Stages of development of the geographical shell table. The biospheric tier of the geographic envelope and its evolution

The geographic envelope is the area of ​​interaction between intraplanetary endogenous and external exogenous and space processes, which are carried out at active participation organic matter. From here the borders geographical envelope should be determined by the conditions under which the existence of protein bodies, which form the basis of life on Earth, is possible. The lower limit is regulated by the 100°C isotherm, i.e. located at a depth of about 10 km; the upper one is at an altitude of 10-15 km under the ozone layer, which screens the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun, which is detrimental to living matter.

Thus, the thickness of the geographic shell is 20-25 km and includes the tops, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the organic matter that saturates them.

Features of the evolution of the geographic envelope are determined primarily by the rate of accumulation of free water on the surface of the planet. It is here in the border area that the processes of interaction are most active, creating a variety of forms earth's surface, outlines of continental, marine and oceanic regions, diversity organic world, ground and underwater .

Projection of intraplanetary processes onto the earth's surface and their subsequent interaction with solar radiation is ultimately reflected in the formation of the main components of the geographic shell - the top earth's crust, relief, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Consequently, in order to reveal the regularities of its evolution, it is necessary to study the dynamics of the endogenous regime of the planet, the evolution of magmatism, free water, and the relief of the earth's surface. With the advent of water, prerequisites are created for the formation of an oxygen and developed biosphere.

The current state of the geographical shell is the result of its long evolution, starting from the origin. A correct understanding of the processes and phenomena of various spatio-temporal scales occurring in the geographic envelope requires at least their multi-level consideration, starting from the global - planetary. At the same time, the study of processes of such a scale, until recently, was considered the prerogative of geological sciences. In the general geographic synthesis, information of this level was practically not used, and if it was involved, it was rather passive and limited. However, the industry division natural sciences rather arbitrary and has no clear boundaries. They have a common object of research - the Earth and its cosmic environment.

As a result thermochemical reactions, reaching in the zone of the outer core of the Earth, metals, their oxides, volatile substances and water are formed. Light reaction products and excess heat diffuse under the sole of the stone shell - the perisphere. Due to the lower thermal conductivity of the latter, they will not immediately break through to the surface of the planet, but, accumulating under the sole of the perisphere, form a zone of secondary heating of the upper mantle - the asthenosphere. Periodic unloading of the asthenosphere from excesses of magmatic material, volatiles and heat as a result of volcanism is accompanied by the formation of decompacted space in it. The overlying stone shell of the perisphere, following the decreasing volume, passively subsides over these areas, forming negative forms relief on the earth's surface. Areas where such subsidence does not occur remain as residual uplands. All this is confirmed by the confinement of the trap provinces of the continents to the platform syneclises, close relationship massive plateau basaltic outpourings with the formation of oceanic depressions in the Cenozoic (Orlyonok, 1985). The decrease in the volume of the Earth due to the compaction of protomatter, the dissipation of hydrogen, other gases and products of the dissociation of water is accompanied by a reduction in the radius of the planet and its surface area. According to our calculations, the weight loss for the whole was approximately 4.2·10 25 g, which corresponds to a reduction in volume by 4.0·10 26 cm 3 and in radius by 630 km. In this way, it primarily displays the levels of the different lowering of the sphere during the overall contraction. This process is uneven both in space and in time. Spheres that are uneven along the descent radius lead to the formation of alignment surfaces of different heights.

In other words, the contraction of the surface of a contracting sphere is achieved not by the general plicative contraction of its stone shell, as was supposed by Elie de Beaumont and E. Suess, who proceeded from the model of the originally fiery-liquid Earth, but by lowering onto different levels its individual blocks. And this is the main difference between the “cold” contraction and the classical Süss contraction, in addition to its original premise. The envelope of these discrete surfaces is equal in area to the initial surface of the Earth.

The reduction of the Earth's surface due to a decrease in its volume and a progressive decrease in radius leads to an increase in the contrast and depth of dissection of the relief of the solid perisphere. Consequently, the range of the amplitude of the differentiation of the planet's relief is directly proportional to its age and internal activity and inversely proportional to the exogenous factor characterizing the intensity of the destruction of the relief, which is ultimately determined by the presence or absence of free water on the planet's surface. The oceanic and continental blocks are the highest harmonics of contraction, formed during the global contraction of the sphere, the stone shell of which, the perisphere, sagging over the decompressed spaces of the asthenosphere, passively adapts to the decreasing volume of the sphere. The lows and highs within these main geotextures of the compression harmonics are more high order, superimposed in the later stages of the Earth's evolution during its contraction.

Traces of contraction evolution can be observed on other planets and stars. The repeated gravitational collapse of massive stars as thermonuclear fuel is produced is considered the basis of the modern theory of their evolution. Theoreticians of neomobilism are looking for the energy of horizontal movements under the conditions of the Earth in the mechanism of mantle convection. Under stellar conditions, such a mechanism is confirmed by observations and justified theoretically. On a cold and heterogeneous planet dominated by gravitational forces compression, the existence of such a mechanism is postulated. However, reliable evidence for its existence can hardly be found. The thermodynamic conditions on planets and stars are different, hence the dynamics of their outer shells is also different. The mobility of the plasma shell is predetermined by the need to transfer excess heat from the interior of the star. The horizontal mobility of the planet's rocky shell in the absence of a continuous atmospheric layer does not have a satisfactory energy explanation.

