Where is the Crimean war. Military operations in the Caucasus

Lesson Objectives:

To study the causes, course and consequences of the Crimean War.
Show that the war exposed the weakness of the Russian Empire, influenced international position Russia, gave a new impetus to subsequent modernization.
Work with the main components of the textbook.
Strengthen the ability to use the help desk and additional literature, the ability to highlight the main thing, to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Create tables based on text.
To instill a sense of pride and love for the Motherland on the examples of desperate, courageous defense native land Russian soldiers and the population of Sevastopol, the work of doctors in the most difficult conditions of the besieged Sevastopol.

New terms and dates: Crimean War(1853-1856), the Battle of Sinop - November 18, 1853, the defense of Sevastopol - September 1854 - August 1855.

Materials and equipment: personal computer, multimedia projector, screen, educational board, workbook, map, handout.

Lesson plan.

Causes and reasons for the war.
Balance of forces and military-technical readiness for war
The course of hostilities.
Results of the war.

During the classes.

I.Interview with students. (slide 2)

Remember what the Eastern question is?

What events foreign policy Russia related to its resolution?

II. New material.

Task for the lesson: Saratov journalist I. Horizontov, recalling the Crimean War, wrote: “ It was felt that we were defeated by Europe not by courage, not by personal prowess, but by means of mental development.How do you understand this phrase? (slide 3)

Today in the lesson, in the process of work, we have to learn the goals of the parties and the mechanism for unleashing the Crimean War, the balance of forces and the course of hostilities, get acquainted with the meaning of technical - economic potential Russia in the war, find out the consequences of the Crimean War for Russia and its further development .

The Crimean War changed the balance of power in Europe, a huge impact on the internal development Russia, became one of the main prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom and the reforms of the 1860s-1870s. Participation in it is considered the main foreign policy mistake of Nicholas I. What caused the Crimean War?

1. Causes and reason for the Crimean War.

The children read the text and name the causes and reason for the war..(slide 4, 5)

(The reasons for the war were the contradictions between the European powers in the Middle East, the struggle of European states for influence on the weakening and gripped by the national liberation movement of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I said that Turkey is a sick person and his legacy can and should be divided. In the upcoming conflict Russian emperor counted on the neutrality of Great Britain, to which he promised after the defeat of Turkey new territorial acquisitions of Crete and Egypt, as well as on the support of Austria, as a gratitude for Russia's participation in the suppression Hungarian revolution. However, Nicholas's calculations turned out to be wrong: England herself pushed Turkey to war, thus seeking to weaken Russia's position. Austria also did not want to strengthen Russia in the Balkans.

The reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine about who would be the guardian of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the temple in Bethlehem. At the same time, it was not about access to holy places, since all pilgrims used them on an equal footing. The dispute over the Holy Places cannot be called a far-fetched pretext for unleashing a war. Historians sometimes cite this dispute as one of the causes of the war, given the "deep religious mentality of the people of that time<...>. Protecting the privileges of the Orthodox community of Palestine was part of the overall task of Russian patronage of the entire Christian population in Turkey. (Russian historyXIX - startedXX century: Textbook for historical departments of universities. M., 1998. S. 172.)

2. The goals of the countries participating in the war

Students work with the textbook item 14, pp. 84-85 and fill out the table. (slide 6)

Checking the filling of the table. (slide 7)

3. Puzzle game "The balance of forces and military-technical readiness for war."

Students are given cards, from which they must make blocks, based on the presence of statements written on the cards. Correctly assembled puzzles should depict one of the moments of the Crimean War. At the end of the lesson, students determine which event of the Crimean War is depicted on their puzzles.

Question to the class: Based on the above data, draw a conclusion about the balance of power and Russia's readiness for war . (slide 8)

4. Crimean War 1853-1856

Turkey was Russia's enemy, and hostilities took place on the Danube and Caucasian fronts. 1853 Russian troops entered the territory of Moldova and Wallachia and hostilities on land were sluggish. In the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated near Kars.

Sinop battle November 1853

Students read the text "The battle of Sinop" and name the reasons for the victory of the Russians and the defeat of the Turks in the battle of Sinop. ( slides 10-12)

Sinopthe battle

The event to which we must now turn is inscribed in golden letters in the history of the glory of the Russian people.<...>

Nakhimov, as soon as reinforcements arrived, decided to immediately enter the harbor of Sinop and attack the Turkish fleet.

