Alexander the Great what he did. Alexander the Great - short biography

The life of Alexander the Great is the story of how one man with a small army conquered almost the entire world known then. His warriors saw him as a military genius, his enemies called him cursed. He himself considered himself a god.

noble lineage

Alexander the Great was born in July 356 BC from the marriage of the Macedonian king Philip and one of his many queens, Olympias. But he could boast of more famous ancestors. According to the dynastic legend, his father descended from Hercules, the son of Zeus, and his mother was a direct descendant of the famous Achilles, the hero of the Homeric Iliad. Olympias herself was also famous for being a constant participant in religious orgies in honor of Dionysus.

Plutarch wrote about her: “Olympias was more zealous than others committed to these sacraments and raged in a completely barbaric way.” Sources tell us that during the processions she carried two hand snakes in her hands. The queen's excessive love for reptiles and the cold relationship between her and her husband gave rise to rumors that Alexander's real father was not the Macedonian king at all, but Zeus himself, who took the form of a snake.

city for science

Since childhood, Alexander has been seen as a talented child, early years prepared for the throne. Aristotle, who was close to the royal court, was appointed mentor of the future Macedonian king. To pay for the education of his son, Philip II restored the city of Stragira, which he himself had destroyed, where Aristotle was from, and returned the citizens who had fled and were in slavery there.

Invincible and vain

Since his first victory at 18, Alexander the Great has never lost a battle. His military successes brought him to Afghanistan and Kyrgyzstan, to Cyrenaica and India, to the territories of the Massagets and Albania. He was the pharaoh of Egypt, the king of Persia, Syria and Lydia.
Alexander led his warriors, each of whom he knew by sight, with impressive speed, overtaking enemies by surprise, even before they were ready for battle. The central place of the fighting force of Alexander was occupied by the 15,000-thousandth Macedonian phalanx, whose soldiers went to the Persians with 5-meter peaks - sarissa. Throughout his military career, Alexander founded more than 70 cities, which he ordered to be named in his honor, and one in honor of his horse - Bucephalus, which exists to this day, however, under the name Jalalpur in Pakistan.

Become a god

Alexander's vanity was the other side of his greatness. He dreamed of divine status. Having founded the city of Alexandria in Egypt in the Nile Delta, he went on a long campaign to the Siwa oasis in the desert, to the priests of the Egyptian supreme god Amun-Ra, who was likened to the Greek Zeus. According to the idea, the priests were supposed to recognize in him a descendant of a god. History is silent about what the deity “said” to him through the lips of his servants, but supposedly it confirmed the divine origin of Alexander.

True, Plutarch subsequently gave the following curious interpretation of this episode: the Egyptian priest who received Alexander said to him in Greek "paidion", which means "child". But as a result of a bad pronunciation, it turned out "pay Dios", that is, "son of God."

One way or another, Alexander was satisfied with the answer. Having proclaimed himself a god in Egypt with the “blessing” of the priest, he decided to become a god for the Greeks as well. In one of his letters to Aristotle, he asked the latter to argue his divine essence to the Greeks and Macedonians: “Dear teacher, now I ask you, my wise friend and mentor, to philosophically substantiate and convincingly motivate the Greeks and Macedonians to proclaim me a god. In doing this, I am acting like a responsible politician and statesman.” However, in the homeland of Alexander, his cult did not take root.

Behind the manic desire of Alexander to become a god for his subjects, of course, there was a political calculation. Divine authority greatly simplified the management of his fragile empire, which was divided among the sartraps (rulers). But the personal factor also played an important role. In all the cities founded by Alexander, he was to be honored on a par with the gods. In addition, his superhuman desire to conquer the whole world and unite Europe and Asia, which literally took possession of him in recent months life, says that he himself believed in the legend he created, considering himself more of a god than a man.

The mystery of Alexander's death

Death overtook Alexander in the midst of his grandiose plans. Despite his way of life, he did not die during the battle, but on his bed, preparing for the next campaign, this time to Carthage. At the beginning of June 323 BC. e., the king suddenly developed a severe fever. On June 7, he could no longer speak, and three days later he died in the prime of his life, at the age of 32. The reason is so sudden death Alexandra is still one of the most important mysteries of the ancient world.

The Persians, whom he mercilessly defeated, claimed that the commander was punished by heaven for desecrating the grave of King Cyrus. The Macedonians who returned home said that the great commander died of drunkenness and debauchery (sources brought us information about his 360 concubines). Roman historians believed that he was poisoned with some Asian slow-acting poison. The main argument in favor of this version is poor health Alexandra, who on his way back from India allegedly fainted frequently, lost his voice, and suffered from muscle weakness and vomiting. In 2013, British scientists in the journal Clinical Toxicology put forward a version that Alexander was poisoned by a drug made on the basis of a poisonous plant - White hellebore, used by Greek doctors to induce vomiting. The most common version says that Alexander was mowed down by malaria.

Looking for Alexander

It is still unknown where Alexander is buried. Immediately after his death, the division of his empire between his closest associates began. In order not to waste time on a magnificent funeral, Alexander was temporarily buried in Babylon. Two years later, it was dug up to transport the remains to Macedonia. But on the way to the funeral cortege was attacked by Alexander's half-brother, Ptolemy, who by force and bribery took away the "trophy" and transported it to Memphis, where he buried it near one of the temples of Amon. But apparently Alexander was not destined to find peace.

Two years later, a new tomb was opened and transported with all the appropriate honors to Alexandria. There, the body was re-embalmed, placed in a new sarcophagus and installed in a mausoleum in the central square.

The next time, Alexander's dream was obviously disturbed by the first Christians, for whom he was the "king of the pagans." Some historians believe that the sarcophagus was stolen and buried somewhere on the outskirts of the city. Then the Arabs poured into Egypt and erected a mosque on the site of the mausoleum. On this, the traces of the burial are completely lost, the Muslims did not let anyone into Alexandria for many centuries.

Today there are many versions about the tomb of Alexander the Great. The Persian legend of the beginning of the century says that Alexander remained in the lands of Babylon; Macedonian claims that the body was taken to the ancient capital of Aegeus, where Alexander was born. In the 20th century, archaeologists countless once they were “close” to unraveling the mystery of Alexander’s last refuge - they were looking for him in the dungeons of Alexandria, in the Sivi oasis, in the ancient city of Amphipolis, but so far everything has been in vain. However, scientists do not give up. In the end, the game is worth the candle - according to one version, he was buried in a solid gold sarcophagus, along with numerous trophies from Asia and manuscripts from the legendary Library of Alexandria.

Alexandra the Great
Born: 336 BC e. of the year.
Died: June 10, 323 BC e. of the year.

Biography

Alexander the Great was born presumably on July 20 (21), 356 - June 10, 323. BC e.) - Macedonian king from 336 BC. e. from the Argead dynasty, commander, creator of a world power that collapsed after his death. In Western historiography, he is better known as Alexander the Great. Back in Antiquity, Alexander gained the fame of one of the greatest generals in history.

Having ascended the throne at the age of 20 after the death of his father, the Macedonian king Philip II, Alexander secured the northern borders of Macedonia and completed the subjugation of Greece by defeating the rebellious city of Thebes. In the spring of 334 BC. e. Alexander began the legendary campaign to the East and in seven years he completely conquered the Persian Empire. Then he began the conquest of India, but at the insistence of the soldiers, tired of a long campaign, he retreated.

The cities founded by Alexander, which today are the largest in several countries, and the colonization of new territories in Asia by the Greeks contributed to the spread Greek culture in the East. Almost reaching the age of 33, Alexander died in Babylon from a serious illness. Immediately his empire was divided by his commanders (Diadochi) among themselves, and a series of wars of the Diadochi reigned for several decades.

Birth and childhood

Alexander was born in 356 BC. e. in the Macedonian capital of Pella. According to legend, Alexander was born on the night Herostrat set fire to the Temple of Artemis of Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Already during the campaigns of Alexander, a legend spread that the Persian magicians interpreted this fire as a sign of a future catastrophe for their state. But since all sorts of legends and signs have always accompanied the birth and life of the great people of antiquity, the well-matched date of Alexander's birth is sometimes considered artificial.

Alexander's exact birthday is unknown. Often it is taken as July 20, since according to Plutarch Alexander was born “on the sixth day of the month of hecatombeon (ancient Greek ἑκατομβαιών), which the Macedonians call loy (ancient Greek λῷος)”; there are dates between 21 and 23 July. Often 1 day of hecatombeon is taken as July 15, but an exact correspondence has not been proven. However, from the testimony of Aristobulus recorded by Arrian, it can be deduced that Alexander was born in the autumn. In addition, according to Demosthenes, a contemporary of the king, the Macedonian month loy actually corresponded to the Attic boedromion (September and October). Therefore, the period from October 6 to October 10 is often called the date of birth.

His parents are the Macedonian king Philip II and the daughter of the Epirus king Olympias. According to tradition, Alexander himself descended from the mythical Hercules through the kings of Argos, from whom the first Macedonian king Karan allegedly branched off. According to the legendary version, which became widespread at the suggestion of Alexander himself, Pharaoh Nectaneb II was his real father. It was expected that the child would be named Amyntas in honor of Philip's father, but he named him Alexander - probably with political overtones in honor of the Macedonian king Alexander I, nicknamed "Philellin" (friend of the Greeks).