When and how was the earth formed and what are the ways of its further evolution? This remained outside the attention of researchers. However, water is main outcome evolution of protosubstance. Its gradual (up to the boundary between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras) accumulation on the surface of the planet was accompanied by different-amplitude downward movements of the perisphere. This, in turn, determined the course of evolution of the gaseous envelope, relief, the ratio of the area and configuration of land and sea, and with them the conditions of sedimentation and life. In other words, the free water produced by the planet and brought to the surface essentially determined the course of evolution of the geographic envelope. Without it, the appearance of the Earth, its landscapes, climate, organic world would be completely different. The prototype of such an Earth is easily guessed on the waterless and lifeless surface of Venus, partly of the Moon and Mars.

The boundary of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic is characterized by the acceleration of the removal of free water to the Earth's surface as a result of spontaneous dehydration of protomatter (Orlyonok, 1985). Outward manifestation This process was the oceanization of the Earth. This is a planetary process involving dehydration, mass volcanism, and the subsidence of vast segments of the perisphere. The stage of oceanization begins at the end of the evolution of protoplanetary matter, and the total duration of this process under Earth conditions is determined at 140-160 million years. During oceanization, the formation of continental masses occurs, gradual increase the contrast of their relief. The rate and volumes of protomatter movement from the asthenosphere to the Earth's surface and their subsequent disintegration and erosion during the period of oceanization, apparently, were much higher than in the pre-oceanic epoch.

For the previous stages of evolution, only shallow waters more or less evenly distributed over the earth's surface were characteristic. This is confirmed by the predominantly shallow-water appearance of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic within the continental blocks, the absence of latitudinal climate differentiation, and the relatively weak dissection of the relief. Under such conditions, the rate of evolution of the geographic envelope, including the accumulation, movement, and denudation of material removed from the asthenosphere, was at least an order of magnitude less intense than in the oceanization epoch.

The current rate of denudation of the earth's surface, estimated from the volume and mass of solid, is approximately 0.8 km / 10 7 years. On average, they have remained so only in the last 60-70 million years, i.e. after the beginning of the formation of ocean basins and the separation of modern continents. The acceleration of denudation processes was caused by an increase in the amplitude of the relief and a decrease in the basis. Consequently, over 60-70 ·10 6 years, the thickness of the reworked crust was approximately 5-6 km.

In the early Phanerozoic and Precambrian, the rate of denudation of the weakly dissected earth's surface was probably an order of magnitude lower; over 3.9·10 9 years, the thickness of the reworked crust was approximately 31 km. The total thickness of disintegrated and oxidized for 4·10 9 years was 35-37 km. The resulting estimate, although very approximate, is comparable to the average thickness of the earth's crust, which is 33 km. It can be assumed that the Mohorovichic boundary in some cases represents the buried surface of a protoplanet, composed of matter older than 4·10 9 years. The entire overlying sequence was formed by volcanic material ejected from the asthenosphere onto the surface of the planet. Disintegration and oxidation of this material when interacting with solar heat, water and the biosphere together with the processes of metamorphism during the downward undulation of the perisphere and created the observed diversity of forms and composition of the earth's crust - essential element geographical envelope.

The most important indicator of the internal activity of the planet and the evolution of the geographic envelope is the earth's hydrosphere. long time there were ideas about the constancy of its volume or small and uniform inflows over geological time. However, quantitative estimates of endogenous inputs and photolytic losses of the Earth's hydrosphere showed that before the Mesozoic-Cenozoic boundary, the rate of free water outflow to the Earth's surface was an order of magnitude lower than in the last 70 million years.

Before the Jurassic, it was about 0.01 mm/1000 years and in the Cenozoic more than 0.1 mm/1000 years, and in the last 5 million years it reached the highest value - 0.6 mm/1000 years (Orlyonok, 1985). Knowing the total mass of volcanic material, it is possible to determine the amount of water brought to the earth's surface for 4·10 9 years of geological activity. Since the proto-substance was processed, which contains an average of 5% water, of the total mass of volcanic material is 3.6 10 25 g - this will be 1.8 10 24 g. Losses on photolysis during this time at average speed 7.0·10 15 g/year would have amounted to 2.8·10 24 g. But this is provided that the surface area of ​​the seas and the pra-ocean was commensurate with the modern one. However, this is more than 20 times the total mass of water transferred to the Earth's surface during its geological activity. From here we get one more independent evidence that in the pre-Cenozoic time, modern sizes did not exist on the surface of the planet, and the total area of ​​sea basins was more than an order of magnitude smaller than the modern total area of ​​the water surface of the seas and ocean. Only with such a ratio of land and sea, the reduced value of photolytic losses, which depend primarily on the area, should the evaporation surface be reduced by an order of magnitude or more - 1.4 * 10 23 g. The modern one contains 1.6 * 10 24 g. total weight The amount of water brought to the earth's surface is estimated at 4.0 * 10 24 g. Over the past 70 million years, the rate of water removal has increased by more than an order of magnitude and amounted to 2.2 * 10 24 g. Thus, almost half of the produced planetary water came during the period of oceanization.

So, the oceans are young geological formation predominantly Cenozoic in age. Never before on Earth has there been such a deep and vast reservoir of free water. It is futile to look for traces of ancient oceans on modern land - they have never been there. This is also evidenced by the predominantly shallow-water appearance of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments of continental platforms and oceanic basins.

Calculations show that the Earth is still able to produce about one and a half volumes of water in the World Ocean. If the current rate of dehydration is maintained, it will take another 80 million years, after which the resources of the protomatter will be depleted and the flow of water to the surface will completely stop. With a negative balance of water inflows and current rates of photolysis, the planet can completely lose its water shell in 20-30 million years.

