughter

Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the words in bold type.

equipment. 5. His work is rather dull, he thinks. 6. Do you have scales? I want to weigh this fish. 7. Celsius or Fahrenheit scales are used in many countries. 8.1 spilled the water, give me a cloth, please. 9. Have you bought cloth for draperies? 10. He's got his car insurance police. 11. She always criticizes the government's policy. 12.1 need an iron to press my dress. 13. These items are made of iron. 14. There is neither salt nor pepper on the table. 15. He planted several peppers in the hothouse. 16. Would you like some chocolate? 17. She took aehowlate out of the box. 18. He meets a lot of people every day. 19. A lot of different people live in Asia. 20. They run a very profitablebHsiness somewhere in South Africa. 21. Business is an essential part of American life.

Match the word on the left with its partner on the right.

Example: a piece		music - a piece of music
			Q) ice

Change the uncountable nouns in bold type into countable ones in the sentences using the words from Exercise 4.

Example: Buy some bread or. your way home. - Buy a loaf of bread on your way home. 1.I hadluck in the casino yesterday. 2.1 sawlightening and then heardthunder in the west. 3. How muchluggage have you got with you? 4. Would you like some more cake? 5. Daddy brought me milk chocolate! 6, He blewsmoke out of his pipe into the open window. 7", How muchsugar do you take with your tea? 8. We need to buy somefurniture for our kitchen. 9. Give me please brown shoepolish . 10, He told us very interestinginformation last night,

Write out the nouns which are used only in the plural form (you must get 25 nouns).

athletics, cattle, scissors, taxes, pajamas, economics, police, news, means, goods, pants, subjects, billiards, darts, outskirts, premises, mechanics, spectacles, clothes, stairs, maths, shorts, tights, gymnastics, congratulations, crossroads, patience, scales, lodgings, foundations, equipment, research, authorities, soap, contents, looks, countryside, traffic-lights, tongs, toothpaste, headphones, delays, binoculars, electronics, eyes, trousers

Complete the following table and give the corresponding singular or plural form of the nouns, if any. If there is no corresponding form, put a v. The first two words are given as examples.

means, scissors, pence, Frenchman, Roman, photo, physics, cloth, sheep, halves, news, sleeves, mice, species, contents, athletics, series, knowledge, feet, phenomena, clothes, bases, headquarters, Japanese

Find the odd word in the chain of the nouns. Example: tea - butter - onions - meat

1) trousers - spectacles - scales - news 2) advice - knowledge - contents - progress 3) phonetics - vacation - goods - information 4) criteria - datum - oases - radii 5) mice - men - goats - geese 6) police - work - weather - furniture 7) congress - team - government - equipment 8) water - potato - milk - bread 9) time - business - stone -

bird 10) means - species - crossroads - wolves 11) thanks - barracks - congratulations - authorities 12) diagnoses - roofs - cattle - accommodation 13) premises - mechanics - darts - laughter 14) success - research - applause - path 15) journey - voyage - travel - walk

Open the brackets and choose the proper form.

1.1 feel that the jury already (have/has) thought that you are innocent. 2. The government (was/were) not able to pursue the policy which had been promised before the elections. 3. The police (is/are) investigating the case now. 4. The crew of the plane (consist/consists) of four people. 5. His company (was/were) founded in 1996. 6. The party (was/were) in full swing. The music was playing, the company (was/were) eating and drinking. 7. My family (is / are) early risers, so at 11 o "clock p.m. the family (is / are) always in bed. 8. The cattle (is / are) in the field next to it. 9. The committee (is/are) full of enthusiasm 10. Such an organization as the board of directors (is/are) elected by stockholders 11. The ship turned out to be a good ship,the crew (was/were) skilled seamen. 12, The government usually (consist/consists) of the prime minister and several ministers 13. The average American family (have/has) three children.

14. The jury (is/are) represented by twelve people. 15. The crops (is/arc) good this summer,

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verb to be A

1, The crew___rescued by our boat, 2. Her clothes ___very fashionable. 3, Your advice___.always welcome. 4. The information he gave us___very useful. 5A little money___better than nothing. 6. That species of spiders ___commonly seen in the deserts of North Africa. 7.1 think her hair___dyed. 8. No news.___good news. 9.1 don "t want to work here. The equipment___too complicated. 10. There___a lot of sheep in the field. 11.1 think this

detailed research. 12. Where___my performances? 13. The phenomena___ unusual. 14. Mathematics___ difficult, but physics___more difficult to my mind. 15, The cattle___up the hill. 1. Look out! The stairs___.very old. 2. In my opinion, looks___very important for an actor. 3. The police___ responsible for these actions. 4. Criteria___changing, you know. 5. The committee___set up several months ago. 6. The traffic___very heavy in this street. Be careful

at the corner. When the traffic-lights ___ red, don "t cross the street. 7. The working wages ___

up. 8. The knowledge she has got at college___very deep. 9. The carrots___delicious. 10. The vacation___always fun. 11. The funeral ___ usually a sad occasion. 12. The evidence___against him. 13. The contents of the letter ___made public. 14. The opera-glasses___out of focus.

15. The grapes_ripe.

Match the words on the left (1-10) with the appropriate phrases on the right (a-j) to get 10

			are located outside
	Our headquarters		she lent us was not
			is an important part of
		the Olympic Games.
			are often deceptive.
		f) is installed in our new
			against applying for
		that job was good.
		h) was not reliable. It was
		published in tabloids.
		i) is always printed in
		morning newspapers.
		j) where he worked

Find the mistakes in the following sentences and correct them. Some sentences have more than one mistake.