The greatest influence on little Alexander was his mother. The father was engaged in wars with the Greek policies, and most of the time the child spent with the Olympics. She probably tried to turn her son against Philip, and Alexander formed ambivalence to his father: admiring his stories about the war, he at the same time disliked him because of his mother's gossip.

Alexander was seen as a talented child from early childhood. Thanks to this, he was recognized very early as the heir to his father's business, and Olympias became the most influential of Philip's at least six wives. However, Alexander could be the only son of Philip, worthy to accept his kingdom. The fact is that, according to ancient authors, his brother Philip (later known as Philip III Arrhidaeus) was weak-minded. Philip had no other reliably known sons, or at least none of them were ready to rule his father's kingdom by 336.

Alexander from early childhood was prepared for diplomacy, politics, war. Although Alexander was born in Pella, he, along with other noble youths, was taught at Mieza near the city. The choice of a place remote from the capital was probably associated with the desire to remove the child from the mother. Alexander's educators and mentors were: a relative on his mother's side, Leonid, to whom he retained a deep affection in adulthood despite a strict Spartan upbringing in childhood; jester and actor Lysimachus; and from 343 BC. e. the great philosopher Aristotle. The choice of him as a mentor was not accidental - Aristotle was close to the Macedonian royal house, and also well acquainted with Hermias, the tyrant of Atarney, who maintained friendly relations with Philip. Under the guidance of Aristotle, who emphasized the study of ethics and politics, Alexander received a classical Greek education, and he was also instilled with a love of medicine, philosophy and literature. Although all Greeks read the classics of Homer, Alexander studied the Iliad especially diligently, since his mother traced her origins to the protagonist of this epic, Achilles. Subsequently, he often re-read this work. It is also known from the sources that Alexander knew well the "Anabasis" of Xenophon, Euripides, as well as the poets Pindar, Stesichorus, Teleste, Philoxenus and others.

Youth

Even in childhood, Alexander was different from his peers: he was indifferent to bodily joys and indulged in them very moderately; Alexander's ambition was boundless. He showed no interest in women (see the article on Callixene), but at the age of 10 he tamed Bucephalus, a stallion, because of whose obstinacy King Philip refused to take him. Plutarch on the character of Alexander:

“Philip saw that Alexander was naturally stubborn, and when he gets angry, he does not yield to any violence, but on the other hand, with a reasonable word, he can easily be persuaded to accept right decision; so my father tried more to convince than to order.

At the age of 16, Alexander remained for the king in Macedonia under the supervision of the commander Antipater, when Philip besieged Byzantium. Having led the troops remaining in Macedonia, he suppressed the uprising of the Thracian tribe of Meds and created the city of Alexandropol on the site of the Thracian settlement (by analogy with Philippopolis, which his father named in his honor). And 2 years later, in 338 BC. e. in the battle of Chaeronea, Alexander showed personal courage and skills as a commander, leading the left wing of the Macedonian army under the supervision of experienced commanders.

Alexander demonstrated his propensity for adventures in his youth, when, without the will of his father, he wanted to marry the daughter of Pixodar, the ruler of Caria (see the article Philip III Arrhidaeus). Later, he seriously quarreled with his father because of the latter's marriage to the young noble Cleopatra, as a result of which there was a break in relations between Philip and Olympias, which Alexander sincerely loved. The wedding of Philip with a noble Macedonian woman may have been organized by part of the local aristocracy. Many noble Macedonians did not want to put up with the fact that Philip's heir would be the son of a foreigner, who, moreover, was under her strong influence. After this, Olympias tried to overthrow Philip with the help of her brother Alexander of Molos, the ruler of Epirus. However, Philip found out about the plans for the Olympics and invited the king of Epirus to marry Cleopatra, the sister of his heir Alexander, and he agreed. By the wedding of Cleopatra, the future conqueror reconciled with his father and returned to Macedonia.

During the wedding celebrations in 336 BC. e. Philip was killed by his bodyguard Pausanias. The circumstances of the assassination are not entirely clear, and the possibility of participation in the conspiracy of various interested parties who became enemies of Philip as a result of his aggressive policy is often pointed out. Pausanias himself was seized and immediately killed by people from Alexander's retinue, which is sometimes interpreted as the desire of the future king to hide the true customer of the attack. The Macedonian army, who knew and saw Alexander in battles well, proclaimed him king (probably at the behest of Antipater). However, of all the children of Philip, only Alexander was worthy of taking the throne (see above).

Ascension to the throne

Upon accession to the throne Alexander first of all, he dealt with the alleged participants in the conspiracy against his father and, according to the Macedonian tradition, with other possible rivals. As a rule, they were accused of conspiracy and actions on the instructions of Persia - for this, for example, they executed two princes from the Linekestid dynasty (Arrabai and Heromen), representing Upper Macedonia and claiming the Macedonian throne. However, the third of the Lincestis was the son-in-law of Antipater, and therefore Alexander brought him closer to him. At the same time, he executed his cousin Aminta and left his half-sister Kinana a widow. Amyntas represented the "senior" line of the Argeads (from Perdiccas III) and nominally ruled Macedonia as an infant for some time until he was removed by his guardian Philip II. Finally, Alexander decided to eliminate the popular commander Attalus as well - he was accused of treason and negotiations with Athenian politicians. Alexander also attracted the Macedonian people to his side by abolishing taxes. At the same time, the treasury after the reign of Philip was practically empty, and debts reached 500 talents.

At the news of Philip's death, many of his enemies tried to take advantage of the difficult situation. Thus, the Thracian and Illyrian tribes rebelled, opponents of Macedonian domination became more active in Athens, and Thebes and some other Greek policies tried to expel the garrisons left by Philip and weaken the influence of Macedonia. However, Alexander took the initiative into his own hands. As Philip's successor, he organized a congress in Corinth, at which the previously concluded agreement with the Greeks was confirmed. The agreement declared the full sovereignty of the Greek policies, their independent decision of internal affairs, the right to withdraw from the agreement. For guidance foreign policy Greek states created a common council and introduced the "position" of the hegemon of the Hellenes, who has military powers. The Greeks made concessions, and many policies let the Macedonian garrisons in (this, in particular, did Thebes).

In Corinth, Alexander met the Cynic philosopher Diogenes. According to legend, the king invited Diogenes to ask him for whatever he wanted, and the philosopher replied, “Do not block the sun for me.” Soon Alexander also visited Delphi, but they refused to accept him there, referring to non-attendance days. But the king found the Pythia (soothsayer) and demanded that she predict his fate, and she exclaimed in response, “You are invincible, my son!”.

Campaign to the north and conquest of Thebes (335 BC)

Having behind him the still calm Greece, eyeing the new king, in the spring of 335 BC. e. moved on a campaign against the rebellious Illyrians and Thracians. According to modern estimates, no more than 15,000 soldiers went on the northern campaign, and almost all of them were Macedonians. First, Alexander defeated the Thracians in the battle of Mount Emon (Shipka): the barbarians set up a wagon camp on a hill and hoped to put the Macedonians to flight by derailing their wagons; Alexander ordered his soldiers to avoid the wagons in an organized manner. During the battle, the Macedonians captured many of the women and children that the barbarians had left in the camp and took them to Macedonia. Soon the king defeated the Triballi tribe, and their ruler Sirm, together with for the most part tribesmen took refuge on the island of Pevka on the Danube [SN 4]. Alexander, using the few ships that arrived from Byzantium, failed to land on the island. Harvest time was approaching, and Alexander's army could destroy all the crops of the Triballi and try to force them to surrender before their supplies ran out. However, the king soon noticed that on the other side of the Danube, troops of the Getae tribe were gathering. The Getae hoped that Alexander would not land on the shore occupied by soldiers, but the king, on the contrary, considered the appearance of the Getae a challenge to himself. Therefore, on makeshift rafts, he crossed to the other side of the Danube, defeated the Getae, and thereby deprived the ruler of the Triballi, Sirm, of hope for a speedy end to the war. It is possible that Alexander borrowed the organization of the crossing from Xenophon, who described the crossing of the Euphrates in makeshift boats in his work Anabasis. Soon Alexander concluded allied treaties with all the northern barbarians. According to legend, during the conclusion of treaties, the king asked the barbarian rulers whom they were most afraid of. All the leaders answered that they were afraid of him, Alexander, more than anything in the world, and only the leader of a small Celtic tribe who lived in Greece [SN 5] said that he was most afraid if the sky suddenly fell to the ground.

However, while Alexander settled affairs in the north, in the south, at the end of the summer, under the influence of a false rumor about the death of Alexander, a rebellion broke out in Thebes, the Greek city most affected by Philip. The inhabitants of Thebes called for an uprising throughout Greece, but the Greeks, while verbally expressing solidarity with the Thebans, in fact preferred to observe the development of events.

The Athenian orator Demosthenes called Alexander a child, convincing his fellow citizens that he was not dangerous. The king, however, sent an answer that he would soon appear at the walls of Athens and prove that he was already a grown man. In the tense situation, Alexander did not waste time. With swift marches, he transferred the army from Illyria to Thebes. The siege took several days. Before the assault on Thebes, Alexander repeatedly suggests peace talks and gets rejected.