In essence, having decided to attack the Turkish fleet, Nakhimov took a very serious risk. The coastal batteries of the Gurkas in Sinop were good, the guns on the ships were also in good order. But for a long time, since late XVI century, the Turkish fleet, once one of the most formidable and capable in the world, did not have any capable admirals at the decisive moments of its existence. So it turned out on the fatal day of Sinop for Turkey. Osman Pasha deployed, as if like a fan, his fleet at the very embankment of the city: the embankment went in a concave arc, and the line of the fleet turned out to be a concave arc, covering, if not all, then many coastal batteries. Yes, and the location of the ships was, of course, such that they could meet Nakhimov with only one side: the other was facing not the sea, but the city of Sinop. The genius of the Russian naval commander and the crew of his squadron, first-class in their combat morale and training, would cope with all obstacles, even if the Turkish command turned out to be more capable <...>

At dawn on November 18 (30), 1853, the Russian squadron turned out to be fifteen kilometers from the Sinop raid<...>

The Turkish fleet, caught by Nakhimov, perished completely; not a single ship survived, and he perished with almost his entire crew. Four frigates, one corvette and one Erekli steamer were blown up and turned into a heap of bloody debris. who might as well leave. Before the start of the battle, the Turks were so sure of victory that they had already put troops on board the ships in advance, which were supposed to board the Russian ships at the end of the battle.

The Turkish artillery in the Sinop battle was weaker than ours, if we count only the guns on the ships (472 guns against the Russians 716), but they acted energetically. Luckily for Nakhimov, the ludicrous disposition of the ships of the Turkish fleet rendered harmless some of the very strong coastal Turkish batteries, but still two batteries did great harm to the Russian ships. Some ships left the battle in a serious condition, but none sank.<...>

Here is the picture that appeared before the eyes of the crew of the Kornilov squadron when it entered the Sinop Bay: “ Most of the city burned, the ancient battlements with towers of the Middle Ages stood out sharply against the backdrop of a sea of flame. Most of the Turkish frigates were still on fire, and when the flames reached the loaded guns, shots would spontaneously fire and the cannonballs would fly over us, which was very unpleasant. We saw how the frigates took off one by one. It was terrible to see how the people who were on them ran, rushed about on the burning decks, probably not daring to throw themselves into the water. Some seemed to be sitting motionless and awaiting death with the resignation of fatalism. We saw flocks of seabirds and pigeons standing out against the crimson background of the fire-lit clouds. The whole raid And our ships were so brightly lit by fire that our sailors worked on the repair of ships, not needing lanterns. At the same time, the entire sky to the east of Sinop seemed completely black.<...>

Among the prisoners was the flagship of the Turkish squadron Osman Pasha himself, whose leg was broken. The wound was very severe. The old Turkish admiral had no shortage of personal courage, just like his subordinates. But this quality alone was not enough to resist the Nakhimov attack.

On November 23, after a stormy passage through the Black Sea, Nakhimov's squadron landed in Sevastopol.

The entire population of the city, who had already learned about the brilliant victory, met the victorious admiral, Endless "Hurrah, Nakhimov!" it also rushed from all the ships anchored in the Sevastopol Bay. To Moscow, to St. Petersburg, to the Caucasus to Vorontsov, to the Danube to Gorchakov, the jubilant news of the crushing Russian naval victory flew. “You cannot imagine the happiness that everyone experienced in St. Petersburg upon receiving the news of the brilliant Sinop affair. This is truly a remarkable feat,” Vasily Dolgorukov, Minister of War, congratulated Prince Menshikov, Commander-in-Chief of the Fleet in Sevastopol. Nikolai gave Nakhimov Georgy 2nd class - the rarest military award - and generously rewarded the entire squadron. The Slavophiles in Moscow (including even the skeptical Sergei Aksakov) made no secret of their delight. The glory of the winner thundered everywhere.

[Tarle E.V. Crimean War.)

Watching the video fragment “The Surrender of Osman Pasha” (an excerpt from the film “Nakhimov”) (slide 13)

Concerned that Russia would completely defeat Turkey, England and France, in the person of Austria, delivered an ultimatum to Russia. They demanded that Russia refuse to patronize the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I could not accept such conditions.

Turkey, France, England and Sardinia united against Russia . (slide 14-18)

Attacked:

on the Black Sea - Odessa,
in the Baltic - Aland Islands,
on the Barents Sea - the Kola Bay,
on the White Sea Solovetsky Monastery and Arkhangelsk,
on the pacific ocean- Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

In September 1854 an army of more than 60,000 allies landed in the Crimea near Evpatoria and launched an offensive against Sevastopol, the main Russian fortress on the Black Sea. The city was invulnerable from the sea, but practically defenseless from land. After the failure of the Russian troops in the battle on the Alma River, the commander-in-chief, Prince A. S. Menshikov (“Izmenshikov”) decided to “keep contact with the internal provinces”, for which he ordered the army to retreat deep into the Crimea. In essence, Sevastopol became doomed. Menshikov's attempts to help the city (the Inkerman battle and the battle in the valley of death near Balaklava) were unsuccessful.