1. We had such a terrible weather that we left the hotel in the country (we did not have heatings there) and took an accommodation with a fire place in town instead. 2. Yesterday I got a permission to go there. What about you? Have you got your permits? 3.1 love French impressionists but I would need an advice from a specialist before I bought any. My knowledge in that area are very poor. 4. Her works are definitely making great progresses these days. She has done a lot of researches lately. 5. Have you heard that Jack's lodging is in London, but in the outskirt of the city? These are interesting news, aren't they? 6. The police is looking for the criminals who escaped last night. The informations about them were sent to all the police stations

of the district. 7, Political and economic crises is frequent for Africa. 8. How many luggages are you taking? Oh, I think you won't be able to cope with them. You'll have to hire a porter. 9. Last week was awful for her. She had two tooth pulled out, her childs got ill and finally her husband lost moneys. 10. The tights is too loose for her.

Translate the sentences into English.

1. His advice is always so convincing (convincing). Why don't you ever follow them? 2. What a nasty weather! In this rainy weather, it is better to stay at home. 3. She is making good progress in English, 4. I am surprised (be surprised) that she believed this strange news. I'm afraid they are incorrect. Who told her? 5. I think these scales are broken. 6. Yesterday I put money here. Where are they? I can not find them. 7. I think that the premises for our store is quite suitable. 8. I don't like these jeans. I think that pair of jeans is better. 9. The crew was ready to fulfill (fulfil) the order of the captain. 10. Criteria change frequently, 11. Your products are very poorly made. 12. Nick needs to sew (sew) new trousers. I have a nice blue cloth. 13. He bought a loaf of bread, a carton of milk, a bar of soap and a tube of toothpaste. 14. Price information is very interesting. 15. There is no traffic light here, and the intersection is a very dangerous place. 16. Species of these plants (plant) are unknown. 17. Suddenly I heard a loud laugh behind me, 18. His knowledge of mathematics is better than mine, 19. Did you take the binoculars? No, we won't need it. Our seats are in the second row. 20. The evidence was important and he felt that the jury was against him. 21. In England, workers are paid every week. 22. The actors were greeted with applause. 23. My watch is slow. 24. Carrots are rich in vitamins. 25. She thinks that modern clothes are beautiful and comfortable (convenient)

Read and translate the following compound nouns. Find compounds which are countable (8), uncountable (6) and those which are used either in the singular (6) or the plural (6).

heart attack, greenhouse effect, luxury goods, pedestrian crossing, contact lens, package holiday, food poisoning, mother tongue, birth control, roadworks, human rights, arms race, alarm clock, pocket money, hay fever, blood donor, blood pressure, data processing, generation gap, kitchen scissors, assembly line, sunglasses, labor force, race relations,windscreen wiper,brain drain Exercise 15. Match the words on the left (1-10) with their definitions on the right (a-j).

			your first language
			money you pay on your
			an office where you buy
		tickets for trains
		d) an office where you buy
		tickets for cinemas
			a person who patrols
		streets to make sure you are not parked in the wrong place illegally
		f) a knife for opening
	greenhouse effect		a person who looks
			after children when their parents are out
		h) a long line of cars
		which move slowly because the road is busy
	a traffic warden	i) it is caused by hair

sprays and old fridges 10) a tin opener j) every policeman has

Rewrite the following phrases according to the example.

Example: a factory which produces automobiles - an automobile factory a man who drives a bus - a bus driver a machine that washes dishes - a dish washer paper for writing letters - writing paper

1) a shop that sells books; 2) an editor of a newspaper; 3) a person who pays taxes; 4) a brush for shoes; 5) cake made with raisin; 6) a garage for cars; 7) a company which provides insurance; 8) a bag made of leather; 9) a tool for sharpening pencils; 10) a book which has checks; 11) a machine for washing clothes; 12) a license to drive a car; 13) a person who dresses and cuts hair; 14) au office that sells tickets; 15) a device for opening tins.

A Make up compound structures according to the example. Example: a child who is five years old - a five year old child

1) a man whose height is six feet; 2) a walk which covers three miles; 3) a program which lasts half an hour; 4) a flight which takes two hours and a half; 5) a hotel having four stars; 6) a lorry which can carry 5 tons; 7) a field of fifty acres.

In Paraphrase the sentences according to the example.

Example: She's got a flat of two rooms. - She's got a two-room flat. His trip lasted four days. - He had a four-day trip,

1. He covered a distance of two miles. 2, Her holiday in California lasted 10 days, 3. They decided to take an interval of three hours. 4. She lives in a building that has sixteen stores. 5. His call to Paris lasted five minutes. 6. While I was on holiday I met two charming girls of twenty years old. 7. He saw a film of two series yesterday. 8. She bought two bags of potatoes that weigh five kilos. 9. He gave us a banknote of fifty dollars to change. 10.1 wrote a composition which covered twenty pages.

The Possessive Case

Paraphrase the following using the possessive case. Example: The son of our manager - our manager's son

A1) the house of Mr. Smith; 2) a doll of the girls; 3) the works of Rembrandt; 4) a toy of the baby; 5) a meeting of the employees; 6) the bags of those women; 7) the orders of our boss; 8) the books of the children; 9) the cottage of my parents; 10) a garage of her cousin.

B 1) coal deposits of the world; 2) the influence of the sun; 3) the atmosphere of the earth; 4) the joys and grieves of life; 5) the arrival of the ship; 6) icy mountains of Greenland; 7) the policy of the company; 8) gold reserves of Russia; 9) the gravity of the planet; 10) the decisions of the commission.

С 1) the mother of Kate and Mary; 2) the children of my aunt Ann; 3) the paintings by Picasso and Dali; 4) the gun of the commander-in-chief; 5) the times of Ivan the Terrible; 6) the speech of the Minister of Foreign Trade; 7) the correspondent of the Herald Tribune; 8) a flat of my father-in-law; 9) the wives of Henry the Eighth; 10) oil wells of Saudi Arabia.

D 1) a cruise which lasts three weeks; 2) work which takes two hours; 3) a distance of five kilometres; 4) the operation which lasted four hours; 5) the flight which took three hours; 6) a semester of eight weeks; 7) the rest which lasted an hour; 8) a play of three acts; 9) a football match which lasts ninety minutes; 10) a telephone conversation which lasts three minutes.

Exercise 19.

Paraphrase the following using the possessive case.