At the end of September 335, the assault on the city began. Sources give various reasons for the defeat of the Thebans: Arrian believes that the Theban troops lost heart and could no longer hold back the Macedonians, while Diodorus believes that the main reason was the discovery by the Macedonians of an undefended section of the city walls. In any case, the Macedonian troops occupied the walls of the city, and the Macedonian garrison opened the gates and helped surround the Thebans. By storm, the city was captured, plundered, and the entire population was enslaved (see the article The Siege of Thebes). With the proceeds (about 440 talents), Alexander fully or partially covered the debts of the Macedonian treasury. All Greece was struck as fate ancient city, one of the largest and strongest in Hellas, and the quick victory of Macedonian weapons. The inhabitants of a number of cities themselves brought to justice the politicians who called for a revolt against the Macedonian hegemony. Almost immediately after the capture of Thebes, Alexander headed back to Macedonia, where he began to prepare for a campaign in Asia.

On the this stage Alexander's military expeditions took the form of pacifying the opponents of the Corinthian League and the pan-Hellenic idea of revenge on the barbarians. Alexander justifies all his aggressive actions in the "Macedonian" period by an inextricable connection with the goals of the pan-Greek union. After all, formally it was the Corinthian Congress that sanctioned the dominant status of Alexander in Hellas.

King of Asia

Having become the ruler of Asia, Alexander stopped looking at the Persians as a conquered people, tried to equalize the winners with the vanquished and combine their customs into a single whole. The measures taken by Alexander first concerned external forms like oriental clothes, harem, Persian court ceremonies. However, he did not demand their observance from the Macedonians. Alexander tried to rule the Persians as they former kings. In historiography, there is no consensus on the title of Alexander - the adoption of the title "king of Asia" new king either could indicate the continuity of his state with the Achaemenid Empire, or, on the contrary, could emphasize the opposition of the new power and Persia, since he did not use such Achaemenid titles as "king of kings" and others.

The first complaints against Alexander appeared by the autumn of 330 BC. e. Fighting comrades-in-arms, accustomed to the simplicity of morals and friendly relations between the king and his subjects, muttered muffledly, refusing to accept Eastern concepts, in particular proskinesis - prostration and kissing the feet of the king. The closest friends and court flatterers followed Alexander without hesitation.

The Macedonian army was tired from a long campaign, the soldiers wanted to return home and did not share the goals of their king to become the master of the whole world. At the end of 330 BC. e. a conspiracy against Alexander of several ordinary soldiers was revealed (only 2 participants are known). However, the consequences of an unsuccessful plot turned out to be more than serious due to the inter-clan struggle within Alexander's entourage. One of the leading commanders, the commander of the hetairos Philot was accused of passive complicity (he knew, but did not inform). Even under torture, Philotas did not confess to malice, but was executed by soldiers at a gathering. Philota's father, the general Parmenion, was killed without trial or any evidence of guilt due to Alexander's increased suspicion. Less significant officers, who also fell under suspicion, were acquitted.

In the summer of 327 BC. e. the “conspiracy of pages”, noble youths under the Macedonian king, was revealed. In addition to the direct culprits, they also executed Callisthenes, a historian and philosopher who alone dared to object to the king and openly criticize the new court order. The death of the philosopher was a logical consequence of the development of Alexander's despotic inclinations. This trend was especially pronounced in the death of Cleitus the Black, the commander of the royal bodyguards, whom Alexander personally killed in a drunken quarrel in the autumn of 328 BC. e. The increased frequency of information about conspiracies is associated with Alexander's aggravated paranoia.

Alexander in modern culture

In the XX-XXI centuries, the rich and multifaceted image of Alexander was interpreted depending on the needs of society. What was new at this time, however, was an attempt to completely revise Alexander's role in history. Between the first and second world wars, the very idea of conquests accompanied by wars was actively criticized. This anti-militarist tendency was most clearly manifested in the work of Bertolt Brecht. In particular, in the 1920s and 30s, he wrote several poems that criticized the excessive efforts of the commander to conquer the Earth and pointed out the attribution of the merits of the entire Greek army to a single commander. Finally, in the radio play The Interrogation of Lucullus (1940-41), Brecht argues that Alexander's glory means nothing in heaven.

In the 1930s, the Soviet writer V. G. Yan wrote the story “Lights on the Mounds”. In the spirit characteristic of his time, he made a poor caravan driver out of the noble Sogdian Spitamen and painted a picture of the class struggle and the struggle of peoples. Central Asia for national liberation. He also pointed out that Alexander should by no means be considered a great leader: he committed both "progressive" actions and reprehensible ones. In addition, Alexander is the central character in the poem "Water of Immortality" by L. I. Oshanin. The author tries to impartially treat Alexander, but points out the positive and negative aspects of his conquests.

Alexander was often interpreted from modern positions as a harbinger of globalization and anti-colonialism (cf. the book of the German historian S. Fischer-Fabian "Alexander the Great. The Dream of the Brotherhood of Nations"); he was included in various lists of the greatest commanders in the first positions. Maurice Druon's fictionalized biography of the king, Alexander the Great, or a Romance of God, contains elements of psychoanalysis and mysticism, making it stand out among other popular biographies of the commander. Professional historian Arnold Toynbee attempted to describe the hypothetical future of the Macedonian Empire if Alexander had lived 36 years longer.

Alexander is also the hero of many novels: I. A. Efremov ("Thais of Athens"), Mary Renault ("Divine Flame", "Persian Boy", "Funeral Games"), David Gemmel ("Macedonian Legion", "Dark Prince" ), Lev Oshanin "Water of Immortality (novel in ballads)", Yavdat Ilyasov "Sogdiana", Mikhail Volokhov ("Diogen. Alexander. Corinth."), Valerio Massimo Manfredi ("Alexander the Great. Son of a Dream", "Alexander the Great. Sands Amon", "Alexander the Great. The Limits of the World"), James Rollins ("The Bones of the Magi") and others.

In children's literature, Alexander is traditionally portrayed as the greatest military leader of all time.

Despite Alexander's popularity, relatively few films were made about him in the 20th century. Two Hollywood film adaptations did not have great success(1956 and 1968). Only the 1980 Greek film directed by Theodoros Angelopoulos is of some importance for cinema, which, however, is also not a strict biography of Alexander. The most famous, however, is the 2004 film adaptation by Oliver Stone. The film is not "biographical" in the full sense of the word, since there is neither a connected narrative about the life of the commander, nor many important moments in his biography, which is why a number of Alexander's actions seem irrational to the audience. According to Colin Farrell, who played Alexander, this was a consequence of the director's position: Oliver Stone left only part of the episodes of the original script "to tell the story as he wanted." In general, the film reproduces the heroic myth of Alexander with particular attention to his campaigns and conquests. The emphasis on the king's Oedipal complex and his fear of women was probably intended to make Alexander more familiar to the modern audience with the help of well-known Freudian motifs.

Some songs are dedicated to Alexander the Great: Iron Maiden recorded "Alexander the Great"(album Somewhere in Time)," 2va Samoleta "-" Alexander of Macedon "(album" Girlfriend threw problems "), Sergey Babkin - "Alexander" in (album "Motor"), Snega group - "Alexander".

Alexander is a character in the series computer games: Civilization IV: Warlords, Empire Earth, Rise of Nations: Thrones and Patriots, Rome: Total War - Alexander, Alexander, Rise and Fall: Civilizations at War, Call to Power II.

In honor of the commander, the crater "Alexander" on the moon is named.

whose biography demonstrates to us the indefatigable desire of a person for a grandiose dream, became one of the most important characters ancient history. Even in ancient times, the glory of the world's greatest commander was entrenched in him. And it is no coincidence, because it was this ruler who managed to create an empire colossal in scale.

Alexander the Great: short biography

The father of the future commander was the Macedonian king Philip II, who managed to subjugate a significant part of the Greek territories by the middle of the 4th century. Alexander the Great, whose biography begins around 356 BC, was born in the capital of the state - Pella. In childhood, he managed to get an excellent education. The fact that the young man was brought up by the most famous thinker of the ancient era, Aristotle, speaks volumes. The latter sought to instill in his ward the qualities of an ideal sovereign - wise, just and courageous. The ideas of the philosopher to a large extent influenced the further policy of the great ruler.

Alexander the Great: biography of the first period of reign

The young warrior ascended the throne at the age of twenty, after his father Philip was killed by aristocratic conspirators. Over the next two years (from 336 to 334 BC) new ruler was busy restoring the shattered

empire. After restoring order in the country and eliminating the threat from the northern Thracian tribes, Alexander turns his gaze beyond the borders of his own state. For a long time, his father had nurtured the idea of finally defeating what had been the main rival of Hellas by that time for more than a century and a half. This dream was realized by his son.