Defense of Sevastopol(slide 19 - 31)

Working with additional material, students answer the questions:

Why is the defense of Sevastopol considered the only bright page for the Russian army in the entire Crimean War?

Why, expressing disagreement with the decision of the commander in chief to sink the ships, V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov not only carried out this order, but also found words for subordinates proving the correctness of this decision?

Why were the actions of the main enemy forces directed against Sevastopol?

On October 17, 1854, the first bombardment of Sevastopol began. The enemy counted on a powerful bombardment from the sea and land to destroy the land fortifications of the fortress and take it by storm. However, the fire of the Russian coastal batteries caused significant damage. siege artillery and the ships of the French and British, which forced them to postpone the assault on the city. The defenders of Sevastopol were in dire need of weapons, ammunition and food. However, in the most difficult conditions, Russian soldiers and sailors maintained a high morale and the will to fight. To protect the city, it was decided to flood part of the ships across the entrances to the Sevastopol Bay. Vice Admiral V. A. Kornilov was against this decision, but found the strength not only to fulfill the order, but and explain to seafarers the necessity of this act. Although one can imagine the horror of the situation when the admiral is told about the sinking of ships, no. In his opinion, opponents are also trying. Around 4 am on September 10, 1854, five ships were sunk. The Russian army under the command of A. S. Menshikov tried to help the inhabitants of Sevastopol. On October 13 (25) a battle took place in the valley between Sevastopol and Balaklava. The Russians managed to infiltrate the rear and capture several Turkish guns. In this battle, the light artillery cavalry, in which representatives of the most aristocratic families of England served, lost about 1.5 thousand people. This battle raised the morale of the Russian troops. At the same time, it served good lesson for the allies who have allocated additional forces to protect their rear. Although the operation did not change the position of the besieged city. The situation in the city and around it was difficult. The defenders were not provided with enough ammunition, water, food. After death

V.A. Kornilov's defense was headed by PS Nakhimov, the hero of Sinop.

Despite the difficulties, the defenders of Sevastopol inflicted significant blows on the enemy, carrying out sorties to the location of enemy troops. They decommissioned manpower and equipment, destroyed trenches, captured prisoners. Hometown even the children were protected. For courage, the ten-year-old defender of the fifth bastion, Kolya Pishchenko, was awarded a military order. Pyotr Makarovich Koshka became famous for his courage, who participated in eighteen sorties into the location of enemy troops, captured ten "languages" and was awarded the St. George Cross.

The enemy troops stormed the city several times. Sometimes the city was literally bombarded with bombs and rockets. The defenders, on the other hand, could not respond with fire of the same strength, since there was a catastrophic lack of ammunition. A bloody struggle was going on for one of the important frontiers of Sevastopol - Malakhov Kurgan.

The last forces of the defenders of Sevastopol were drying up from the losses caused by the incessant artillery shelling of the allies. On July 12, the besieged suffered the most significant loss - during the defense of the Malakhov Kurgan, Admiral Nakhimov died.

On August 5 (17), 1855, the enemy began preparations for a new assault on Sevastopol with a massive bombardment, which lasted until August 24 (September 5). In total, about 200 thousand shells were fired. As a result of this shelling, the city was completely destroyed, almost not a single whole house remained in it. At the same time, the opponents launched a general offensive, directing main blow on Malakhov Kurgan. But the defenders repulsed the attack. at the cost big losses the enemy managed to capture Malakhov Kurgan, which decided the outcome of the defense of Sevastopol. The garrisons of the city, its defenders, having destroyed batteries, powder magazines and sunk some of the remaining ships, crossed over to north side. August 30 (September 11) were sunk last ships Black Sea Fleet. AT this the same day, Alexander II, who ascended the throne, gave the order to stop the defense of Sevastopol. The defense of Sevastopol lasted 349 days (1854-1855).

The feat of doctors in the Crimean War

From the very beginning of the Crimean War, women took an active part in helping the wounded. In Odessa, Sevastopol, Psgropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, sisters of mercy operated.

During the defense of Sevastopol, the daily bombardments that the city was subjected to by the enemy, the number of losses increased every day, both among the soldiers and among the inhabitants of the city, even

more were injured.

In 1954, the famous Russian surgeon N.I. Pirogov arrived in besieged Sevastopol with a group of young surgeons. Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov is the founder of surgery as a scientific medical discipline. He was one of the first to use ether anesthesia in the clinic. And in 1847, for the first time in the world, he used anesthesia in military field surgery.

In Sevastopol, he performed about 400 operations under ether and 300 under chloroform anesthesia. He owns the initiative to deploy temporary hospitals for the defenders of Sevastopol. Based on the experience of the Crimean WAR, Pirogov created the doctrine of general principles military field surgery.