What are the forecasts for the evolution of the geographic envelope in the near future? With the observed rate of endogenous water inflow - 0.6 mm per 1000 years - in 10 thousand years the ocean level will rise by 6 m. This will inevitably be accompanied by an acceleration in the melting of the polar and. Their disappearance will increase the level in the next millennia by another 63 m, which will lead to the flooding of all low-lying land, a third of which lies below 100 m. In 100 thousand years, the sea level will rise by another 60 m and reach + 120-130 m. all the Earths will be water. In the future, the rise in water level will slow down until the rate of photolytic losses exceeds the rate of endogenous inputs. According to our calculations, oceanization will reach its maximum in the next hundreds of thousands of years, and then the ocean level will begin to fall. Thus, oceanization is the finale of the latest evolution of planetary matter, and its duration under Earth conditions is 140-160 million years.

An analysis of the evolution of the geographic envelope will be incomplete if one more of its components, the atmosphere, is not considered. Like the hydrosphere, the gaseous shell of the Earth was formed due to degassing and volcanism from the asthenosphere zone. In this regard, one would expect that its composition will be close to the composition of deep gases, i.e. it should contain H 2 , CH 2 , NH 3 , H 2 S, CO 2 , etc. Probably, this would be the composition of the atmosphere in the deep Precambrian. Hydrogen atoms and free molecular oxygen were formed in the atmosphere with the onset of photolysis of the water vapors carried out. Free hydrogen atoms rose to the upper atmosphere and dissipated into space. The oxygen molecule is large enough to dissipate, so when it descends into the lower zones of the atmosphere, it becomes its most important component. Gradually accumulating, oxygen laid the foundation chemical processes in earth's atmosphere. Due to the chemical activity of oxygen in the primary atmosphere, the processes of oxidation of deep gases began. The resulting oxides precipitated. Part of the gases, including methane, remained in the reservoirs of the earth's crust, giving rise to deep deposits of oil and.

The photolytic production of atmospheric oxygen was the main process at the beginning of the Earth's evolution. As the deep gases were cleared, a secondary one based on carbon dioxide and nitrogen dioxide was formed, conditions were created for the appearance of photosynthetic blue-green algae and bacteria. With their appearance, the process of saturation of the atmosphere with oxygen accelerated significantly. When carbon dioxide is assimilated by green plants, oxygen is formed, and soil bacteria- nitrogen. As free water accumulates on the Earth's surface and numerous marine basins appear, atmospheric CO 2 is fixed and dolomites are chemically deposited. Ubiquitous intensive chemical dolomite formation, according to N.M. Strakhov (1962), ends in the Paleozoic and is replaced by biogenic. Consequently, in the Paleozoic there is a gradual decrease in the content of CO 2 in the atmosphere and the alkaline reserve in sea waters.

The unstable secondary atmosphere at the end of the Paleozoic passes into the tertiary one, consisting of a mixture of free nitrogen and oxygen, and the amount of oxygen continued to accumulate in the subsequent time. The degree of stability of this modern atmosphere is determined by the mass of the planet and the nature of its interaction with hard solar radiation.

The earth is constantly losing gases with a molecular weight of less than 4, i.e. hydrogen and helium. The time of complete dissipation of atmospheric hydrogen at a gas shell temperature of 1600 K is only 4 years, helium - 1.8 million years, oxygen - 10 29 years. Consequently, the constant presence of hydrogen and helium in the atmosphere indicates a continuous replenishment by them due to deep gases. Dissipation starts from the height of the greatest rarefaction of the atmosphere, i.e. approximately 500 km. This fact confirms the effectiveness of the photolysis mechanism and the effective loss of mass by the Earth (Ermolaev, 1975).

So evolution chemical composition atmosphere took place in close relationship with the rate of accumulation of free water on the Earth's surface and the formation of marine sedimentation basins. Until the middle of the Paleozoic (Carboniferous), when ground vegetation spread all over the place atmospheric oxygen accumulated predominantly photolytically. Since the Carboniferous, this process has been enhanced by photosynthesis. The change in the organic world of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, apparently, is due to a large extent to the "oxygenization" of the atmosphere.

In the course of evolution, it was mastered and saturated organic matter. Adapting to changing conditions, a long way from the simplest unicellular to complex multifunctional organic systems, the crowning achievement of which was Homo sapiens about 50 thousand years ago. "Man, like any living matter, is a function of the biosphere,” wrote V.I. , - and the explosion of scientific thought in the 20th century was prepared by the entire past of the terrestrial biosphere. The gradual civilization of mankind was nothing but a form of organization of this new geological force on the surface of the Earth. Homo sapiens as an active factor of the geographical envelope, unlike the rest of the biosphere coexisting with it, is characterized by the presence of mind, and from the point of view of ecology, mind is supreme ability appropriate to respond to changing external conditions.