Alexander the Great: biography of brilliant years

In 334 BC. e. Alexander's armies cross into Asia and begin to advance deep into the possessions of the Persians. The general battle took place in the same year on the Granik River, after which a significant part ended up in the hands of the Macedonians. It was after this battle that the glory of the greatest conqueror was entrenched in the young commander. However, he did not stop there. The next two campaigns of Alexander were also

directed to the East, but now he almost did not meet any serious resistance. So Egypt was taken by him, where the ruler founded the city, which was named after him - Alexandria. Some resistance was provided in the central regions of Persia, but after in 331 King Darius III was defeated, and the city of Babylon became the capital of the Macedonian empire. Many noble Persians after that went over to his side. By 328, almost all of it was conquered, after which the ambitious commander began to prepare an invasion of India. This campaign took place in 325 BC. e. However, the heavy battles of Alexander the Great across the Indus River greatly depleted his army, which had been on campaigns for many years without returning to its homeland. The grumbling of the army forced the ruler to turn back to Babylon. Here he spent the short rest of his life, having managed to marry a noble Persian woman, but died suddenly in 323 BC. e. After the death of the great conqueror, his state could not be kept in unity, and it broke up into several small formations.

Alexander the Great
Born: July 20, 356 BC e.
Died: June 10, 323 BC e.

Biography

Alexander the Great - Macedonian king from 336 BC e. from the Argead dynasty, commander, creator of a world power that collapsed after his death. In Western historiography, he is better known as Alexander the Great. Even in Antiquity, Alexander was entrenched in the glory of one of the greatest generals in history.

The cities founded by Alexander, which today are the largest in several countries, and the colonization of new territories by the Greeks in Asia contributed to the spread of Greek culture in the East. Almost reaching the age of 33, Alexander died in Babylon from a serious illness. Immediately his empire was divided by his commanders (Diadochi) among themselves, and a series of wars of the Diadochi reigned for several decades.

Birth and childhood

Alexander's exact birthday is unknown. Often it is taken as July 20, since according to Plutarch Alexander was born “on the sixth day of the month of hecatombeon (ancient Greek ἑκατομβαιών), which the Macedonians call loy (ancient Greek λῷος)”; there are dates between 21 and 23 July. Often 1 day of hecatombeon is taken as July 15, but an exact correspondence has not been proven. However, from the testimony of Aristobulus recorded by Arrian, it can be deduced that Alexander was born in the autumn. In addition, according to Demosthenes, a contemporary king, the Macedonian month Loy actually corresponded to the Attic boedromion (September and October). Therefore, the period from October 6 to October 10 is often called the date of birth.

His parents - Macedonian King Philip II and the daughter of the king of Epirus Olympias. According to tradition, Alexander himself descended from the mythical Hercules through the kings of Argos, from whom the first Macedonian king Karan allegedly branched off. According to the legendary version, which became widespread at the suggestion of Alexander himself, Pharaoh Nectaneb II was his real father. It was expected that the child would be named Amyntas in honor of Philip's father, but he named him Alexander - probably with political overtones in honor of the Macedonian king Alexander I, nicknamed "Philellin" (friend of the Greeks).

The greatest influence on little Alexander was his mother. The father was engaged in wars with the Greek policies, and most of the time the child spent with the Olympics. She probably tried to turn her son against Philip, and Alexander developed an ambivalent attitude towards his father: while admiring his stories about the war, he at the same time disliked him because of his mother's gossip.

Alexander from early childhood was prepared for diplomacy, politics, war. Although Alexander was born in Pella, he, along with other noble youths, was taught at Mieza near the city. The choice of a place remote from the capital was probably associated with the desire to remove the child from the mother. Alexander's educators and mentors were: a relative on his mother's side, Leonid, to whom he retained a deep affection in adulthood, despite a strict Spartan upbringing in childhood; jester and actor Lysimachus; and from 343 BC. e. the great philosopher Aristotle. The choice of him as a mentor was not accidental - Aristotle was close to the Macedonian royal house, and also well acquainted with Hermias, the tyrant of Atarney, who maintained friendly relations with Philip. Under the guidance of Aristotle, who emphasized the study of ethics and politics, Alexander received a classical Greek education, and he was also instilled with a love of medicine, philosophy and literature. Although all Greeks read the classics of Homer, Alexander studied the Iliad especially diligently, since his mother traced her origins to the protagonist of this epic, Achilles. Subsequently, he often re-read this work. It is also known from the sources that Alexander knew well the "Anabasis" of Xenophon, Euripides, as well as the poets Pindar, Stesichorus, Teleste, Philoxenus and others.

Youth

“Philip saw that Alexander was naturally stubborn, and when he gets angry, he does not yield to any violence, but with a reasonable word he can easily be persuaded to make the right decision; so my father tried more to convince than to order.

Ascension to the throne

Upon accession to the throne, Alexander first dealt with the alleged participants in the conspiracy against his father and, according to the Macedonian tradition, with other possible rivals. As a rule, they were accused of conspiracy and actions on the instructions of Persia - for this, for example, they executed two princes from the Linekestid dynasty (Arrabai and Heromen), representing Upper Macedonia and claiming the Macedonian throne. However, the third of the Lincestis was the son-in-law of Antipater, and therefore Alexander brought him closer to him. At the same time, he executed his cousin Aminta and left his half-sister Kinana a widow. Amyntas represented the "senior" line of the Argeads (from Perdiccas III) and nominally ruled Macedonia as an infant for some time until he was removed by his guardian Philip II. Finally, Alexander decided to eliminate the popular commander Attalus as well - he was accused of treason and negotiations with Athenian politicians. Alexander also attracted the Macedonian people to his side by abolishing taxes. At the same time, the treasury after the reign of Philip was practically empty, and debts reached 500 talents.

With the news of Philip's death, many of his enemies tried to take advantage of the difficult situation that had arisen. Thus, the Thracian and Illyrian tribes rebelled, opponents of Macedonian domination became more active in Athens, and Thebes and some other Greek policies tried to expel the garrisons left by Philip and weaken the influence of Macedonia. However, Alexander took the initiative into his own hands. As Philip's successor, he organized a congress in Corinth, at which the previously concluded agreement with the Greeks was confirmed. The agreement declared the full sovereignty of the Greek policies, their independent decision of internal affairs, the right to withdraw from the agreement. To guide the foreign policy of the Greek states, a common council was created and the "position" of the hegemon of the Hellenes, who had military powers, was introduced. The Greeks made concessions, and many policies let the Macedonian garrisons in (this, in particular, did Thebes).

Campaign to the north and conquest of Thebes (335 BC)

Having behind him the still calm Greece, eyeing the new king, in the spring of 335 BC. e. moved on a campaign against the rebellious Illyrians and Thracians. According to modern estimates, no more than 15,000 soldiers went on the northern campaign, and almost all of them were Macedonians. First, Alexander defeated the Thracians in the battle of Mount Emon (Shipka): the barbarians set up a wagon camp on a hill and hoped to put the Macedonians to flight by derailing their wagons; Alexander ordered his soldiers to avoid the wagons in an organized manner. During the battle, the Macedonians captured many of the women and children that the barbarians had left in the camp and took them to Macedonia. Soon the king defeated the Triballi tribe, and their ruler Sirm, along with most of his fellow tribesmen, took refuge on the island of Pevka on the Danube. Alexander, using the few ships that arrived from Byzantium, failed to land on the island. Harvest time was approaching, and Alexander's army could destroy all the crops of the Triballi and try to force them to surrender before their supplies ran out. However, the king soon noticed that on the other side of the Danube, troops of the Getae tribe were gathering. The Getae hoped that Alexander would not land on the shore occupied by soldiers, but the king, on the contrary, considered the appearance of the Getae a challenge to himself. Therefore, on makeshift rafts, he crossed to the other side of the Danube, defeated the Getae, and thereby deprived the ruler of the Triballi, Sirm, of hope for a speedy end to the war. It is possible that Alexander borrowed the organization of the crossing from Xenophon, who described the crossing of the Euphrates in makeshift boats in his work Anabasis. Soon Alexander concluded allied treaties with all the northern barbarians. According to legend, during the conclusion of treaties, the king asked the barbarian rulers whom they were most afraid of. All the leaders answered that they were most afraid of him, Alexander, and only the leader of a small Celtic tribe who lived in Greece said that he was most afraid if the sky suddenly fell to the ground.

At the end of September 335, the assault on the city began. Sources give various reasons for the defeat of the Thebans: Arrian believes that the Theban troops lost heart and could no longer hold back the Macedonians, while Diodorus believes that the main reason was the discovery by the Macedonians of an undefended section of the city walls. In any case, the Macedonian troops occupied the walls of the city, and the Macedonian garrison opened the gates and helped surround the Thebans. By storm, the city was captured, plundered, and the entire population was enslaved (see the article The Siege of Thebes). With the proceeds (about 440 talents), Alexander fully or partially covered the debts of the Macedonian treasury. All of Greece was amazed both by the fate of the ancient city, one of the largest and strongest in Hellas, and by the quick victory of the Macedonian weapons. The inhabitants of a number of cities themselves brought to justice the politicians who called for a revolt against the Macedonian hegemony. Almost immediately after the capture of Thebes, Alexander headed back to Macedonia, where he began to prepare for a campaign in Asia.

At this stage, Alexander's military expeditions took the form of pacifying the opponents of the Corinthian League and the pan-Hellenic idea of revenge on the barbarians. Alexander justifies all his aggressive actions in the "Macedonian" period by an inextricable connection with the goals of the pan-Greek union. After all, formally it was the Corinthian Congress that sanctioned the dominant status of Alexander in Hellas.