In October 1854, on the initiative of N. I. Pirogov and thanks to the assistance Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna in St. Petersburg, the Exaltation of the Cross community of sisters of care for the sick and wounded soldiers of Russia was established. 200 nurses of this community took part in helping the sick and wounded during the Sevastopol defense. N. I. Pirogov was directly in charge of the sisters of the Exaltation of the Cross community during the Crimean War.

Wives, widows and daughters of officers and sailors also volunteered as nurses and nurses. During the war, women competed with men, under a hail of bullets they carried kvass and water to the hottest places of the fight, often paying for it with their lives and wounds.

From the very beginning, the main functions of the sisters were dressings, assistance during operations, distribution of medicines, keeping the clothes and bed linen of the wounded clean, beautifying hospital wards, distributing warm drinks and food, feeding the seriously wounded, moral reassurance of the sick. On December 6, 1854, that is, a week after the start of the nursing service, Pirogov wrote about the work of the sisters: “... if they do it the way they do now, they will undoubtedly bring a lot of benefits. Day and night they are alternately in hospitals, helping with dressings, they are also at operations, they distribute tea and wine to the sick and watch the ministers and caretakers, and even the doctors. The presence of a woman, neatly dressed and helping with participation, enlivens the deplorable vale of suffering and disasters ... "

Among the sisters of mercy there were many who can rightfully be considered heroes of the war, along with soldiers and officers awarded this title. Dasha Sevastopolskaya (Aleksandrova) became especially famous for her selfless, disinterested service to the wounded. A seventeen-year-old girl was poisoned to the front. She assisted the wounded during bloody battle on the Alma River, during which the Russian army tried to stop the advance of the Anglo-French-Turkish troops ..

And in November 1854, Dasha was transferred as a voluntary sister of mercy to the Main dressing station, which was located in the building of the Noble Assembly in Sevastopol. Approximately on THESE days, an award was delivered from St. Petersburg on behalf of Emperor Nicholas 1 herself. In the Central State Military Historical Archive, a document entitled “On the presentation of the girl Daria for the award, for exemplary diligence and caring for the sick and wounded in Sevastopol”, dated November 7, 1854, has been preserved. As follows from the document, at the direction of Nicholas I, Daria was awarded a gold medal with the inscription "For diligence" on the Vladimir ribbon and 500 rubles. silver. At the same time, they announced that after marriage, Daria would be granted another 1000 rubles. The wounded affectionately called her Dasha of Sevastopol, and she entered the history of the Crimean War under this name.

4. Results of the war.

Students read the textbook p. 14, p. 89 and name the conditions of the Paris Peace Treaty. (slide 32)

What is the main outcome of the Crimean War for Russia?
What is the main outcome of the Crimean War for England and France? (slide 33)

5. Homework.

Write a cinquain about the Crimean War.
Read " Sevastopol stories". What facts made the biggest impression on you? Can this work be used as a source? Justify your answer.

Crimean War 1853-1856 this is one of the Russian pages of the foreign policy of the Eastern Question. The Russian Empire entered into a military confrontation with several opponents at once: the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain and Sardinia.

The fighting took place on the Danube, the Baltic, the Black and White Seas.The most tense situation was in the Crimea, hence the name of the war - Crimean.

Each state that took part in the Crimean War pursued its own goals. For example, Russia wanted to strengthen its influence on the territory of the Balkan Peninsula, and the Ottoman Empire wanted to suppress resistance in the Balkans. By the beginning of the Crimean War, he began to admit the possibility of joining the Balkan lands to the territory of the Russian Empire.

Causes of the Crimean War

Russia motivated its intervention by the fact that it wants to help the peoples professing Orthodoxy to free themselves from the oppression of the Ottoman Empire. Such a desire naturally did not suit England and Austria. The British also wanted to oust Russia Black Sea coast. France also intervened in the Crimean War, its emperor Napoleon III hatched plans for revenge for the war of 1812.

In October 1853, Russia entered Moldavia and Wallachia, these territories were subject to Russia according to the Treaty of Adrianople. The Emperor of Russia was asked to withdraw the troops, but was refused. Further, Great Britain, France and Turkey declared war on Russia. Thus began the Crimean War.

Crimean War 1853−1856 (or Eastern War) is a conflict between the Russian Empire and coalitions of countries, the cause of which was the desire of a number of countries to gain a foothold in the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea, as well as to reduce the influence of the Russian Empire in this region.

Basic information

Participants in the conflict

Almost all the leading countries of Europe became participants in the conflict. Against the Russian Empire, on the side of which was only Greece (until 1854) and the vassal Principality of Megrel, a coalition consisting of:

Ottoman Empire;
French Empire;
british empire;
Sardinian kingdom.