Example: I must sleep 9 hours a day to feel well. - / must have nine-hours^ sleep to feel well. one. Every day at noon we have a break, which lasts fifteen minutes. 2.1 can "t understand why he is so tired. The distance he covered is a mile only. 3. The walk to the station was short. It took us ten minutes. 4. Last year we spent two weeks in Greece. The holiday was terrific. 5. If you want to get there.a trip will take you only five hours. 6. Don't take a training course that lasts a week. It won "t do you good. 7.1 slept only five hours yesterday because my train came late. 8. Yesterday our lesson lasted thirty minutes because oar teacher was to leave at 12 o" clock. 9. If you want to have a voyage round Europe, you will need at least three weeks. 10. My workweek lasts five days.

Exercise 20.

Replace the nouns in the possessive case by the prepositional groups where possible. Example: He always takes his brothers" bocks. - He always takes books of his brothers.

1. The only thing she wanted was to see her parents "house again. 2. No one could explain the young girl"s behavior at yesterday"s supper. 3. Last Sunday"s rugby match was disappointing. Our team lost. 4. The boy was looking through a children "s magazine. 5. After an hour" s break we resumed our work. 6. At that time he lived In a little flat for economy "s sake. 7. It was four and a half hours" ride, 8.1 don "t like cow" s milk. 9. He was puzzled by Ann and Peter "s visit. 10. When Friday came, he was at his wit" s ends. 11. She dropped in at the chemist's to buy some aspirin. 12. This is John's coat, and that is Peter's.

Translate into English using noun structures.

1. The President arrived in the country on a three-day visit (2 options). 2. I need to buy shoes. Do you know where the shoe department is? 3. Nobody knew what to say, and there was a moment's silence. 4. When in the morning he went down to the dining room, on the table lay the remnants (remains) of yesterday's dinner. 5. The report of the commander-in-chief was brief. 6. It seems to me that the problem of "fathers and children" is an eternal (eternal) problem. 7. This road is closed. Road works are underway. 8. "Brain drain" is an acute (acute) problem of developing (developing) countries. 9. Do you think that birth control should be implemented in China? 10. The arrival of Paul and Ket was a surprise (surprise) for Aunt Enya. 11. The richest deposits (deposits) of oil are in the United Arab Emirates. 12. The problems that humanity (mankind) faced (face) at the end of the twentieth century are pollution (pollution)no4Bbi, air and water, as well as the "greenhouse effect". 13. After a two-hour walk, everyone wanted to eat (2 options). 14, Portrait of Rembrandt's wife is one of the artist's most famous paintings. 15, This castle is three hundred years old.

Choose the right option.

1. His advice___always reasonable. I advise you to follow___.

2. The applause___deafening. I can't stand___any longer. Let's go out.

3. The second witness "s evidence ___ more convincing. ___ made me believe that the suspect is

4. Look, her clothes___brand new. Where did she get the money to buy___?

5. The Browns who lived in___house___dining with the Harrisons who___their best friends.

a) a three-storey, were, were	c) a three-storey "s, were, were
b) three-storeys, were, was	d) three-storeys", was, were

	The information he gave us___convincing. I don't think we should check___.
	Her pajamas___made of silk. I like_very much.
	These scissors___dull! I can't cut anything with

9. When I move to London, I "ll have to find lodgings. I" m afraid ___ will be very expensive and I "ll have to pay for ___ half of my salary,

10.1 think billiards___a dull game. I wonder why the youth nowadays___so fond of___?

11. He is so depressed. The contents of the letter___ made public. General

public___discussing___.
a) have been, is, them	c) have been, are, them
b) has been, are, it	d) has been, is, it

12 Look! Goods___displayed in the window. The manager says that there will be_sale.

13. Our family ___		good at playing drafts. Draughts_our favorite game. We
play___every weekend.
		c) are, are, them

14. Stop! The traffic___heavy and the traffic lights ___red. In___time you will cross the street.

	is, is, two-minutes		are, is, a two-minutes"
b) are, are, a two-minute			is, are, two-minutes"
15. He spent___holiday at the___,
	a week, Richardsons"		weeks, Richardsons
	week's, Richardson		week, Richardson's

16. She was going for___walk across the fields to the___house. She was sure that he would help her because it was the duty of___to help poor people like her.

a) a ten-miles, governor "s-general, governor-generals b) a ten-mile"s, governor-general "s, governors-general c) a ten-mile, governor-general"s, governor-generals d) ten miles", governor-generals", governors-general

17. She wished she had a little garden with___and like that of___.

a) lilies-of-the-valleys, forgets-me-nots, Mrs. Sand

b) lily-of-the-valleys, forget-me-nots, Mrs. Sand's

c) lilies-of-the-valiey, forget-me-nots, Mrs. Sand's

d) lilies-of-the-valleys, forgets-me-not, Mrs. Sand

18. Take your___and get out with___! You got my ___ notice, didn't you? a) belonging, it, two weeks c) belongings, them, two week's

b) belongings, it, a two weeks d) belongings, them, two week's

19. We want to equip our factory with___and to install___ in the assembly shop.

a) new machines, them		new machines, it
b) a new machinery, it		new machinery, it

20. Have you got all the___of Byron in your home library? - Yes, I have, but I haven't read all of ___.

Unit 4 Quantifiers

Paraphrase the following words in bold type using little, a little, few, a few. Example: There is hardly any wine in the bottle. - There is little wine in the bottle. The chairman said some words. - The chairman said & few words.

1.1 can "t help you. I have hardly any time. 2. Mr. Brown, can I come and see you today? I" d like to ask you some questions. 3. It is no use asking him about it. He has hardly any knowledge of the subject. 4.1 go to the theater when I have some money and free time. 5. Is there much chalk in the box? - No, there is hardly any here. 6. He drank some water and felt much better. 7. There was hardly any tea in the cup, so he poured some more. 8. Hardly any people understood what he said. 9. There are some carrots in the box. 10. Mummy, may I have some ice cream? 11. Many years ago some people realized the significance of this discovery. 12. There was hardly any doubt that the problem could be solved in the near future. 13. We didn't have to take a porter. We had hardly any luggage. 14.1 think he is rather greedy. He buys hardly any things for himself. 15. We have received some valuable information. I think it will help us a lot.