Conquest of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt (334-332 BC)

Having appointed Antipater as his viceroy in Europe and leaving him 12 thousand infantry and 1500 cavalry, in the early spring of 334 BC. e. Alexander, at the head of the united forces of Macedonia, the Greek city-states (except for Sparta, who refused to participate) and the allied Thracians, set out on a campaign against the Persians. The moment for the start of the campaign was chosen very well, since the Persian fleet was still in the ports of Asia Minor and could not prevent the army from crossing. In May he crossed the Hellespont in Asia Minor in the location of the legendary Troy. According to legend, swimming to the other side, Alexander threw a spear towards Asia, which symbolized that everything conquered would belong to the king.

The ancient historian Diodorus gives the composition of his troops, confirmed in general by other sources:

Infantry - a total of 32 thousand - 12 thousand Macedonians (9 thousand in the Macedonian phalanx and 3 thousand in shield-bearing detachments), 7 thousand allies (from Greek cities), 5 thousand mercenaries (Greeks), 7 thousand barbarians (Thracians and Illyrians), 1 thousand archers and Agrians (a Paeonian tribe in Thrace).
Cavalry - only 1500-1800 Macedonians (Getairs), 1800 Thessalians and 600 Greeks from other areas, 900 Thracians and Paeonians. That is, in total, there were 5 thousand cavalry in Alexander's army.

In addition, there were several thousand Macedonian soldiers in Asia Minor, who crossed there even under Philip. Thus, the total number of Alexander's troops at the beginning of the campaign reached 50,000 soldiers. There were also quite a few scientists and historians at Alexander's headquarters - Alexander initially set himself research goals.

When Alexander's army ended up near the city of Lampsak on the banks of the Hellespont, the townspeople sent the rhetor Anaximenes to Alexander, who taught Alexander oratory to ask him to save the city. Expecting sophisticated rhetorical tricks and requests from his teacher, Alexander exclaimed that he would not do anything that Anaximenes asked. However, the orator asked him to seize and plunder it hometown, and the king had to keep his word - not to capture or plunder Lampsak. Occupying the nearby town of Priapus, Alexander's soldiers were surprised to learn about the cult of the local deity of the same name, and soon his veneration spread throughout the Mediterranean.

The commander of the Greek mercenaries in the Persian service, Memnon, who was well acquainted with the Macedonian army (he fought against Philip's troops sent to Asia Minor) and personally knew Alexander, recommended refraining from open clashes with Alexander's army and suggested using scorched earth tactics. He also insisted on the need to actively use the fleet and strike at Macedonia itself. However, the Persian satraps refused to listen to the advice of the Greek and decided to give battle to Alexander on the river Granik near Troy. In the Battle of the Granicus, satrap detachments, mostly cavalry (numbering up to 20 thousand), were dispersed, the Persian infantry fled, and the Greek mercenary hoplites were surrounded and exterminated (2 thousand were taken prisoner).

Most of the cities of Asia Minor voluntarily opened the gates to the winner. Phrygia surrendered completely, and her satrap Atisius committed suicide. Soon the commandant of the city of Sardis, Mithren, surrendered the city despite the fact that it was perfectly fortified, and the citadel located on the mountain was practically impregnable at all. Thanks to this betrayal, Alexander without a fight got one of the strongest fortresses in Asia Minor and the richest treasury. In gratitude, the king introduced Mithren into his inner circle, and soon appointed him satrap of Armenia. The inhabitants of Ephesus also surrendered the city without a fight: before the arrival of Alexander, they overthrew the pro-Persian elite and restored their democracy. In place of the Persian satraps, Alexander appointed Macedonians, Greeks, or, as in the case of Mithren, Persians loyal to him personally.

Shortly after arriving in Caria, Alexandra met Ada, a former satrap of Caria who had been removed from power by her brother Pixodar. She handed over to him the city of Alinda, where she lived after the removal, and said that Alexander was like a son to her. Sometimes this phrase, recorded by Arrian, is interpreted as legal adoption. For him, this was an opportunity to win over part of the Carians - Ada still enjoyed authority among the local aristocracy.

In Caria, Alexander encountered the resistance of the cities of Miletus and Halicarnassus, where there were strong Persian garrisons, and where the troops of the satraps who survived after the battle of the Granicus accumulated. The entire fleet of Alexander approached Miletus, with the help of which he crossed the Hellespont. However, after a few days, a huge Persian fleet also arrived at the city. Despite this, Alexander did not lift the siege of the city and rejected the offer of the Milesian oligarchy to open the city to both armies. This was probably due to the fact that the commandant of the city of Hegesistrat conducted secret negotiations with Alexander on surrender and had already contributed to the occupation of the outer fortifications of the city by the Greeks. Literally the next morning, the Greeks destroyed the walls of Miletus with the help of siege engines, after which the troops broke into the city and captured it. In addition, the Greeks forced the Persian fleet to retreat, as it did not have sufficient supplies of food and water. Soon the Persians returned, but after a small collision they sailed again from under Miletus. After that, Alexander took an unexpected step and ordered the disbandment of almost his entire fleet. Modern historians see this decision of the king as one of the few mistakes he made.

Already near Halicarnassus, the king regretted his decision - the city was supplied from the sea, and since Alexander did not have the opportunity to block the supply channel, the army had to prepare for a deliberately difficult assault (see Siege of Halicarnassus). During 334 BC. e. and until the autumn of 333 BC. e. Alexander conquered all of Asia Minor.

Having barely left the borders of Asia Minor from Cilicia, Alexander near Issami faced in battle with the Persian king Darius III in November 333 BC. e. The terrain favored Alexander, the huge army of the Persians was squeezed into a narrow gorge between the sea and the mountains. The battle of Issus ended with the complete defeat of Darius, he himself fled from the battlefield, leaving his family in the camp, which went to the Macedonians as a prize (see article by Stateira). Macedonian detachments captured in Damascus part of the treasures of the Persian king and many noble captives.

The victory at Issus opened the way for the Macedonians to the south. Alexander, skirting the coast mediterranean sea, went to Phoenicia with the aim of conquering coastal cities and depriving the Persian fleet of bases. Peace terms twice offered by Darius were rejected by Alexander. Of the cities of Phoenicia, only impregnable Tire, located on the island, refused to recognize the authority of Alexander. However, in July 332 BC. e. after a 7-month siege, the impregnable fortress city fell after an assault from the sea (see the article Siege of Tyre). With his fall, the Persian fleet in the Mediterranean ceased to exist, and Alexander could freely receive reinforcements by sea.

After Phoenicia, Alexander continued on to Egypt through Palestine, where he was resisted by the city of Gaza, but he was also taken by storm after a 2-month siege (see the article The Siege of Gaza).

Egypt, whose armed units were destroyed in the battle of Issus, was surrendered by the satrap Mazak without any resistance. The local population welcomed him as a deliverer from the hated Persian yoke and willingly recognized his authority. Alexander did not touch on local customs and religious beliefs, on the whole he retained the system of government in Egypt, supporting it with Macedonian garrisons. Alexander stayed in Egypt for six months from December 332 BC. e. to May 331 BC e. There the king founded the city of Alexandria, which soon became one of the main cultural centers of the ancient world and largest city Egypt (currently the second largest city in Egypt). Also from this time is his long and dangerous pilgrimage to the oracle of Zeus-Amun in the Siwa oasis in the Libyan desert. After meeting with him, Alexander began to actively spread a rumor about himself that he was the son of the supreme god Zeus. (The ascension of the pharaoh to the throne has long been accompanied in Egypt by his sacralization; Alexander adopted this tradition).

Having fortified enough in the conquered territory, Alexander decided to delve into the lands unknown to the Greeks, into the central regions of Asia, where the Persian king Darius managed to gather a new huge army.

The defeat of the Persian state (331-330 BC)

In the summer of 331 BC. e. Alexander crossed the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and found himself on the outskirts of Media, the heart of the Persian state. On a large plain (on the territory of modern Iraqi Kurdistan), specially prepared for the action of large masses of cavalry, King Darius was waiting for the Macedonians. October 1, 331 BC e. a grandiose battle took place at Gaugamela, during which the troops of the Persians and the peoples subject to them were defeated. King Darius, as in the previous battle, fled from the battlefield, although his troops were still fighting, and the outcome of the battle was not at all determined.

Alexander moved south, where ancient Babylon and Susa, one of the capitals Persian Empire opened their gates for him. The Persian satraps, having lost faith in Darius, began to switch to the service of the king of Asia, as Alexander began to be called.

From Susa, Alexander went through mountain passes to Persepolis, the center of the original Persian land. After failed attempt to break through on the move, Alexander with part of his army bypassed the troops of the satrap of Persia Ariobarzan, and in January 330 BC. e. Persepolis fell. The Macedonian army rested in the city until the end of spring, and before leaving the palace of the Persian kings was burned. According to the famous legend, the fire was organized by the hetaera Thais of Athens, the mistress of the military leader Ptolemy, who provoked the drunken company of Alexander and his friends.

May 330 B.C. e. Alexander resumed his pursuit of Darius, first in Media and then in Parthia. July 330 B.C. e. King Darius was killed as a result of a conspiracy of his military leaders. The Bactrian satrap Bess, who killed Darius, called himself the new king of the Persian Empire under the name Artaxerxes. Bessus tried to organize resistance in the eastern satrapies, but was captured by his comrades-in-arms, handed over to Alexander and executed by him in June 329 BC. e.