The analysis also shows that the modern balance of land and sea turns out to be a variable value. It also becomes clear that the origin and development of earthly civilization had to better time the evolution of the geographical envelope in the sense of the balance of land and sea, the organic world, etc. However, in the near future, civilization will have to wage a difficult struggle against the onset of the ocean, to adapt to the new conditions of existence. Many countries have already been waging this struggle since the 12th century, building dams and dams on the sea coasts and in estuaries. The future of the Earth still largely depends on its internal resources. And these resources, as we see, are still quite large.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-1.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> STAGES OF GEOGRAPHICAL DEVELOPMENT Age of the Earth's SHELL - 4, 6 PRE-GEOLOGICAL STAGE"> ЭТАПЫ РАЗВИТИЯ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ Возраст ОБОЛОЧКИ Земли – 4, 6 ДОГЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ ЭТАП млрд. лет 4, 6 -4, 0 млрд. л. н. Земля изначально Либо – быстрый разогрев холодная за счет энергии Азотная атмосфера с гравитационной аккреции благородными газами, Магматический океан восстановительная неглубоко от поверхности среда или на поверхности Нет гидросферы и Метеоритные удары биосферы провоцировали Бомбардировки базальтовые излияния метеоритами и Локализация мантийных астероидами (4, 2 -3, 9 струй («плюм-тектоника» , млрд. л. н.) как на Венере и сейчас)!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-2.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> STAGES OF GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL DEVELOPMENT PRE-GEOLOGICAL STAGE"> ЭТАПЫ РАЗВИТИЯ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ ДОГЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ ЭТАП 4, 6 -4, 0 млрд. л. н. Захват Протолуны – Либо – гигантский импакт гигантские приливы на через 50 -70 млн лет после Земле до 1 км, ускоренное аккреции, выброс вещества вращение Земли, и выпадение части Выпадение на Землю вещества обратно на Землю части вещества с образованием из Протолуны, в т. ч. оставшейся части - Луны железистого ядра Постепенный разогрев Либо – быстрый разогрев недр за счет энергии аккреции приливного трения («слипания» Удаление Луны планетезималей) Замедление вращения Земли!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-3.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE GEOGRAPHIC PREBIOGENIC STAGE 4, 0 –"> ЭТАПЫ РАЗВИТИЯ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ДОБИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП ОБОЛОЧКИ 4, 0 – 0, 57 млрд. л. н. Архей (4, 0 – 2, 5 млрд. л. н.) Ø От начала тектонической активности, расплавления и дегазации до выделения земного ядра Ø Многочисленные тонкие литосферные мини-плиты Ø Начало тектоники плит 3, 5 -3 млрд. л. н. Ø Нет субдукции, только обдукция («торосы» из плит) Ø Возникновение жизни 3, 6 млрд. л. н. Ø К концу периода 2, 5 млрд. л. н. – формирование земной коры и Fe-Ni-ядра!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-4.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> PRE-BIOGENIC STAGE 4, 0 - 0, 57"> ДОБИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП 4, 0 – 0, 57 млрд. л. н. Протерозой (2, 5 – 0, 57 млрд. л. н.) § Ослабление тектонической активности § Возрастание мощности литосферных плит § Образование и раскол Пангеи-1 § Усиление дегазации с выделением О 2, СО 2, Н 2 О § О 2 расходуется на окисление пород, накапливается медленно до середины протерозоя) § Главный источник эндогенной энергии - химико- плотностная дифференциация мантии § Медленное формирование гидросферы. 2, 2 млрд. л. н. – ускорение (насыщение серпентинитов), рост глубин океана § Жизнь только в океане – защищена водой от УФ- радиации!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-5.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> BIOGENIC STAGE OF THE PALEOZIAN Mesozoic"> БИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП ПАЛЕОЗОЙ Мезозой Кайнозой Q 570 -230 МЛН Л. Н. N 570 – 0, 04 МЛН. Л. Н. Pg 67 K Начало этапа – резкий рост О 2 (металлическое J железо исчезло) T P 230 Кембрий-Ордовик – Появление многоклеточных. Палеозой C D Байкальский орогенез. S Снижение СО 2 – снижение растворимости O карбонатов - возможность построение Cm известковых скелетов 570 Pt 2 Докембрий Pt 1 Силур –Каледонский орогенез. Ar Рыбы. Выход жизни на сушу. Начало почвообразования.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-6.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> BIOGENIC STAGE PALEOZIAN Mesozoic Cenozoic Q"> БИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП ПАЛЕОЗОЙ Мезозой Кайнозой Q 570 – 0, 04 МЛН. Л. Н. 570 -230 МЛН Л. Н. N Девон – Формирование озонового экрана, резкий Pg 67 рост биомассы и биоразнообразия на суше. K Амфибии. Рептилии. J T Карбон – Рост СО 2 (вулканизм), усиление 230 P фотосинтеза, потепление, пышные леса из Палеозой C папоротников, хвощей, плаунов. D Накопление углей, нефти, газа в условиях S заболоченных равнин с тропическим климатом. O Возникновение географической зональности Cm 570 Pt 2 Пермь-Триас – Формирование Пангеи-2. Докембрий Pt 1 Герцинский орогенез. Рост континентальности. Ar Оледенения. Сокращения количества !} ecological niches→ Decreased biodiversity. Mass extinction of species.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-7.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> BIOGENIC STAGE Mesozoic Cenozoic Q"> БИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП Мезозой Кайнозой Q МЕЗОЗОЙ N 570 – 0, 04 МЛН. Л. Н. 230 -67 МЛН Л. Н. Pg 67 Юра – Глобальный спрединг. K Возникновение новых океанов и континентов. J Начало океанизации. T Рост разнообразия рельефа и контрастности P 230 географической оболочки. Палеозой C Гигантские рептилии. D S Мел – Мезозойский орогенез. O Видообразование. Cm Рост океанов. 570 Pt 2 Удаление континентов. Докембрий Pt 1 Усиление изоляции экосистем → Рост Ar разнообразия млекопитающих. Цветковые растения Конец периода (67 млн л. н.) – массовое вымирание (астероид?)!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-8.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> BIOGENIC STAGE Mesozoic Cenozoic Q"> БИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП Мезозой Кайнозой Q 570 – 0, 04 МЛН. Л. Н. КАЙНОЗОЙ N Палеоген 67 -0 МЛН Л. Н. Pg Глобальная денудация, выравнивание рельефа. 67 Господство млекопитающих, птиц, K J покрытосеменных. T 230 Неоген-Плейстоцен P v. Альпийский орогенез. Палеозой C v. Неотектонические поднятия. D Эпиплатформенный орогенез (возрожденные S горы). O v. Рост высоты континентов и площади суши. Формирование !} altitudinal zonality. cm 570v. The rise of continentality. Pt 2v. Ring of oceans around Antarctica → Precambrian Pt 1 ice sheet. Ar Pleistocene Glaciations and interglacials with weakening and strengthening of zoning.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-9.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Pz Kz"> Pz Kz Mz Мел Юра Триас Девон Силур Пермь Неоген Карбон Ордовик Кембрий Палеоген Плейстоцен ЖИВОЙ ПРИРОДЫ ЭВОЛЮЦИЯ Насекомые Рыбы Амфибии Рептилии Птицы Млекопитающие Водоросли Плауновидные Папоротники Хвойные Покрытосе менные!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-10.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> PERSON single genus hominid family "> HUMAN The only genus of the hominid family Australopithecus Homo erectus Neanderthal Dryopithecus Cro-Magnon Homo sapiens 4000 3500 2000 350 40 thousand liters n. Community Stone Dwellings Clothes tools Rituals Fishing Hunting Domestication Gathering