Fill in the blanks with little, a little, few, a few.

1. I "d like to make___remarks in connection with the topic under discussion. 2.___peopJe realize how important it is to go in for sports. 3. This student has deep knowledge in English and besides he knows___ French. 4. He is a man of.___words. 5. Only___names remained in his memory, for this accident happened more than 20 years ago, 6. That lecture was so difficult that only___students could understand it. 7.1 had ___ hope of getting home tonight because I realized that I had lost my way. 8. The postman doesn't often come here. We receive___letters. 9. I "m having___trouble fixing this shelf. - Oh dear! Can I help you? 10.1 shall be away for___.days from tomorrow. 11. When you"ve wanted something very badly and it comes at last, it is somehow ___ frightening . 12. It was a cold windy evening, and there were ___ people in the park. 13. There were no doctors for the wounded, and to make things worse there was only ___ food left. 14. She asked permission to speak to the guest for ___ moments, 15.1 won "t listen to you! I" d like to believe that there is ___ hope left.

Paraphrase the following sentences using the words from the box. Few, a few, quite a few, little, a little

1. Only some pupils wrote the test. 2. A small number of people live to be 80 in Russia. 3.1 have not much time for studying. 4. He had a considerable number of mistakes in his dictation. 5. She has got some time to prepare for the report.

Translate into English using little, a little, few, a few.

1. Jim asked me to fix (repair) the car yesterday, but I had little time, and

Moscow: Veche, 199 eight . - 448s.

Given tutorial, the author of which has rich teaching experience, is addressed primarily to those who seek to independently learn English and master its grammar. Original teaching methodology, examples from Everyday life, simplicity and clarity of presentation, of course, will make this book useful both for beginners to learn the language, and for those who want to deepen their knowledge in the field of colloquial speech and grammar.

The author in no way claims that the material presented in this book is absolutely complete and sufficient in order to master the English language perfectly. All sections only reflect the author's personal view on the problem of learning English as a foreign language and personal perception of this problem, which may turn out to be congenial for some people and thereby help to facilitate their work to some extent.

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INTRODUCTION 5

SECTION I. GRAMMAR. TOPICS AND RULES. ten

TOPIC 1: BUILDING A SIMPLE ENGLISH SENTENCE. ten

How to work with formulas and tables. eleven

What parts formulas consist of, and what each part serves. 12

How to find out, regular verb or wrong? thirteen

How to put the found formula in the time corresponding to the described situation? fourteen

Forms of auxiliary verbs depending on tense, person and number. fifteen

to be 15

to have 15

FUTURE (Future tense). fifteen

Sequence of work when translating sentences from Russian into English. 17

Let's consolidate the studied material with examples. 17

How to choose the nature of the action. nineteen

1. INDEFINITE. nineteen

2. CONTINUOUS. 20

3. PERFECT. 21

perfect present. 21

Perfect past. 22

perfect future. 22

perfect continuous ( has no shape passive). 23

Perfect Continuous Present. 23

Perfect Continuous Past. 23

Perfect Continuous Future. 24

Sequence of work when translating sentences from English into Russian. 24

Addendum to Topic 1: The use of adverbs that influence the choice of the nature of the action. 27

Rule 1: Word order in an English sentence. thirty

Rule 2: Construction of negative sentences. thirty

Rule 3: Possessive pronouns. 34

Rule 4: Pronouns in the objective case. 36

Rule 5: Article. 37

TOPIC 2. PREPOSITIONS. 41

Addendum to Topic 2: Postpositions. 47

Rule 6: Possessive noun. fifty

Rule 7: Noun in the definition function. 51

TOPIC 3. MODAL VERBS AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS. 53

Modal verbs. 53

Equivalents of modal verbs. 54

Addition to Topic 3: Using the verbs shall / will / need / dare in the meaning of modal. 55