King of Asia

Having become the ruler of Asia, Alexander stopped looking at the Persians as a conquered people, tried to equalize the winners with the vanquished and combine their customs into a single whole. The measures taken by Alexander first concerned external forms such as oriental clothes, a harem, Persian court ceremonies. However, he did not demand their observance from the Macedonians. Alexander tried to rule the Persians like their former kings. In historiography, there is no consensus on the title of Alexander - by adopting the title "King of Asia", the new king either could indicate the continuity of his state with the Achaemenid Empire, or, on the contrary, could emphasize the opposite of the new power and Persia, since he did not use such Achaemenid titles as "king of kings" and others.

Campaign in Central Asia (329-327 BC)

After the death of Darius III, local rulers in the eastern satrapies of the collapsed Persian Empire felt independent and were in no hurry to swear allegiance to the new monarch. Alexander, dreaming of becoming the king of the entire civilized world, became involved in a three-year military campaign in Central Asia (329-327 BC).

It was predominantly a guerrilla war, not a battle of armies. You can note the battle at Politimet. This was the first and only victory over the troops of the commanders of Alexander the Great in the entire history of his campaign to the East. Local tribes acted in raids and retreats, uprisings broke out in different places, and the Macedonian detachments sent out by Alexander destroyed entire villages in retaliation. The fighting took place in Bactria and Sogdiana, on the territory of modern Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

In Sogdia, Alexander defeated the Scythians. To do this, he had to cross the Jaxart River. Further north, the Macedonian troops did not deepen, the places there were deserted and, according to the Greeks, sparsely inhabited. In the mountains of Sogdiana and Bactria, when the Macedonians approached, the local population hid in hard-to-reach mountain fortresses, but Alexander managed to capture them, if not by storm, then by cunning and perseverance (see the article Alexander's Mountain War). The king's troops brutally cracked down on the recalcitrant local population, which led to the devastation of Central Asia.

In Sogdiana, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria Eskhata (Greek Αλεξάνδρεια Εσχάτη - Extreme Alexandria) (modern Khujand), currently the second largest city in Tajikistan. In Bactria, on the ancient ruins, he founded the city of Alexandria in Arachosia (modern Kandahar), currently the second largest city in Afghanistan. In the same place in Bactria in the winter of 328/327 BC. e. or in the summer of 327 BC. e. Alexander married Roxana, the daughter of a local nobleman (possibly a satrap) Oxyartes. Although ancient writers generally assumed that the marriage was for love, this union allowed the local aristocracy to win over to the side of the king. After the wedding, which consolidated the Macedonian dominance in Bactria and Sogdiana, the king began preparations for a campaign in India.

Hike to India (326-325 BC)

In the spring of 326 BC. e. Alexander invaded the lands of the Indian peoples from Bactria through the Khyber Pass, conquered a number of tribes, crossed the Indus River and took possession of King Abhi of Taxila (the Greeks called the king "a man from Taxila", that is, Taxil) in the territory of present-day Pakistan. Main fighting Macedonian troops deployed in the Punjab region, the "five rivers" - a fertile region in the basin of the five eastern tributaries of the Indus.

Taxil swore allegiance to Alexander, hoping to defeat his rival, King Por of the eastern Punjab, with his help. Por posted an army and 200 elephants on the borders of his land, and in July 326 BC. e. there was a battle on the Hydaspes River, in which the army of Porus was defeated, and he himself was captured. Unexpectedly for Taxila, Alexander left Por as king, and even expanded his dominions. Such was the usual policy of Alexander in the conquered lands: to make the conquered rulers dependent on themselves, while trying to maintain a counterbalance to them in the face of other specific rulers.

At the end of the summer of 326 BC. e. Alexander's eastward advance stopped. On the banks of the Bias River (a tributary of the Indus), the Macedonian army refused to follow the king further due to fatigue from a long campaign and endless battles. The immediate cause was rumors of huge armies with thousands of elephants beyond the Ganges. Alexander had no choice but to turn the army to the south. When retreating to Persia, he planned to capture other lands.

Around November 326 BC. e. the Macedonian army floats down the rivers Gidasp and Indus for seven months, making sorties along the way and conquering the surrounding tribes. In one of the battles for the city of the Malls (January 325 BC), Alexander was seriously wounded by an arrow in the chest (see Storming the City of the Malls). Irritated by the opposition and courage of the peoples of India, Alexander exterminates entire tribes, unable to stay here for a long time to bring them into submission.

Part of the Macedonian army under the command of Crater Alexander sent to Persia, and with the rest he reached the Indian Ocean.

In the summer of 325 BC. e. Alexander moved from the mouth of the Indus to Persia along the ocean coast. The return home through the deserts of Gedrosia, one of the coastal satrapies, turned out to be harder than battles - many Macedonians died on the road from heat and thirst.

Alexander's last years

In March 324 BC. e. Alexander entered the city of Susa (in southern Iran), where he and his army rested after a 10-year military campaign. Having secured dominion over the conquered lands, Alexander set about the final arrangement of his fragile empire. First of all, he dealt with the satraps in the field, executed many for poor management.

One of his steps towards the creation of a unified state from subjects of diverse cultures was a grandiose wedding, at which he married Stateira, the eldest daughter of King Darius, who was captured after the Battle of Issus, and Parisat, the daughter of the Persian king Artaxerxes III. Alexander also presented his friends with wives from noble Persian families. And in total, according to Arrian, up to 10 thousand Macedonians took wives from the locals, all of them received gifts from the king.

A serious reform took place in the army: a phalanx of 30 thousand young men from Asian peoples was trained and trained according to the Macedonian model. Local aristocrats were even included in the elite cavalry of the hetairoi. The anxiety of the Macedonians resulted in an open revolt in August 324 BC. e., when simple soldiers accused the king almost of betrayal. By executing 13 instigators and defiantly ignoring the soldiers, Alexander forced the army into obedience, which could no longer imagine a commander other than Alexander.

In February 323 BC. e. Alexander stopped in Babylon, where he began to plan new conquest wars. The immediate goal was the Arab tribes of the Arabian Peninsula, in the future, an expedition against Carthage was guessed. While the fleet is being prepared, Alexander is building harbors and canals, forming troops from recruits, receiving embassies.

Death of Alexander

5 days before the start of the campaign against the Arabs, Alexander fell ill. Since June 7, Alexander could no longer speak. After 10 days of severe fever on June 10 or 13, 323 BC. e. Alexander the Great died in Babylon at the age of 32, a little more than a month before his 33rd birthday and leaving no instructions about heirs.

In modern historiography, the generally accepted version is about natural death king. However, the cause of his death has not yet been reliably established. Most often put forward version of death from malaria. According to this version, the body of the king, weakened by daily bouts of malaria, could not resist two diseases at once; the second disease was either pneumonia or malaria-induced transient leukemia (leukemia). According to another version, Alexander contracted West Nile fever. It has also been suggested that Alexander may have died of leishmaniasis or cancer. However, the fact that no other of his companions fell ill reduces the plausibility of the version of an infectious disease. Historians draw attention to the increasing frequency of Alexander's drinking with generals by the end of the conquests, which could undermine his health. There is also a version about an overdose of poisonous hellebore by the king, which was used as a laxative. According to the modern opinion of British toxicologists, the symptoms of the disease from which Alexander died - prolonged vomiting, convulsions, muscle weakness and slowing of the pulse - testify to his poisoning with a drug made on the basis of a plant called White Hellebore (lat. Veratrum album) - a poisonous plant used Greek doctors in medical purposes. Greek doctors gave a drink from white hellebore with honey to expel evil spirits and induce vomiting. Finally, back in antiquity, versions appeared about the poisoning of Tsar Antipater, whom Alexander was going to remove from the post of governor of Macedonia, but no evidence of this appeared.

The content of the article

ALEXANDER THE GREAT (MAcedonian)(356–323 BC), king of Macedonia, founder of the Hellenistic world power; the most famous general of antiquity. Born at the end of July 356 BC in Pella, the capital of Macedonia. The son of the Macedonian king Philip II (359–336 BC) and Olympias, daughter of the Molossian king Neoptolem. He received an aristocratic upbringing at the Macedonian court; studied writing, mathematics, music and playing the lyre; acquired a broad knowledge of Greek literature; especially loved Homer and the tragedians. In 343–340 BC in Miez (a Macedonian city on the Strymon river) he listened to lectures by the philosopher Aristotle specially invited to him on ethics, politics, and natural science. With young years showed strong-willed character and prudence; possessed great physical strength; tamed the skittish horse Bukefala, which no one managed to curb - this horse became his constant companion in all military campaigns.

In 340 BC, when Philip II, having gone to fight with Perinth, a Greek city on the European coast of the Propontis (modern Sea of Marmara), entrusted the fourteen-year-old Alexander with the administration of the state, he discovered a military gift, decisively suppressing the uprising of the Medes tribe in Northern Paeonia . At the age of sixteen, he played a key role in the victory of the Macedonians over the Greeks at Chaeronea (Boeotia) on August 2, 338 BC, which led to the establishment of Macedonian hegemony in Hellas (). Successfully carried out a diplomatic mission to Athens, one of the main centers of anti-Macedonian resistance, offering the Athenians honorable terms of peace; was awarded Athenian citizenship.