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-11.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>HUMAN">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-12.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> 365 DAYS IN THE HISTORY OF THE EARTH January 1 - pregeological history March 28"> 365 ДНЕЙ В ИСТОРИИ ЗЕМЛИ 1 января – догеологическая история 28 марта – первые бактерии 12 декабря – расцвет динозавров 26 декабря – исчезновение динозавров 31 декабря, 01 -00 – предок обезьяны и человека 31 декабря, 17 -30 – появление австралопитеков 31 декабря, 23 -54 – появление неандертальцев 31 декабря, 23 -59 -46 – начало !} new era(1 year) December 31, 24-00 - man on the moon (N. Armstrong)

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-13.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> REGULARITIES OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL"> ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ ЭВОЛЮЦИИ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ Процесс выделения земного ядра в основе: Øтектонической активности Øгеохимической эволюции мантии Øдегазации мантии и возникновения атмосферы и гидросферы Øобразования полезных ископаемых Øразвития жизни!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-14.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> REGULARITIES OF GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL EVOLUTION"> ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ ЭВОЛЮЦИИ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ 1. Уменьшение глубинного теплового потока в 3 -4 раза 2. Прогрессируюшее расслоение на оболочки 3. Периодическое образование и распад Пангей с периодом 400 -500 млн. лет из-за накопления мантийного тепла под литосферой 4. Рост разнообразия !} rocks 5. Transition from abiogenic to biogenic stage 6. Progressive accumulation of biogenic energy and growth of biodiversity 7. Increasing diversity geographical areas 8. Growth of platform area 9. Growth of sedimentation rate 10. Growth of relief contrast 11. Uneven development, cyclicity, metachronism

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-15.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> The most important mechanisms for the development of the geographical envelope q Mantle degassing and"> Важнейшие механизмы развития географической оболочки q Дегазация мантии и вулканизм q Спрединг и субдукция q Направленная эволюция земной коры, с образованием подвижных поясов, платформ, складчатых областей q Географический цикл развития рельефа В. М. Дэвиса q Большой геологический круговорот вещества на потоках солнечной энергии, гравитационной, внутренней энергии Земли q Фотолиз в верхних слоях атмосферы q Развитие гидросферы и океанизация q Развитие растительного покрова и животного мира. Фотосинтез. q Малый биологический и географический круговорот вещества на потоке солнечной и гравитационной энергии. q !} Economic activity man as a planetary phenomenon.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-16.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> UNITY OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL OF L A Scattering of living matter with winds and water"> ЕДИНСТВО ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ Л А Рассеяние живого вещества с ветрами и водными Б Г потоками. Закон Вернадского: Миграция !} chemical elements in the biosphere is carried out either with the direct participation of living matter, or in an environment whose geochemical features are created by living matter.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-17.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> WEATHER CRUST PROPERTIES"> СВОЙСТВА КОРЫ ВЫВЕТРИВАНИЯ ØПоведение одних и тех же веществ различается в зависимости от типа ландшафта ØХарактерны процессы окисления, связанные с изменением валентности элементов ØХарактерны процессы гидратации минералов ØИзмельчение вещества с накоплением глинистых веществ и возрастанием площади соприкосновения частиц между собой и с водой; активизация ионного обмена; рост возможностей накопления элементов ØТип коры (накопление Fe, Al, Si, Ca. CO 3, S, крупных обломков) определяется рельефом и гидроклиматическим режимом – характером перераспределения вещества ØМощность от десятков сантиметров до сотен метров ØВозможно наследование реликтовых свойств, не соответствующих современным ландшафтам ØБиокосная природа, но в отличие от почвы отсутствует биогенная аккумуляция!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-18.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> LANDSCAPE SPHERE v A thin layer of direct contact, contact and energetic"> ЛАНДШАФТНАЯ СФЕРА v Тонкий слой прямого соприкосновения, контакта и энергичного взаимодействия земной коры, воздушной тропосферы и водной оболочки. v Мощность от 10 n до 200 -250 м v Биологический фокус географической оболочки v Среда, наиболее благоприятная для развития жизни v Трансформатор вещества и энергии, рассеиваемых до внешних границ географической оболочки!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-19.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> MAIN REGULARITIES OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL 1. Integrity 2. Rhythm 3. Zonal 4."> ОСНОВНЫЕ ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ 1. Целостность 2. Ритмичность 3. Зональность 4. Азональность 5. Асимметричность 6. Барьеры 7. Метахронность (несинхронное наступление фаз развития геосистем) 8. Саморазвитие!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-20.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> MAIN REGULARITIES OF THE GEOGRAPHIC SHELL 9. Compensatory mechanisms (Chizhevsky's law,"> ОСНОВНЫЕ ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ 9. Компенсационные механизмы (закон Чижевского, воздымание-опускание, похолодание-потепление, экспозиционные эффекты, орошение-усыхание Арала, Эль- Ниньо, Антарктида-Сев. !} Arctic Ocean…) 10. Complementarity: contrasting phenomena do not exist without each other (catchment-channel-alluvial cone, cyclones-anticyclones) 11. Spatio-temporal series of geographical phenomena (Sequence in time is reflected in the spatial series) 12. Spatio-temporal emergence: whole more than the sum of the parts (The biodiversity of a large island is greater than that of an archipelago)