Support for the coalition troops was also provided by: the North Caucasian Imamat (until 1955), the Abkhazian principality (part of the Abkhazians sided with the Russian Empire and waged a guerrilla war against the coalition troops), and the Circassians.

It should also be noted that friendly neutrality to the countries of the coalition showed Austrian Empire, Prussia and Sweden.

Thus, the Russian Empire could not find allies in Europe.

Numerical ratio parties

Numerical ratio ( ground troops and fleet) at the time of the outbreak of hostilities was approximately as follows:

Russian Empire and allies (Bulgarian Legion, Greek Legion and foreign voluntary formations) - 755 thousand people;
coalition forces - about 700 thousand people.

From a logistical point of view, the army of the Russian Empire was significantly inferior armed forces coalition, although none of the officials and generals wanted to accept this fact . Moreover, the team, in its preparedness was also inferior to command staff the combined forces of the enemy.

Geography of hostilities

For four years fighting were conducted:

in the Caucasus;
on the territory of the Danube principalities (Balkans);
in Crimea;
on the Black, Azov, Baltic, White and Barents Seas;
in Kamchatka and the Kuriles.

This geography is explained, first of all, by the fact that the opponents actively used the navy against each other (the map of hostilities is presented below).

Brief History of the Crimean War of 1853−1856

Political situation on the eve of the war

The political situation on the eve of the war was extremely acute. The main reason for this exacerbation was, first of all, the obvious weakening of the Ottoman Empire and the strengthening of the positions of the Russian Empire in the Balkans and the Black Sea. It was at this time that Greece gained independence (1830), Turkey lost its Janissary corps (1826) and fleet (1827, the Battle of Navarino), Algeria retreated to France (1830), Egypt also renounced historical vassalage (1831).

At the same time, the Russian Empire received the right to freely use the Black Sea straits, sought autonomy for Serbia and a protectorate over the Danubian principalities. By supporting the Ottoman Empire in the war with Egypt, the Russian Empire is seeking a promise from Turkey to close the straits for any ships other than Russian ones in the event of any military threat (the secret protocol was in effect until 1941).

Naturally, such a strengthening of the Russian Empire instilled a certain fear in the European powers. In particular, UK has done it all so that the London Convention on the Straits would come into force, which prevented their closure and opened up the possibility for France and England to intervene in the event of a Russian-Turkish conflict. Also, the government of the British Empire achieved from Turkey "most favored nation treatment" in trade. In fact, this meant complete submission economy of Turkey.

At this time, Britain did not want to further weaken the Ottomans, as this eastern empire became a huge market in which to sell English goods. Britain was also worried about the strengthening of Russia in the Caucasus and the Balkans, its advance into Central Asia, and that is why it interfered in every possible way with Russian foreign policy.

France was not particularly interested in affairs in the Balkans, but many in the Empire, especially new emperor Napoleon III longed for revenge (after the events of 1812-1814).

Austria, despite the agreements and common work in Holy Alliance, did not want the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and did not want the formation of new states there, independent of the Ottomans.

Thus, each of the strong European states had its own reasons for unleashing (or heating up) the conflict, and also pursued its own goals, strictly determined by geopolitics, the solution of which was possible only if Russia was weakened, involved in a military conflict with several opponents at once.

Causes of the Crimean War and the reason for the outbreak of hostilities

So, the reasons for the war are quite clear:

the desire of Great Britain to preserve the weak and controlled Ottoman Empire and through it to control the mode of operation of the Black Sea straits;
the desire of Austria-Hungary to prevent a split in the Balkans (which would lead to unrest within the multinational Austria-Hungary) and the strengthening of Russia's positions there;
the desire of France (or, more precisely, Napoleon III) to distract the French from internal problems and strengthen their rather shaky power.

It is clear that the main desire of all European states was to weaken the Russian Empire. The so-called Palmerston Plan (the leader of British diplomacy) provided for the actual separation of part of the lands from Russia: Finland, the Aland Islands, the Baltic states, the Crimea and the Caucasus. According to this plan, the Danubian principalities were to go to Austria. The Kingdom of Poland was to be restored, which would serve as a barrier between Prussia and Russia.

Naturally, the Russian Empire also had certain goals. Under Nicholas I, all officials and all the generals wanted to strengthen Russia's positions in the Black Sea and the Balkans. The establishment of a favorable regime for the Black Sea straits was also a priority.

The reason for the war was the conflict around the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, the keys to which were the introduction of Orthodox monks. Formally, this gave them the right to "speak" on behalf of Christians around the world and dispose of the greatest Christian shrines at their own discretion.

Emperor of France Napoleon III demanded that the Turkish Sultan hand over the keys to the representatives of the Vatican. This offended Nicholas I, who protested and sent His Serene Highness Prince A. S. Menshikov to the Ottoman Empire. Menshikov was unable to achieve a positive solution to the issue. Most likely, this was due to the fact that the leading European powers had already entered into a conspiracy against Russia and in every possible way pushed the Sultan to war, promising him support.