Rule 8: Use of numbers. 57

Numerals in fractions. 58

Some features of the use of numerals in colloquial speech. 59

Rule 9: Degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs. 60

Rule 10: Demonstrative pronouns. 62

Rule 11: The words every / some / any / now. derivatives from them. 62

Rule 12: Building a sentence in the imperative mood. 65

Rule 13: Construction of indefinitely personal / impersonal sentences. 66

Rule 14: There + to be sentences. 67

Using there+to-be sentences. 67

Rule 15: Reflexive and intensifying pronouns. 69

TOPIC 4. QUESTIONS. 71

General issues. 71

Special questions. 74

alternative questions. 77

Separation questions. 77

SECTION II. GRAMMAR. CONSTRUCTION OF COMPLEX ENGLISH SENTENCES. 79

TOPIC 5: RELATED SENTENCES. 82

WHAT or THAT? 85

TOPIC 6: SUBJUNCTIVE. 90

The use of forms of the subjunctive mood of the 1st type. 91

The use of forms of the subjunctive mood of the 2nd type. 93

Complex sentences. 93

Addendum to Topic 6: Condition clauses. 93

TOPIC 7: INFINITIVE. 96

Special cases use of the infinitive in English. 97

Objective infinitive phrase. 98

Subjective infinitive phrase. 100

Infinitive turnover with the preposition for. 101

Independent infinitive phrase. 101

TOPIC 8: PARTICIPLE. 103

Object participial turnover. 105

Subjective participial turnover. 106

Independent participle turnover. 106

TOPIC 9: GERUND / GERUND. 108

TOPIC 10: PUNCTUATION MARKS. 118

Point (English ==> Full Stop / Amer. ==> Period). 118

Comma (comma). 118

Apostrophe. 121

SECTION III. 123

I. Words ending in -s. 123

II. Verb to be (was/were; been). 123

III. Verb to do (did/done). 125

IV. Verb to have (had). 126

V. Auxiliary verb shall. 128

VI. Auxiliary verb will. 128

VII. Should( verb form shall). 129

VIII.Would (a form of the verb will). 130

IX. Words ending with -ed. 131

X. Words ending in -ing. 132

XI. word one. 135

XII. word for. 135

XIII. The word it. 136

XIV. The word that. 136

SECTION IV. 137

1. On the street. 137

2. Home / home / home. 137

3. To acquaint (sya) / get acquainted) / acquaintance / acquaintance. 138

4. Say / talk / talk. 139

5. Learn / teach / study. 140

6. Phone / make phone calls. 141

7. To call. 141

8. To get. 142

9. To take. 144

10. Look / see / look / look / look. 145

11. Listen / hear. 147

12. A lot. 147

13. Few / few / few. 148

14. Offer / suggest / offer. 148

15. Carry / bring / carry / lead / bring / take / carry / bring / take (from one place to another). 149

16. Work. 150

17. Salary / payment (labor). 150

18. Price / cost / fee / cost / pay (for a product / service). 151

19. Shop. 152

20. Chief. 152

21. Host / hostess. 153

22. Give/borrow. 153

23. Other / other / another / other / the others. 153

24. Right. 154

25. Right (left) / right (left) / right (left). 155

26. Immediately / immediately / right now / immediately. 155

27. Hour / hours. 155

28. Time. 156

29. First. 157

30. Food / food / dish. 158

31. Be on a diet / lose weight. 158

32. Fit / match. 159

33. Stop / stop (stop doing something / in some place / with someone). 159

34. Stay / stay. 160

35. Couple. 160

36. More. 161

37. Beautiful - beautiful / attractive - attractive. 161

38. Place. 161

39. Free / unoccupied / empty. 162

40. Fasten / fasten. 163

41. All / everything. 163

42. This year / last week / next month / ... . 164

43. Get married / get married. 164

44. Be afraid. 164

45. Terrible / terrible. 165

46. ​​Being tired. 165

47. Worry (sya) / worry (sya). 166

48. Used to / to be used to smth. 167

49. Also / also. 167

50. Going to do something. 167

51. Case. 168

52. Continue (sya) / continue (sya). 168

53. Case / incident / by chance / in case. 169

SECTION V. 171

1. Reduction (abbreviation) of words. 171

2. Will instead of shall. 171

3. General questions without the first auxiliary verb. 171

4. Brief answers to general questions. 171

5. Brief answers to questions to the subject. 172

6. Don "t instead of doesn" t. 172

7. Sorry. / I apologize. 172

8. Greetings and answers to them. 173

9. When meeting. 174

10. When parting. 174

11. Thank you. 174

12. Not at all. 174

13. Please. 175

14. (Here) Here. / (There. 175

15. Polite appeals. 175

16. Really? 176

17. Me/Someone too (reaction to someone's statement). 176

18. Good (reaction to someone's statement). 176

19. Well... / So... / So... / So... . 177

20. I think... / I think... / I think... / I think... . 177

21. What happened? / What's the matter? 177

22. May I ask you? 177

23. Wait a minute. / Please wait a moment. 177

24. How much does it cost? 177

25. What is your job? 178

26. (Sorry) I didn't understand you / I don't understand you. / I listened to what you said. 178

27. How can I be useful? / How can I help? 178

28. How about...? 178

29. While talking on the phone. 179

30. Seeking advice (about doing an action). 179

31. Impolite refusal in the form of a counter question. 179

32. The most common expressions of emotions. 179

33. Some phrases / remarks typical for colloquial speech. 180

34. Some interrogative forms / sentences that are typical for colloquial speech. 183

35. Some of the most common phrases / words / expressions used in the construction of sentences in colloquial speech as an independent (complementary / explaining / commenting) element. 185

36. Some stable combinations, often used in the construction of sentences in colloquial speech. 188

37. Some of the most common reduced / distorted forms that are characteristic of low-level colloquial speech. 192

Example of low level English garbled speech: 194

SECTION VI. BASIC WAYS FORMING WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 194

Suffixes. 195

Noun suffixes. 196

Adjective suffixes. 196

Verb suffixes. 197

Adverb suffixes. 197

Prefixes. 197

Sources 199

How to read books in pdf formats, djvu - see section " Programs; archivers; formats pdf, djvu and etc. "

Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus

educational institution

"Belarusian State University

informatics and radio electronics"

Practical English Grammar

In 2 parts

Part 2 practical english grammar

In two parts

Considered by the UMO for education in the field of informatics and radio electronics for specialties assigned to the UMO as a manual

Minsk BSUIR 2013

UDC 811.111 (076)

BBC 81.2Engl7

I. I. Ilyukevich, T. V. Levkovich, I. G. Malikova, I. I. Likhtarovich,

N. V. Listratenko, N. A. Aldokhina, E. A. Getmanchuk

Reviewers:

Department of Foreign Languages ​​of the Educational Institution "Belarusian State University of Physical Culture" (protocol No. 9 of 04/03/2013);

Head of the Department of Professionally Oriented English Speech of the Educational Establishment "Belarusian State Economic University", Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor N. A. Novik

ISBN978-985-488-982-5 (part 2).

The manual is a presentation of the normative English grammar course for non-linguistic universities.

It contains a brief theoretical reference book illustrated with tables and a practical part in the form of training and control tasks on the topics studied.

The volume of the above exercises is sufficient to ensure the effective development and consolidation of recognition skills in the text and the use of the studied grammatical phenomena in speech.

The manual is intended for students of BSUIR of all forms of education.

UDC 811.111 (076)

BBC 81.2Engl7

Foreword

This manual is intended for students of the educational institution "Belarusian State University of Informatics and Radioelectronics", as well as for all persons who wish to deepen their knowledge of English grammar. The manual aims to systematize knowledge of English grammar and improve the skills of practical use of basic grammatical phenomena and structures.