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-21.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF STUDYING THE EARTH EVOLUTION Time and mechanisms of the primary heating of the Earth"> АКТУАЛЬНЫЕ ПРОБЛЕМЫ ИЗУЧЕНИЯ ЭВОЛЮЦИИ ЗЕМЛИ ШВремя и механизмы первичного разогрева Земли ШПричины распада и восстановления суперконтинентов ШДлительность существования Мирового океана ШКосмические и орбитальные причины !} climate change III Variability of the gravitational constant and the effect of ultra-long-range gravitational waves on the shape of the Earth Causes of mass extinctions of flora and fauna

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-22.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHICAL WHAT IS AHEAD? SHELL In 600 million years in robes"> ЭТАПЫ РАЗВИТИЯ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ЧТО ВПЕРЕДИ? ОБОЛОЧКИ Через 600 млн. лет в мантии всё Fe. O→ Fe 3 O 4 Усилится выделение О 2 из мантии в атмосферу Вырастет !} Atmosphere pressure The temperature will rise to 110°C (compared to today's 15.1°C) Boiling of the ocean Dehydration of the earth's crust Increase in temperature up to 550°C and pressure up to 500 atm. The death of life The sun in 5 billion years will turn into a white dwarf without the movement of particles

It is known that the geographical envelope is the largest natural element. This is a complex shell the globe, in which the lithosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere interact. The boundaries of the geographic shell coincide with the biosphere.

The integrity of the geographic shell is determined by the mutual penetration of gas, mineral, water and living shells into each other and their interaction. The metachronism of the development of the geographical shell, which was manifested in the course of its evolution, is singled out.

This principle is clearly seen in the development of the shell on the example of the development of the biostrome and human evolution. There are many methodological provisions that relate to the study of the patterns of development of the geographic envelope of the Earth. These are its evolutionary properties: inheritance, transitivity, variability and inertia.

Stages of development of the geographical shell

The geographical shell was formed over a long time, so its structure and composition were constantly becoming more complex and transformed. There are three main stages in the development of the geographic envelope - these are pre-biogenic, biogenic and anthropogenic.

The relationship of the atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere through the circulation of energy and substances determines the current integrity of the geographic shell. It is characterized by zoning, which became more complex and formed simultaneously with the development of the biosphere, which is an element of the geographical envelope.

Often, such characteristic patterns and features of the geographical shell are distinguished as the rhythm of various natural phenomena and processes. Among them, various rhythms are already distinguished - astronomical, solar, diurnal and geological.

By comparing the states of the geographic shell at different times, it is possible to establish the structure of its change. These are directed, irreversible transformations that can abruptly or smoothly lead to a complication of the structure of the geographic envelope, to an increase in its diversity and complexity. geographical processes and phenomena that constantly occur in it.

This is her development. This complex, sometimes contradictory process, the final result of which leads to the fact that quantitative changes contribute to quality leaps. It was the development of the geographical envelope that contributed to the emergence of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, they were formed as new qualitative structures.

Since external - solar - energy and intraterrestrial energy interact, and this is the energy basis for changing the geographic envelope, it is they who organize certain patterns in the development of its processes and phenomena.

Therefore, they speak of the geographical shell as a stage in the development of the planet Earth. The prerequisite for the emergence and further development of life was precisely the geographical level of organization of such natural systems.

The modern structure of the geographic shell is the result of a very long evolution. In its development, it is customary to distinguish three main stages - pre-biogenic, biogenic and anthropogenic (Table 10.1).

Table 10.1. Stages of development of the geographical shell

	Geological framework	Duration, years	Main events
pre-biogenic	Archean and Proterozoic eras 3700-570 million years ago		Living organisms took a weak part in the formation of the geographical envelope
biogenic	Phanerozoic zones (Paleozoic, Mesozoic and most of Cenozoic era) 570 million - 40 thousand years ago	About 570 million	Organic life is the leading factor in the development of the geographic envelope. At the end of the period, a person appears
Anthropogenic	From the end cenozoic era to our days 40 thousand years ago - our days		The beginning of the stage coincides with the appearance of modern man (Homo sapiens). Man begins to play a leading role in the development of the geographic envelope

pre-biogenic stage was distinguished by the weak participation of living matter in the development of the geographical envelope. This longest stage lasted for the first 3 billion years of the geological history of the Earth - the entire Archean and Proterozoic. Paleontological studies of recent years have confirmed the ideas expressed by V.I. Vernadsky and L.S. Berg that lifeless (as they are called, azoic) epochs, apparently, did not exist during the entire geological time, or this period of time is extremely small. However, this stage can be called pre-biogenic, since organic life at that time did not play a decisive role in the development of the geographic envelope at that time.