In response to the provocative actions of the Ottomans and European ambassadors, the Russian Empire breaks off diplomatic relations with Turkey and sends troops to the Danubian principalities. Nicholas I, understanding the complexity of the situation, was ready to make concessions and sign the so-called Vienna Note, which ordered the withdrawal of troops from southern borders and liberate Wallachia and Moldavia, but when Turkey tried to dictate terms, conflict became inevitable. After the refusal of the emperor of Russia to sign the note with the Turkish sultan's amendments made to it, the ruler of the Ottomans announced the beginning of the war with the Russian Empire. In October 1853 (when Russia was not yet fully ready for hostilities), the war began.

The course of the Crimean War: military operations

The whole war can be divided into two large stages:

October 1953 - April 1954 - this is directly a Russian-Turkish company; theater of military operations - the Caucasus and the Danube principalities;
April 1854 - February 1956 - military operations against the coalition (Crimean, Azov, Baltic, White Sea and Kinburn companies).

The main events of the first stage can be considered the defeat of the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay by PS Nakhimov (November 18 (30), 1853).

The second stage of the war was much more eventful.

It can be said that failures in the Crimean direction led to the fact that the new Russian emperor, Alexander I. I. (Nicholas I died in 1855) decided to start peace talks.

It cannot be said that the Russian troops were defeated because of the commanders-in-chief. In the Danube direction, the talented prince M. D. Gorchakov commanded the troops, in the Caucasus - N. N. Muravyov, Black Sea Fleet led by Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov (who also later led the defense of Sevastopol and died in 1855), the defense of Petropavlovsk was led by V. S. Zavoyko, but even the enthusiasm and tactical genius of these officers did not help in the war, which was waged according to the new rules.

Treaty of Paris

The diplomatic mission was headed by Prince A. F. Orlov. After long negotiations in Paris 18 (30).03. In 1856, a peace treaty was signed between the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire, coalition forces, Austria and Prussia, on the other. The terms of the peace treaty were as follows:

Results of the Crimean War 1853−1856

Causes of defeat in the war

Even before the conclusion of the Paris Peace the reasons for the defeat in the war were obvious to the emperor and the leading politicians of the empire:

foreign policy isolation of the empire;
superior enemy forces;
the backwardness of the Russian Empire in socio-economic and military-technical terms.

Foreign and domestic consequences of the defeat

The foreign and domestic political results of the war were also deplorable, although somewhat mitigated by the efforts of Russian diplomats. It was obvious that

the international prestige of the Russian Empire fell (for the first time since 1812);
the geopolitical situation and the alignment of forces in Europe have changed;
weakened Russian influence in the Balkans, the Caucasus and the Middle East;
the safe state of the southern borders of the country has been violated;
weakened positions in the Black Sea and the Baltic;
disrupted the financial system of the country.

Significance of the Crimean War

But despite the severity political situation inside the country and abroad after the defeat in the Crimean War, it was she who became the catalyst that led to the reforms of the 60s of the XIX century, including the abolition of serfdom in Russia.

On October 23, 1853, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia. By this time, our Danube army (55 thousand) was concentrated in the vicinity of Bucharest, having forward detachments on the Danube, and the Ottomans had up to 120-130 thousand in European Turkey, under the command of Omer Pasha. These troops were located: 30 thousand at Shumla, 30 thousand in Adrianople, and the rest along the Danube from Viddin to the mouth.

Somewhat earlier than the announcement of the Crimean War, the Turks had already begun hostilities by seizing the Oltenitsky quarantine on the night of October 20 on the left bank of the Danube. The arrived Russian detachment of General Dannenberg (6 thousand) attacked the Turks on October 23 and, despite their numerical superiority (14 thousand), almost occupied the Turkish fortifications, but was withdrawn by General Dannenberg, who considered it impossible to keep Oltenitsa under the fire of Turkish batteries on the right bank of the Danube . Then Omer Pasha himself returned the Turks to the right bank of the Danube and disturbed our troops only with separate surprise attacks, which the Russian troops also responded to.

At the same time, the Turkish fleet brought supplies to the Caucasian highlanders, who acted against Russia at the instigation of the Sultan and England. To prevent this, Admiral Nakhimov, with a squadron of 8 ships, overtook the Turkish squadron, hiding from bad weather in Sinop Bay. November 18, 1853, after a three-hour battle of Sinop, the enemy fleet, including 11 ships, was destroyed. Five Ottoman ships took off, the Turks lost up to 4,000 killed and wounded and 1,200 prisoners; the Russians lost 38 officers and 229 lower ranks.