The manual consists of twelve sections: "Adjective", "Adverb", "Numeral", "Non-finite forms of the verb", "Modal verbs", "Preposition", "Union", "Imperative", "Subjunctive", " Proposal”, “Agreement of tenses”, “Direct and indirect speech”. The sections of the manual contain systematized information on the formation and use of grammatical forms and structures in the form of tables or brief instructions. The construction of the manual is based on the principle of a gradual transition from simple to complex. After each topic, exercises are given to consolidate the grammatical material. The exercises are recommended for performing both in the classroom under the supervision of a teacher after the introduction of new material, and for independent extracurricular work.

Adjective name (The Adjective)

An adjective is a part of speech that denotes the properties or qualities of objects and answers the question what?which?:small little, sunny solar, salty salty. In a sentence, an adjective usually performs the function of an attribute to a noun or a nominal part of a compound predicate, for example:

Adjectives in English do not change either by gender, or by cases, or by numbers. Compare:

In English, adjectives can only change in degrees of comparison:

Adjectives are simple (having neither prefixes nor suffixes): red red, smart smart) and derivatives. Derived adjectives have either prefixes or suffixes, or both: permissible permissible, permissible immeasurable immeasurable, independent interdependent.

Some adjectives are compound and are formed from two words that make up one concept: navy - blue Navy blue, top - secret top secret.

A.I. Kamensky, I.B. Kamenskaya

PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR.: Reference manual for non-linguistic universities. - Part 1. - Kharkov: INEM, 2002. - 278 p.

This reference manual is a presentation of the normative English grammar course for non-linguistic universities. In the manual, in an accessible form, all essential morphological and syntactic features grammatical structure necessary for the practical mastery of modern English. The experience of working in a non-linguistic university allowed the authors to take into account the typical difficulties that students face in the process of mastering grammatical material, which is reflected in a more detailed presentation of some sections and a more schematic presentation of others. At the same time, the authors did not set the goal of a complete reflection and analysis of all grammatical concepts available in the linguistic literature. The manual is intended to explain and illustrate the functioning of grammatical phenomena in speech. The material is presented in Russian. Examples in English are given with translation.

The reference manual is a theoretical part of the complex, which includes a collection of exercises with keys for self-control, compiled according to the principle of grading grammatical and lexical difficulties. The lexical content of the collection of exercises corresponds to the specifics of an economic university.

The manual can be used in teaching students of non-linguistic universities, students of schools with in-depth study of the English language, as well as all those who study English on their own.