In the Archean era, the most primitive unicellular organisms existed on Earth in an anoxic environment. In the layers of the Earth, formed about 3 billion years ago, the remains of threads of algae and bacterium-like organisms were found. In the Proterozoic, unicellular and multicellular algae and bacteria dominated, and the first multicellular animals appeared. At the prebiogenic stage of the development of the geographic envelope, thick strata of ferruginous quartzites (jaspilites) were accumulated in the seas, indicating that then the upper parts of the earth's crust were rich in iron compounds, and the atmosphere was characterized by a very low content of free oxygen and a high content of carbon dioxide.

Biogenic stage The development of the geographical shell corresponds in time to the Phanerozoic zone, which includes the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and almost the entire Cenozoic era. Its duration is estimated at 570 million years. Starting from the Lower Paleozoic, organic life becomes the leading factor in the development of the geographic envelope. The layer of living matter (the so-called biostrome) is spreading globally; over time, its structure and the structure of the plants and animals themselves become more and more complicated. Life, which originated in the sea, then embraced land, air, penetrated into the depths of the oceans.

In the process of the development of the geographical envelope, the conditions for the existence of living organisms have repeatedly changed, which led to the extinction of some species and the adaptation of others to new conditions.

Many scientists associate fundamental changes in the development of organic life, in particular, the emergence of plants on land, with major geological events - with periods of increased mountain building, volcanism, regressions and transgressions of the sea, and with the movement of continents. It is generally accepted that large-scale transformations of the organic world, in particular the extinction of some groups of plants and animals, the emergence and progressive development of others, were associated with the processes taking place in the biosphere itself, and with those favorable circumstances that were created as a result of the activity of abiogenic factors. Thus, an increase in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere during intense volcanic activity immediately activates the process of photosynthesis. Sea regression creates favorable conditions for the formation of organic life in shallow areas. Significant changes in environmental conditions often lead to the death of some forms, which ensures the uncompetitive development of others. There is every reason to believe that the epochs of significant restructuring of living organisms are directly related to the main epochs of folding. During these epochs, high folded mountains were formed, the dissection of the relief sharply increased, volcanic activity intensified, the contrast of the environments aggravated, and the process of interchange of matter and energy proceeded intensively. Changes in the external environment served as an impetus for speciation in the organic world.

At the biogenic stage, the biosphere begins to exert a powerful influence on the structure of the entire geographic envelope. The emergence of photosynthetic plants radically changed the composition of the atmosphere: the content of carbon dioxide decreased and free oxygen appeared. In turn, the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere led to a change in the nature of living organisms. Since free oxygen turned out to be the strongest poison for organisms not adapted to it, many species of living organisms became extinct. The presence of oxygen contributed to the formation of an ozone screen at an altitude of 25-30 km, which absorbs the short-wave part of the ultraviolet solar radiation, which is detrimental to organic life.

Under the influence of living organisms that experience all components of the geographic envelope, the composition and properties of river, lake, sea and ground waters change; there is the formation and accumulation of sedimentary rocks that form the upper layer of the earth's crust, the accumulation of organogenic rocks (coal, coral limestone, diatomites, peat); the physicochemical conditions for the migration of elements in landscapes are formed (a reducing environment with a lack of oxygen is formed in the places of decay of living organic compounds, and an oxidizing environment with an excess of oxygen is formed in the zone of synthesis of aquatic plants), the conditions for the migration of elements in the earth's crust, which ultimately determines its geochemical composition. According to V.I. Vernadsky, life is a great constant and continuous violator of the chemical inertia of the surface of our planet.

The geographical envelope is characterized by pronounced zoning (see § 10.1). Little is known about the zonality of the prebiogenic geosphere; it is obvious that its zonal changes at that time were associated with changes climatic conditions and weathering crusts. At the biogenic stage, changes in living organisms play a leading role in the zonality of the geographic envelope. The beginning of the origin of geographical zoning modern type attributed to the end of the Cretaceous period (67 million years ago), when flowering plants, birds appear and mammals gain strength. Thanks to the warm and humid climate, lush tropical forests have spread from the equator to high latitudes. The change in the outlines of the continents over the course of the further history of the development of the Earth led to a change in climatic conditions, and, accordingly, in the soil and vegetation cover, and in the animal world. The structure of geographic zones, species composition and organization of the biosphere gradually became more complex.

In the Paleogene, Neogene and Pleistocene there was a gradual cooling of the earth's surface; in addition, the landmass expanded and its northern coasts in Eurasia and North America moved into higher latitudes. At the beginning of the Paleogene, to the north of the equatorial forests, seasonally humid subequatorial forests appeared, mainly deciduous, in Eurasia they reached the latitudes of modern Paris and Kyiv. In our time, forests of this type are found only on the Hindustan and Indochina peninsulas.

The subsequent cooling led to the development of subtropical, and at the end of the Paleogene (26 million years ago) and broad-leaved forests of the temperate zone. Currently, such forests are located much to the south - in the center Western Europe and in the Far East. Subtropical forests receded to the south. The natural zones of the continental regions became more clearly distinguished: the steppes, framed in the north by forest-steppes, and in the south by savannahs, which were distributed throughout the Sahara, on the Somali Peninsula and in the east of Hindustan.

In the Neogene period (25-1 million years ago), cooling continued. It is believed that during this period the earth's surface cooled by 8 °C. There was a further complication of the zonal structure: on the plains of the northern part of Eurasia, a zone of mixed, and then coniferous forests arose, and more heat-loving forest zones narrowed and shifted to the south. Deserts and semi-deserts arose in the central parts of the continental regions; in the north they were framed by steppes, in the south - by savannahs, and in the east - by woodlands and shrubs. more pronounced in the mountains altitudinal zonation. By the end of the Neogene, significant changes in the nature of the Earth occurred: the ice cover of the Arctic basin increased, cyclonic precipitation became more intense in the middle latitudes of Eurasia, and the dryness of the climate in North Africa and Western Asia. The continued cooling led to glaciation in the mountains: the Alps and mountains of North America were covered with glaciers. Cooling, especially in high latitudes, has reached a critical point.