Meanwhile, Omer Pasha, having abandoned offensive operations from Oltenitsa, gathered up to 40 thousand to Kalafat and decided to defeat the weak forward Malo-Valakh detachment of General Anrep (7.5 thousand). On December 25, 1853, 18 thousand Turks attacked the 2.5 thousand detachment of Colonel Baumgarten near Chetati, but the reinforcements (1.5 thousand) who came up saved our detachment, which had shot all the cartridges, from final death. Having lost up to 2 thousand people, both of our detachments retreated at night to the village of Motsetsei.

After the battle at Chetati, the Small Wallachian detachment, reinforced to 20 thousand, settled in apartments near Calafat and blocked the Turks from entering Wallachia; further operations of the Crimean War in the European theater in January and February 1854 were limited to minor clashes.

Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1853

Meanwhile, the actions of the Russian troops in the Transcaucasian theater were accompanied by complete success. Here the Turks, having gathered a 40,000-strong army long before the declaration of the Crimean War, opened hostilities in mid-October. The energetic Prince Bebutov was appointed head of the Russian active corps. Having received information about the movement of the Turks to Alexandropol (Gyumri), Prince Bebutov sent a detachment of General Orbeliani on November 2, 1853. This detachment unexpectedly stumbled near the village of Bayandur on the main forces Turkish army and barely escaped to Alexandropol; the Turks, fearing Russian reinforcements, took up a position at Bashkadyklar. Finally, on November 6, a manifesto was received on the beginning of the Crimean War, and on November 14, Prince Bebutov moved to Kars.

Another Turkish detachment (18 thousand) on October 29, 1853 approached the Akhaltsikhe fortress, but the head of the Akhaltsikhe detachment, Prince Andronnikov, with his 7 thousand on November 14, attacked the Turks himself and put them into a disorderly flight; the Turks lost up to 3.5 thousand, while our losses were limited to only 450 people.

Following the victory of the Akhaltsikhe detachment, the Alexandropol detachment under the command of Prince Bebutov (10 thousand) defeated on November 19 the 40 thousandth army of the Turks in the strong Bashkadyklar position, and only extreme fatigue of people and horses did not allow developing achieved success persecution. Nevertheless, the Turks in this battle lost up to 6 thousand, and our troops - about 2 thousand.

Both of these victories immediately raised the prestige of the Russian power, and the general uprising that was being prepared in Transcaucasia immediately subsided.

Crimean War 1853-1856. Map

Balkan theater of the Crimean War in 1854

Meanwhile, on December 22, 1853, the combined Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea in order to protect Turkey from the sea and help it supply its ports with the necessary supplies. Russian envoys immediately broke off relations with England and France and returned to Russia. Emperor Nicholas turned to Austria and Prussia with a proposal, in the event of his war with England and France, to observe the strictest neutrality. But both of these powers shied away from any obligations, refusing at the same time to join the allies; to ensure their possessions, they concluded a defensive alliance among themselves. Thus, at the beginning of 1854, it became clear that Russia was left in the Crimean War without allies, and therefore the most decisive measures were taken to strengthen our troops.

By the beginning of 1854, up to 150 thousand Russian troops were located in the area along the Danube and the Black Sea up to the Bug. With these forces, it was supposed to move deep into Turkey, raise an uprising of the Balkan Slavs and declare Serbia independent, but the hostile mood of Austria, which was strengthening its troops in Transylvania, forced us to abandon this bold plan and limit ourselves to crossing the Danube, to master only Silistria and Ruschuk.

In the first half of March, Russian troops crossed the Danube at Galats, Brailov and Izmail, and on March 16, 1854, occupied Girsovo. An unstoppable advance towards Silistria would inevitably lead to the occupation of this fortress, the armament of which had not yet been completed. However, the newly appointed commander-in-chief, Prince Paskevich, who had not yet personally arrived at the army, stopped it, and only the insistence of the emperor himself forced him to continue the offensive towards Silistria. The commander-in-chief himself, fearing that the Austrians would cut off the retreat of the Russian army, offered to return to Russia.

The stop of the Russian troops at Girsov gave the Turks time to strengthen both the fortress itself and its garrison (from 12 to 18 thousand). Approaching the fortress on May 4, 1854 with 90 thousand, Prince Paskevich, still fearing for his rear, stationed his army 5 miles from the fortress in a fortified camp to cover the bridge over the Danube. The siege of the fortress was carried out only against its eastern front, and from the western side, the Turks, in full view of the Russians, brought supplies to the fortress. In general, our actions near Silistria bore the imprint of the extreme caution of the commander-in-chief himself, who was also embarrassed by false rumors about the alleged union of the allies with the army of Omer Pasha. On May 29, 1854, Prince Paskevich, shell-shocked during reconnaissance, left the army, handing it over to Prince Gorchakov, who energetically led the siege and on June 8 decided to storm the Arab and Peschanoe forts. All orders for the assault had already been made, as two hours before the assault, an order was received from Prince Paskevich to immediately lift the siege and move to the left bank of the Danube, which was carried out by the evening of June 13. Finally, according to the condition concluded with Austria, which undertook to support our interests in the western courts, from July 15, 1854, the withdrawal of our troops from the Danubian principalities began, which from August 10 were occupied by Austrian troops. The Turks returned to the right bank of the Danube.