introduction 9

SECTION I: MORPHOLOGY 12

1. THE NOUN 12

1.1. General information 12

1.2. Number form of nouns (The Number) 12

1.3. Special cases of plural formation of nouns 14

1.4. Possessive Case 18

1.5. The Gender 22

1.6. Noun Functions in Sentence 23

2. THE ARTICLE 23

2.1. General information 23

2.2. The Indefinite Article 24

2.2.1. Classifying value 24

2.2.2. General value 25

2.2.3. Numeric value 25

2.3. Special uses are not definite article 25

2.4. The Definite Article 26

2.5. Use of the definite article with proper names 27

2.6. No article 29

3. PRONOUN (THE PRONOUN) 32

3.1. General information 32

3.2. Personal Pronouns 34

3.3. Possessive Pronouns 38

3.4. Reflexive Pronouns 39

3.5. Indefinite Pronouns 41

3.5.1. Pronouns some, any 41

3.5.2. Derived indefinite pronouns 44

3.5.3. Indefinite pronoun one 44

3.5.4. Substitute Word One 45

3.5.5. Pronouns tany, tish, few, little 46

3.6. Negative Pronouns 49

3.6.1. Pronoun No 49

3.6.2. Pronoun Neither 50

3.6.3. Pronouns Nothing and Nobody 50

3.6.4. Pronouns None of 50

3.7. Generalizing pronouns (Universal Pronouns) 51

3.7.1. Pronouns Every and Each 51

3.7.2. Pronouns Everything, Everybody and Everyone 53

3.7.3. Pronoun Either 53

3.7.4. Pronoun All 54

3.7.5. Pronoun Both 56

3.7.6. Pronoun Other 57

3.7.7. Pronoun Another 57

3.8. Reciprocal Pronouns 57

3.9. Demonstrative Pronouns 58

3.9.1. Pronouns This, That 58

3.9.2. Pronoun Such 60

3.9.3. Pronoun Same 61

3.10. Interrogative-Relative Pronouns 61

3.10.1. Pronoun Who 61

3.10.2. Pronouns What, Which and That 62

3.10.3. Pronoun Whose 65

4. NAME NUMERAL (THE NUMERAL) 65

4.1. General information 65

4.2. Cardinal Numerals 66

4.3. Ordinal Numerals 71

4.4. Arithmetic operations 73

4.5. Numeral functions in sentence 73

5. NAME ADJECTIVE (THE ADJECTIVE) 73

5.1. General information 73

5.2. The Degrees of Comparison 76

5.3. Substantiation of adjectives 83

5.4. Place of an adjective in a sentence 85

6. THE ADVERB 86

6.1. General information 86

6.2. The Degrees of Comparison of Adverbs 88

6.3. Classification of adverbs by meaning and function of adverbs in a sentence 89

6.3.1. Adverbs of time 91

6.3.2. Adverbs of place 91

6.3.3. Adverbs of manner 91

6.3.4. Adverbs of measure and degree 92

6.3.5. Adverbs of effect and cause 92

6.3.6. Adverbs expressing a point of view 92

6.3.7. Interrogative adverbs 93

6.3.8. Negative adverbs 93

6.4. Place of adverb in sentence 94

6.5. Modal Words 96

7. VERB (THE VERB) 97

7.1. General information 97

7.1.1. The Person and The Number 100

7.1.2. Pledge (The Voice) 102

7.1.3. Inclination (The Mood) 102

7.1.4. View (The Aspect) 103

7.2. Indicative mood: The formation and use of aspect-temporal forms (The Indicative Mood: Verb Tenses) 105

7.2.1. Indefinite times (The Indefinite Tenses) 105

7.2.1.1. Present indefinite tense (The Present Indefinite 105

Tense) 105

7.2.1.2 Past Indefinite Tense (The Past Indefinite Tense) 110

7.2.1.3. Future indefinite tense (The Future Indefinite Tense) 113

7.2.1.4. The future is uncertain from the point of view of the past 114

(The Future Indefinite in the Past Tense) 114

7.2.2. Continuous Tenses 115

7.2.2.1. The Present Continuous Tense 115

7.2.2.2. Past continuous tense (The Past Continuous Tense) 117

7.2.2.3. Future long time(The Future Continuous Tense) 119

7.2.2.4. Future continuous from the point of view of the past (The Future Continuous in the Past Tense) 120

7.2.3. Perfect Tenses 121

7.2.3.1. Present perfect tense (The Present Perfect Tense) 121

7.2.3.2. Past perfect tense (The Past Perfect Tense) 124

7.2.3.3. Future Perfect Tense (The Future Perfect) 127

7.2.3.4. Future perfect tense from the point of view of the past (The Future Perfect in the Past) 127

7.2.4. Perfect Continuous Tenses 128

7.2.4.1. Present perfect continuous tense (The Present Perfect Continuous Tense) 128

7.2.4.2. Past Perfect Continuous (The Past 130

Perfect Continuous Tense) 130

7.2.4.3. The Future Perfect Continuous Tense 131

7.2.4.4. The Future Perfect Continuous in the Past 132

7.3. Passive Voice (The Passive Voice) 132

7.3.1. Formation of the passive voice 132

7.3.2. Meaning and use of the passive voice 133

7.4. Imperative Mood (The Imperative Mood) 136

7.5. Subjunctive mood (The Subjunctive Mood) 137

7.5.1. Subjunctive I (Subjunctive I) 138

7.5.2. Subjunctive II (Subjunctive II) 140

7.6. Conditional Mood 141

7.7. Non-Finite Verb Forms/ Verbals 143

7.7.1. General information 143

7.7.2. Infinitive (The Infinitive) 144

7.7.3. The Participle 148

7.7.4. The Gerund 150

7.7.5. Modal verbs (Modal Verbs) 155

7.7.5.1. Verb Can 157

7.7.5.2 Verb Mau 158

7.7.5.3. Verb Must 159

7.7.5.4. Modal verbs Have/Have got 160

7.7.5.5. Should verb 160

7.7.5.6. The verb Ought 161

7.7.5.7. Verb To Be 161

7.7.5.8. Need 162 verb

7.7.5.9. Verb Dare 163

8. PREPOSITION (THE PREPOSITION) 163

8.1. General information 163

8.2. 3meaning of prepositions 165

8.2.1. Prepositions of place 165

8.2.2. Prepositions of time 173

8.2.3. Prepositions with other meanings 177

8.2.4. Some stable combinations of prepositions with other parts of speech 178

8.3. Place of a preposition in a sentence 178

9. UNION (THE CONJUNCTION) 179

9.1. General information 179

9.2. The meaning of alliances 180

9.2.1 Coordinating conjunctions 180

9.2.2. Subordinating conjunctions 180

9.3. Allied words 181

9.4. Distinguishing conjunctions, adverbs and prepositions that match in form 182

10. PARTICLES 182

10.1. General information 182

10.2. 3meaning of particles 183

10.3. The difference between particles and adverbs and other parts of speech that coincide with them in form 183

10.4. Place particles only, too and also 185

10.5. Particle location not 186

10.6. Words of affirmation and denial 187

11. INTERJECTION (THE INTERJECTION) 187

11.1. Actually interjections 187

11.2. Onomatopoeic words 188

11.3. Other types of interjections 188

SECTION II: SYNTAX (SUNTAX) 189

12. OFFER (THE SENTENCE) 189

12.1. General information 189

12.2. Declarative Sentences 190

12.3. Interrogative Sentences 194

12.3.1. General Questions 194

12.3.2. Special/Wh-Questions 196

12.3.3. Alternative Questions 198

12.3.4. Disjunctive Questions 198

12.4. Imperative Sentences 199

12.5. Exclamatory Sentences 200

12.6. Negative Sentences 201

13 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 203

13. 1. General information 203

13.2. A simple complete sentence. Main Members 203

13.2.1. The Subject 203

13.2.2. The Predicate 207

13.2.2.1. Simple Verbal Predicate (The Simple Verbal Predicate) 207

13.2.2.2. Modal verbal predicate (The Modal Verbal Predicate) 207

13.2.2.3. Phrasal predicate (The Group Verb Predicate) 208

13.2.2.4. Composite nominal predicate(The Compound Nominal Predicate) 208

13.2.3. Agreement of the predicate with the subject 209

13.3 Secondary Parts of the Sentence 211

13.3.1. Supplement (The Object) 211

13.3.1.1. The Direct Object 211

13.3.1.2. The Complex Object 212

13.3.1.3. The Indirect Object 214

13.3.1.4. The Prepositional Object 216

13.3.2. Definition (The Attribute) 219

13.3.2.1. Prepositive definitions 219

13.3.2.2. Postpositive definitions 221

13.3.2.3. The Apposition 223

13.3.3. Circumstance (The Adverbial Modifier) ​​224

13.3.3.1. Place of circumstance in sentence 229

13.4. Introductory sentence members (Parentheses) 232

13.5. Incomplete sentences (Elliptical Sentences) 233

13.6. Word-sentences and phrase-sentences (Word-Sentences and Phrase-Sentences) 235

14. THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE 237

14.1. General information 237

14.2. Compound sentence (The Compound Sentence) 237

14.3. Complex sentence (The Complex Sentence) 238