For most of the Quaternary period (approximately 1 million - 10 thousand years ago), the last glaciations in the history of the Earth are characteristic: the temperature was 4-6 ° C lower than the modern one. Where a sufficient amount of precipitation fell in the form of snow, glaciers were also born on the plains, for example, in subpolar latitudes. In this situation, the cold seemed to accumulate, since the reflectivity of the snow and glacial surfaces reaches 80%. As a result, the glacier expanded, forming a solid shield. The center of glaciation in Europe was on the Scandinavian Peninsula, and in North America - on Baffin Island and Labrador.

It has now been established that glaciations pulsated, as it were, interrupted by interglacials. The causes of pulsations are still the subject of debate among scientists. Some of them associate the cooling with the intensification of volcanic activity. Volcanic dust and ash significantly enhance the scattering and reflection of solar radiation. So, with a decrease in total solar radiation by only 1% due to the dustiness of the atmosphere, the average planetary air temperature should decrease by 5 °C. This effect enhances the increase in the reflectivity of the most glaciated territory.

During the period of glaciation, several natural zones appeared: the glacier itself, which formed the polar belts (Arctic and Antarctic); the tundra zone that emerged along the edge of the Arctic belt on permafrost; tundra-steppes in the continental drier regions; meadows in the oceanic parts. These zones were separated from the forest-tundra zone retreating to the south of the taiga.

Anthropogenic stage The formation of the geographical shell is named so due to the fact that the development of nature over the past hundreds of millennia has occurred in the presence of man. In the second half of the Quaternary period, the most ancient people, archanthropes, in particular Pithecanthropus (in Southeast Asia), appeared. Archanthropes existed on Earth for a long time (600-350 thousand years ago). However, the anthropogenic period in the development of the geographic envelope did not come immediately after the appearance of man. At first, the impact of man on the geographic shell was negligible. Gathering and hunting with the help of clubs or almost unprocessed stone, in their impact on nature, did little to distinguish the most ancient man from animals. ancient man did not know fire, did not have permanent dwellings, did not use clothes. Therefore, he was almost completely at the mercy of nature, and his evolutionary development determined mainly by biological laws.

The archanthropes were replaced by paleoanthropes - ancient people who existed in total for over 300 thousand years (350-38 thousand years ago). At this time, primitive man mastered fire, which finally separated him from the animal kingdom. Fire became a means of hunting and protection from predators, changed the composition of food, helped man in the fight against cold, which contributed to a sharp expansion of his habitat. Paleoanthropes began to widely use the caves as dwellings, they were known for clothing.

Approximately 38-40 Thousands of years ago, paleoanthropes were supplanted by neoanthropes, which include the modern man Homo sapiens. It is to this time that the beginning of the anthropogenic period is attributed. Having created powerful productive forces that participate on a global scale in the interaction of all spheres of the Earth, a person gives purposefulness to the process of development of the geographical envelope. Feeling his power, man was convinced by his own experience that his well-being is inextricably linked with the full-blooded development of nature. Awareness of this truth marks the beginning of a new stage in the evolution of the geographical envelope - the stage of conscious regulation of natural processes, with the goal of achieving the harmonious development of the "nature - society - man" system.

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Geographic envelope The Earth began to form from the moment when the growing planet acquired the possibility of self-development. The history of the development of the Earth is divided into two stages (eons): cryptozoic(time hidden life) and phanerozoic(explicit lifetime). The rapid development of the organic world began at the end of the Proterozoic - the beginning of the Paleozoic. AT Ordovician the first representatives of vertebrate animals appeared - armored fish. AT Silurian plants and animals were embroidered on dry land. At the same time, there is an accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere, the formation of the ozone layer. The emergence of organisms on land has significantly affected further development Earth.

AT Devonian the differentiation of physical and geographical conditions took shape clearly. At this time, forest, marsh and arid landscapes, lagoon clusters appeared. Already in carbone began to emerge clearly geographic zonation. AT mesozoic differentiation and complication of physical and geographical conditions continued. At the turn of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, there was a sharp change in the animal world - the rapid development of reptiles began. AT jure angiosperms (flowering) plants appeared, and in chalk they became dominant. At the end of the Cretaceous period, the extinction of giant reptiles occurs, steppes and savannas appear.

In the Mesozoic era, the structure of the earth's crust undergoes significant changes associated with powerful splits in the earth's crust up to the upper mantle, its expansion and the formation of oceanic depressions. There is a modern configuration of continental and oceanic blocks. This leads to a height contrast of the relief from + 8848 m (Jomalangma) to - 11034 (Marian Trench).

AT Cenozoic alpine folding occurs, which began in Paleogene and covering the areas of the Alpine-Himalayan and Pacific belts. From Neogene the countdown is neotectonic, or newest stage development of the earth's crust. Last period Cenozoic era - quaternary- also called anthropogenic (in connection with the appearance of man) or glacial. The time when glaciers occupied large areas, called ice ages when they retreated interglacial epochs.

Modern era Holocene, which occurred about 10–12 thousand years ago. The geographical envelope develops under the influence different forces. Outside forces (solar radiation, space fields etc.), although they did not remain low, they did not change directionally, therefore they could not cause a directed development of the nature of the earth's surface. The development of the planet as a cosmic body had a directional character, which determined many regularities of the geographical envelope. The development of living organisms (at the last stage, humanity) and the formation of the biosphere played an important role in this.