Came into conflict with Philip II after his divorce from Olympias and fled to Illyria. Through the mediation of the Corinthian Demaratus, he reconciled with his father and returned to Pella. However, their relationship worsened again when Philip II opposed Alexander's marriage to Ada, the daughter of the influential and wealthy Carian king Pixodar, and expelled his closest friends from Macedonia.

first years of government.

After the murder of his father in the spring of 336 BC. (in which, according to one version, he was involved) became the Macedonian king with the support of the army; destroyed potential contenders for the throne - his half-brother Karan and cousin Aminta. Having learned that many Greek policies refused to recognize him as the hegemon of Hellas, in the early summer of 336 BC. moved to Greece, achieved his election as the head of the Thessalian Union and the Delphic Amfiktyony (the religious association of the states of Central Greece) and obedience from Athens and Thebes. He convened in Corinth a congress of the Pan-Hellenic (pan-Greek) league created by Philip II, at which, on his initiative, it was decided to start a war against the Achaemenid state (); for its conduct, he was appointed strategist-autocrator (supreme commander) of Hellas. His famous meeting with the Cynic philosopher Diogenes also took place there: in response to Alexander’s question if he had any request, Diogenes asked the king not to block the sun for him. Upon returning to his homeland, he committed in the spring of 335 BC. victorious campaign against the mountainous Thracians, Triballians and Illyrians, securing the northern borders of Macedonia.

A false rumor about the death of Alexander in Illyria caused a widespread anti-Macedonian uprising in Greece, led by the Thebans. Having interrupted the northern campaign, he swiftly invaded Central Greece and took Thebes by storm; some of the inhabitants were killed, the survivors (more than 30 thousand) were sold into slavery, and the city was razed to the ground. The rest of the policies, frightened by the fate of Thebes, submitted to Alexander.

Persian campaign.

conquest of Asia Minor.

Having distributed all the property to his entourage and warriors and entrusted the administration of Macedonia to the strategist Antipater, in the spring of 334 BC. at the head of a small Greek-Macedonian army (about 30 thousand infantry and 5 thousand horsemen), Alexander crossed the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles) to Asia Minor and entered the Achaemenid state. In early June, he defeated the sixty-thousandth army of Persian satraps in Asia Minor in the battle on the river Granik (modern Bigachai), showing great personal courage in it, and captured the Hellespontian Phrygia and Lydia. His power was voluntarily recognized by almost all Greek cities on the western coast of Asia Minor, in which he overthrew the pro-Persian oligarchic and tyrannical regimes and established a democratic system; by force he had to take only Miletus and Halicarnassus. After the subjugation of Caria, where Alexander took advantage of the struggle for power of local aristocratic groups, the entire western part of Asia Minor was in his hands.

In the winter of 334/333 BC moved along the southern coast of the peninsula and conquered Lycia and Pamphylia, and then turned north and invaded the interior of Asia Minor. Having defeated the Pisids, he occupied Phrygia; according to legend, in Gordia, the ancient Phrygian capital, he cut the tangled knot that fastened the chariot of the mythical king Midas with a sword blow - there was a belief that the one who untied it would become the ruler of the world.

Despite the attempt of the Persians to prevent the further advance of the Macedonians by transferring hostilities to the Aegean basin (the capture of the islands of Chios and Lesbos), Alexander continued his campaign deep into the Persian state. He crossed Paphlagonia and Cappadocia without hindrance, crossed the Taurus Range through the pass of the Cilician Gates and subjugated Cilicia. In the summer of 333 BC the conquest of Asia Minor was completed.

Conquest of Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine and Egypt.

In the autumn of 333 BC a huge army (more than 200 thousand) of the Persian king Darius III Kodoman (336-330 BC) advanced to Cilicia and occupied the city of Iss. Not far from him on the river. Pinar On November 12, a battle took place in which Alexander, with only 60 thousand infantry and 5-7 thousand horsemen, won a brilliant victory over the Persians; the richest booty was captured, the mother, wife, young son and two daughters of Darius III were captured. Alexander provided royal family honorable position and generously endowed his army. The victory at Issus made him the ruler of the entire Western Asian Mediterranean.

Having abandoned the pursuit of Darius III, who had managed to escape across the Euphrates, Alexander headed south in order to cut off the Persians from the Mediterranean Sea, prevent their contacts with anti-Macedonian circles in Greece and gain a foothold in the conquered territories. Most of the cities of Phoenicia (Arvad, Byblos, Sidon, etc.) submitted to him, which deprived the Persians of the Phoenician fleet and the hope of conducting active naval operations in the Eastern Mediterranean. Only Tire refused to allow the Macedonians into its walls. In July-August 332 BC after a heavy seven-month siege, the city fell; its defenders were exterminated, and those who had taken refuge in the temples were sold into slavery. At the same time, Alexander's military leaders finally broke the resistance of the Persians in the Aegean: they defeated enemy detachments in the west of Asia Minor, destroyed the Persian fleet near the Hellespont, and captured the entire island of Greece. Military successes allowed Alexander to reject, against the advice of the aged commander Parmenion, the peace proposals of Darius III, who promised to give him part of the Persian state and the hand of one of his daughters.

Having taken Tire, the Greco-Macedonian army entered the borders of Palestine. The power of Alexander was recognized by the Samaritans, but Judea and the South Palestinian city of Gaza remained loyal to the Persians. The capture and defeat of Gaza by the Macedonians, however, forced the Jewish elite to submit; at the same time, Judea managed to maintain political autonomy and even receive tax breaks.

In December 332 BC. Alexander freely took possession of Egypt (). In Memphis, the ancient Egyptian capital, he was proclaimed pharaoh. He pursued a flexible policy towards the local population: he showed respect for Egyptian temples in every possible way, tried to observe native customs. He left the civil administration of the country to the Egyptians, but transferred the army, finances and border areas under the control of the Macedonians and Greeks. In the Nile Delta he founded Alexandria, which became the stronghold of the Greek-Macedonian influence in Egypt (he was personally involved in the planning of the new city). He made an expedition to the Siwa oasis in the desert west of the Nile, where the sanctuary of the supreme Egyptian god Ammon, whom the Greeks identified with Zeus, was located; the temple oracle declared him the son of Ammon. However, he had to give up his intention to make the idea of divine origin the basis of his political propaganda, since it was received with hostility by his environment; in the Macedonian army, opposition began to form, led by Parmenion.

Conquest of Mesopotamia and Iran.

In the spring of 331 BC. Alexander moved to Phenicia, where he crushed the Samaritan uprising. Planning to create New Macedonia, which would defend Palestine from nomads and guard the trade route along the eastern bank of the Jordan to South Arabia, he founded several cities in the north of Transjordan (Dion, Gerasa, Pella), populating them with his veterans and Greek-Macedonian colonists. In order to acquire rights to the Persian throne, he married Barsina, a relative of Darius III. In September 331 BC, with 40,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry, he crossed the Euphrates near Fapsak, then across the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient Assyrian capital of Nineveh, and on October 1, he utterly defeated the Persian army near the village of Gavgamela, numbering, according to data ancient historians, up to 1 million people. military power The Persian state was broken; Darius III fled to Media. The satrap of Babylonia Mazeus opened the gates of Babylon to the Macedonians; Alexander made generous sacrifices to the Babylonian gods and rebuilt the temples destroyed by Xerxes (486–465 BC). In December 331 BC Susiana's satrap Abulit handed over to him Susa (the official capital of the Achaemenid state) and the state treasury. After defeating the satrap of Persis, Ariobarzanes, Alexander captured Persepolis, the dynastic seat of the Achaemenids, and the personal treasury of Darius III; as punishment for the Hellenic shrines desecrated by Xerxes during the Greco-Persian wars, he gave the city to the soldiers for plunder. At the end of May 330 BC. set fire to the luxurious royal palace in Persepolis. On the other hand, he actively pursued a policy of rapprochement with the local Persian aristocracy, giving them high positions in the administration; retained control of Babylonia and Susiana for Mazey and Abulit, and appointed the noble Persian Frasaorta as the satrap of Persia.

In June 330 BC moved to the central regions of Iran. Darius III fled to the east, and the Macedonians, without meeting resistance, occupied Media and its main city, Ecbatana. Here Alexander released the Greek warriors to their homeland, emphasizing by this act that the all-Greek war against the Achaemenid power was over and that from that moment he began the campaign as the “king of Asia”.

conquest of Central Asia.

Pursuing Darius III, Alexander passed the Caspian Gates and entered Central Asia. In this situation, the local satraps Bess and Barsaent plotted against Darius III; they took him into custody, and when the Macedonians overtook the retreating Persians, they stabbed him to death (late June - early July 330 BC); Bess fled to his satrapy (Bactria and Sogdiana) and, referring to his kinship with the Achaemenids, proclaimed himself the new Persian king Artaxerxes IV. Alexander ordered the solemn burial of Darius III in Persepolis and declared himself an avenger for his death. Having passed through Parthia, Hyrcania, Aria and defeated the satrap of Aria Satibarzan, he captured Drangiana and, having overcome mountain range Paropamis (modern Hindu Kush), invaded Bactria; Bess retreated beyond the river. Oks (modern Amu Darya) to Sogdiana.