14.4. Types of subordinate clauses 240

14.4.1. Subject Clauses 240

14.4.2. Predicate Clauses 241

14.4.3. Additional subordinate clauses (Object Clauses) 242

14.4.4. Attribute Clauses 243

14.4.4.1. Descriptive Clauses 243

14.4.4.2. Limiting Clauses 244

14.4.4.3. Appositive Clauses 245

14.4.5. Adverbial Clauses 246

14.4.5.1. Adverbial Clauses of Place 246

14.4.5.2. Adverbial Clauses of Time 246

14.4.5.3. Adverbial Clauses of Manner and Comparison 248

14.4.5.4. Adverbial Clauses of Cause 249

14.4.5.5. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose 249

14.4.5.6. Adverbial Clauses of Result 250

14.4.5.7. Adverbial Clauses of Concession 252

14.4.5.8. Adverbial Clauses of Condition 253

15. SEQUENCE OF TENSES 255

16.1. General information 258

16.2. Translation of affirmative sentences from direct speech into indirect speech 259

16.3. Questions in indirect speech 262

16.4. Imperative sentences in indirect speech 264

17. PUNCTUATION 264

17.1. General information 264

17.2. Point (Full Stop/ Period/ Point) 266

17.3. Exclamation point(The Exclamation Mark) 266

17.4. The Question Mark 267

17.5. Dots 267

17.6. Comma (The Comma) 267

17.7. Semicolon (The Semicolon) 270

17.8. Colon (The Colon) 271

17.9. The Dash 272

17.10. Brackets (The Brackets) 272

17.11. Quotation Marks 274

17.12. Hyphen (The Hyphen) 275

17.13. Apostrophe 276

17.14. Capital Letters 277

14. 18. Table irregular verbs 279

19. Bibliography 285

Introduction

HOW ENGLISH GRAMMAR IS DIFFICULT FOR US

To speak in foreign language, knowledge of words alone is not enough. We must learn to combine words with each other, forming sentences. The rules according to which individual words turn into speech, combined into sentences, are the rules of grammar.

The complexity of English grammar for Russian speakers is due to the different structure of these languages. The Russian language basically has a synthetic structure. This means that the grammatical forms of words and their connection with each other is expressed by changes in the word itself (endings, suffixes, etc.). For example, in a sentence I have read this book formed from words i, read, this, book, prefix about along with suffixes a, l indicates that the act has already been committed by one male third party; the ending at in words this book indicates the accusative case of the feminine singular, defining the functions of these words in the sentence as an object. Consider a similar English sentence I have read this book formed from words I, to read, this, book. The auxiliary verb indicates the perfection of actions. have. The words this, book do not undergo any changes. Their complement function is indicated only by their place in the sentence. Thus, the structure of the English language is analytical, characterized by the use of special means (auxiliary verbs, function words, a certain word order) to connect words in a sentence.

English sentence structure

Absence case endings in English dictates the rigid structure of the English sentence, the word order in which is uniquely defined for affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences. You run the risk of being misunderstood if, speaking in English, deviate from the following scheme:

subject predicate adjective

subject predicate object adverbial modifier

For example:

George has done this work perfectly.

George did an excellent job.

Isn't it logical, isn't it? For a person who thinks in Russian, the only difficulty lies in the rigidity and invariability of this scheme. After all, without any damage to the meaning of the phrase, we can say something like this: George did an excellent job. The English language cannot afford this. Of course, inversion, or indirect word order, is also possible in English, but more on that later.

However, once you accustom your mind to the unchanging structure of the English sentence, it will turn from a hindrance into a helper. Indeed, without a hint of the word order of an English sentence, how to understand and translate such a phrase: Mr. Brown introduced Mr. Green?– Mr. Brown introduced Mr. Green or Mr. Brown was introduced by Mr. Green? Subject in Russian Mr Brown different from add-on Mr Green only in the case form. In English, it is only a place in a sentence.

To better remember the order of words in a sentence, the English use a mnemonic rule. Mister SPOM , those. subject , predicate , object , modifier .

It must also be remembered that the strictly defined structure of an English sentence is never complete without a subject or predicate, as is the case in Russian. An English sentence is always two-part. Compare:

Winter. It is winter.

(subject only) (subject + verb)

It's getting cold. It is getting colder.

(only predicate) (subject + predicate)

Another type of incomplete sentences in Russian often causes errors when translating them into English. These are sentences with a missing linking verb. The thing is, when you say things like My brother is a student. He is smart and hardworking we are not always aware of their grammatical incompleteness: the omission of a linking verb be. In order to feel the need for a connecting verb between the subject and the predicate in such sentences, put them in the past or future tense: My brother was (will be) a student. Such is the peculiarity of the Russian language that in the present tense the linking verb be goes down. But the rigid structure of the English language does not allow for such inconsistency. Therefore, it is sometimes not clear to a beginner to learn English - where does the extra word come from when translating from Russian into English:

My brother is a student. His eyes are grey.

my brotheris a student. His eyesare gray.

A characteristic element of the language of the analytical system is the so-called auxiliary. It is called auxiliary because it helps to form negative and interrogative sentences, as well as complex verb forms.

Like any other member of an English sentence, the auxiliary verb has its strictly defined place in it. The negative sentence scheme looks like this:

Subject	Auxiliary ny verb		Predicate	Addition	Circumstance
				newspapers	in the morning
					in the morning.

As you can see, the "extra" word appears again, which is not in the Russian sentence. However, you can’t do without it, so try to get used to the fact that any not in English consists of two words: an auxiliary verb and not. They are so closely related that they often turn into one word, the so-called abbreviated form. For example: do not = don't; will not = won't etc.

In an interrogative sentence, unlike a negative one, the auxiliary verb is placed not after the subject, but before it. Accordingly, the scheme of the interrogative sentence looks like this:

Auxiliary	Subject	predicate	addition	Circumstance
			his work	perfectly?

Similar question to be answered Not really, is called common. Note that even for the answer Not really you again need an auxiliary verb. The scheme of such a short answer is simple:

For an affirmative answer:

For a negative answer:

The general question scheme is the base for the other two question types: alternative and special. These and other types of questions will be discussed in more detail later, after analyzing the individual parts of English speech.

SECTION I: MORPHOLOGY

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Practical English Grammar Larisa Romanova 2000 Iris

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PracticalgrammarEnglishlanguage Larisa Romanova 2000 Iris Foreword A collection of exercises intended for teachers Englishlanguage... exercises covering the following sections grammarEnglishlanguage: article, noun...