In the spring of 329 BC. Alexander crossed the Oxus; Sogdian aristocrats gave him Bessus, whom he sent to be killed by the relatives of Darius III. The Macedonians occupied Marakanda, the main city of Sogdiana, and reached the river. Yaksart (modern Syr Darya). However, soon the Sogdians, led by Spitamen, revolted against the conquerors; they were supported by the Bactrians and the Saka nomads. For two years, Alexander tried with the most severe measures to suppress the anti-Macedonian movement. He managed to win the Sakas over to his side. In 328 BC Spitamenes fled to the Massagetae, who, fearing reprisals from the Macedonians, killed him. In 327 BC Alexander captured the Sogdian Rock - the last center of the uprising. As a sign of reconciliation with local nobility he married Roxana, daughter of the Bactrian nobleman Oxyartes. To strengthen his power in this region, he founded the city of Alexandria Eskhata (Extreme; modern Khodzhent) on Jaxart and conquered the mountainous country of Paretaken southwest of Sogdiana. ( Cm. AFGHANISTAN).

After the capture of Mesopotamia, Alexander, in an effort to ensure the loyalty of the conquered regions, increasingly entered into the image of an eastern ruler: he tried to assert the idea of his divine origin, established a magnificent court ritual, started a harem of three hundred concubines, observed Persian customs and wore Persian clothes. The distance of the king from the Macedonians caused great irritation among the soldiers, who were already dissatisfied with the continuation of the difficult campaign, as well as part of his entourage, mostly from Lower Macedonia. Autumn 330 BC the conspiracy of Philotas to kill the king was revealed; by decision of the Macedonian army, the conspirators were stoned to death; Alexander also ordered the death of Parmenion, the father of Philotas. In order to remove the most potentially rebellious part of the army from it, he sent home veterans and soldiers who were not fit for further service.

During the uprising in Sogdia, his relations with the Greek-Macedonian environment became even more aggravated. In the summer of 328 BC at a feast in Maracanda, Alexander killed one of his closest friends, Cleitus, who publicly accused him of neglecting his compatriots. There was an increase in autocratic tendencies, the ideological justification of which was the concept of the permissiveness of the monarch, formulated by the court philosopher Anaxarchus. Alexander's attempt to introduce the Persian rite of proskinesis (earthly bow to the monarch) became the reason for a new conspiracy drawn up by young Macedonian aristocrats from the king's personal guard ("conspiracy of pages"); their ideological inspiration was the philosopher and historian Callisthenes, a student of Aristotle. Only chance saved Alexander from death; the conspirators were stoned to death; Callisthenes, according to one version, was executed, according to another, he committed suicide in prison.

Hike to India.

Fascinated by the idea to reach the “edge of Asia” and become the ruler of the world, Alexander decided to undertake a campaign in India. In the late spring of 327 BC, having set out from Baktra, he crossed Paropamis and the river. Coffen (modern Kabul). Most of the kingdoms on the right bank of the Indus, including the strong state of Taxila, voluntarily submitted to him; their rulers retained their power and political autonomy, but were forced to accept the presence of Macedonian garrisons in their cities. Having defeated the Aspasians and Assakens (Ind. Asawaks), Alexander crossed the Indus and invaded the Punjab, where he faced fierce resistance from King Pora (Ind. Paurava), who owned a vast territory between the rivers Gidasp (modern Jelam) and Akesina (modern Chenab) . As a result of a bloody battle on the Hydaspes (late April - early May 326 BC), Porus's army was defeated, and he himself was captured. Alexander became the master of the Punjab. In an effort to make Time an ally, he not only left him his possessions, but also significantly expanded them. Having founded the cities of Nicaea and Bukefalia (in honor of his deceased horse) on the Hydaspes, he moved east: crossing the river. Hydraot (modern Ravi), conquered the Cathays and approached the river. Hyphasis (modern Sutlej), intending to invade the Ganges valley. However, the soldiers rebelled - they were tired of the endless campaign, hard to endure the natural and climatic conditions of India, and they were frightened by the prospect of war with the powerful state of the Nandas. Alexander had to turn back and give up his dream of world domination. He actually gave up control of the lands east of the Indus, handing it over to local rulers.

On the Hydaspes, the land army met the Macedonian fleet under the command of Nearchus and moved with it to the Indian Ocean. During the campaign, Alexander made a successful military expedition against the Malli and Oxidraks (Ind. Shudraka), who lived east of Hydraot, and subjugated the regions of Musikana, Oksikana and Samba. At the end of July 325 BC. reached Patala (modern Bahmanabad) and the Indus delta.

Return to Babylonia.

In September 325 BC. led an army to Persis along the ocean coast; before the fleet, the task was to examine the coastal sea route from the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates. During the passage through Hydrosia (modern Balochistan), the Macedonians suffered greatly from a lack of water and food and from heavy rains. Only in November did they reach Pura, administrative center Hydrosia. When the army crossed Karmaniya (modern Kerman and Hormozgan), it turned into a disorderly and demoralized crowd. At the beginning of 324 BC. Alexander arrived at Pasargadae and then went to Susa, where he celebrated the end of the campaign (February 324 BC).

Having completed the campaign, he began to streamline his huge power, which included Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Iran, Central Asia and Northwestern India. He tried to deal harshly with the abuses of the Macedonian and Persian officials. He continued the policy of merging multilingual tribes into one whole; sought to create a single elite from the Greek-Macedonian and Persian elite. Ordered ten thousand Macedonian soldiers to marry women of local origin; married about eighty of his associates to Persian aristocrats. He himself married Stateira, daughter of Darius III, and Parisatis, daughter of Artaxerxes III Och (358–338 BC), legitimizing himself as the heir of the Achaemenids. Wanting to dilute the purely Macedonian composition of the guard, he actively enlisted noble Iranians in it; organized a special native corps, which included thirty thousand young men from the eastern regions of his empire. This increased the dissatisfaction of the Macedonian soldiers, which could not be extinguished by generous cash payments. In 324 BC in Opis (on the Tigris), where Alexander arrived with part of the army, the soldiers, having learned about his decision to dismiss veterans and unfit for service, raised a rebellion, which he managed to pacify with great difficulty.

To consolidate his power in Greece (especially after the unsuccessful campaign of the Macedonian commander Zopyrion in Northern Black Sea region and the anti-Macedonian uprising in Thrace) in the summer of 324 BC. issued a decree on the return to the Greek policies of all political emigrants (except for the enemies of Macedonia) and on the restoration of their property rights. Seriously limited the powers of the Achaean, Arcadian and Boeotian unions (and maybe even completely dissolved). He achieved from the Greek states the recognition of himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon; in Hellas began to build the sanctuary of Alexander.

In the winter of 324/323 BC conducted his last campaign - against the Cossians (Kassites), who carried out robbery raids on Mesopotamia. After its successful completion, he led the army to Babylon, where he began to prepare for a campaign to the west: he intended to defeat Carthage, capture Sicily, North Africa and Spain and reach Pillars of Hercules(modern Strait of Gibraltar). He also developed plans for military expeditions around the Hyrcanian (modern Caspian) Sea and to the south of the Arabian Peninsula; already announced the collection of the fleet and army. However, at the beginning of June 323 BC, having been at the feast of his friend Media, he fell ill: perhaps he caught a cold and got pneumonia, complicated by tropical malaria; there is a version that he was poisoned by Iola, the son of Antipater, whom he was going to deprive of the post of governor of Macedonia. He managed to say goodbye to the army and on June 13, 323 BC. died in his Babylonian palace; he was only thirty-three years old. The king's body was transported by one of his associates, Ptolemy Lagos, the ruler of Egypt, to Memphis and then to Alexandria.

The personality of Alexander is woven from contradictions. On the one hand, he is a brilliant commander, a courageous soldier, widely educated person, admirer of literature and art; on the other hand, an immense ambitious man, a strangler of Greek freedom, a cruel conqueror, an autocratic despot who considered himself a god. Historical meaning the activities of Alexander: although the power he created collapsed shortly after his death, his conquests marked the beginning of the Hellenistic era; they created the conditions for the Greek-Macedonian colonization of the Middle East and Central Asia and for the intensive cultural interaction of the Hellenic and Eastern civilizations.

Both sons of Alexander - Hercules (from Barsina) and Alexander IV (from Roxana) - died during the wars of the Diadochi (Alexander's generals who divided his Empire): Hercules was killed in 310 BC. by order of the imperial regent Polysperchon, Alexander IV in 309 BC. by order of the ruler of Macedonia, Cassander.

Ivan Krivushin

Alexander the Great what he did. Alexander the Great - short biography

noble lineage

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Invincible and vain

Become a god

The mystery of Alexander's death

Looking for Alexander

Biography

Birth and childhood

Youth

Ascension to the throne

Campaign to the north and conquest of Thebes (335 BC)

King of Asia

Alexander in modern culture

Biography

Birth and childhood

Youth

Ascension to the throne

Campaign to the north and conquest of Thebes (335 BC)

Conquest of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt (334-332 BC)

The defeat of the Persian state (331-330 BC)

King of Asia

Campaign in Central Asia (329-327 BC)

Hike to India (326-325 BC)

Alexander's last years

Death of Alexander

first years of government.

Persian campaign.

conquest of Asia Minor.

Conquest of Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine and Egypt.

Conquest of Mesopotamia and Iran.

conquest of Central Asia.

Hike to India.

Return to Babylonia.

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