During these actions, the Allies launched a series of attacks on our coastal cities on the Black Sea and, by the way, on Holy Saturday, April 8, 1854, severely bombarded Odessa. Then the allied fleet appeared at Sevastopol and headed for the Caucasus. On land, Allied support for the Ottomans was expressed by the landing of a detachment at Gallipoli to defend Constantinople. Then these troops were transferred to Varna in early July and moved to Dobruja. Here, cholera caused great devastation in their ranks (from July 21 to August 8, 8,000 fell ill and 5,000 of them died).

Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1854

Military operations in the spring of 1854 in the Caucasus opened on our right flank, where on June 4, Prince Andronnikov, with the Akhaltsykh detachment (11 thousand), defeated the Turks at Cholok. Somewhat later, on the left flank of the Erivan detachment of General Wrangel (5 thousand) on June 17 attacked 16 thousand Turks on the Chingil Heights, overturned them and occupied Bayazet. The main forces of the Caucasian army, i.e., the Alexandropol detachment of Prince Bebutov, moved to Kars on June 14 and stopped at the village of Kyuryuk-Dara, having 15 miles ahead of them the 60,000th Anatolian army of Zarif Pasha.

On July 23, 1854, Zarif Pasha went on the offensive, and on the 24th, the Russian troops also moved forward, having received false information about the retreat of the Turks. Faced with the Turks, Bebutov lined up his troops in battle order. A series of energetic attacks by infantry and cavalry stopped the right wing of the Turks; then Bebutov, after a very stubborn, often hand-to-hand fight, threw back the center of the enemy, having used up almost all his reserves for this. After that, our attacks turned against the Turkish left flank, which had already bypassed our position. The attack was crowned with complete success: the Turks retreated in complete frustration, losing up to 10 thousand; in addition, about 12 thousand bashi-bazouks fled from them. Our losses amounted to 3 thousand people. Despite the brilliant victory, the Russian troops did not dare to begin the siege of Kars without a siege artillery fleet and retreated back to Alexandropol (Gyumri) in the fall.

Defense of Sevastopol during the Crimean War

Panorama Defense of Sevastopol (view from Malakhov Kurgan). Artist F. Roubaud, 1901-1904

Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1855

In the Transcaucasian theater of war, operations were resumed in the second half of May 1855 by us occupying Ardagan without a fight and advancing towards Kars. Knowing about the lack of food in Kars, the new commander-in-chief, General Ants, was limited to only one blockade, but, having received in September the news of the movement of Omer Pasha's army transported from European Turkey to the rescue of Kars, he decided to take the fortress by storm. The assault on September 17, led, although on the most important, but at the same time on the strongest, western front(Shorakh and Chakhmakh heights), cost us 7200 people and ended in failure. The army of Omer Pasha could not advance to Kars due to a lack of means of transportation, and on November 16 the garrison of Kars surrendered to capitulation.

British and French attacks on Sveaborg, the Solovetsky Monastery and Petropavlovsk

To complete the description of the Crimean War, one should also mention some of the secondary actions taken against Russia by the Western allies. On June 14, 1854, an allied squadron of 80 ships, under the command of the English Admiral Nepier, appeared at Kronstadt, then withdrew to the Aland Islands, and returned to their harbors in October. On July 6 of the same year, two English ships bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery on the White Sea, unsuccessfully demanding its surrender, and on August 17, an allied squadron also arrived at the port of Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka and, shelling the city, made a landing, which was soon repulsed. In May 1855, a strong allied squadron was sent to the Baltic Sea for the second time, which, after standing for some time near Kronstadt, went back in the autumn; its combat activity was limited only to the bombardment of Sveaborg.

Results of the Crimean War

After the fall of Sevastopol on August 30, hostilities in the Crimea were suspended, and on March 18, 1856, Parisian world, who ended the long and difficult war of Russia against 4 states of Europe (Turkey, England, France and Sardinia, which joined the allies at the beginning of 1855).

The consequences of the Crimean War were enormous. Russia after it lost its predominance in Europe, which it had enjoyed since the end of the war with Napoleon in 1812-1815. It has now passed to France for 15 years. The shortcomings and disorganizations discovered by the Crimean War opened in Russian history the era of reforms of Alexander II, which updated all aspects of national life.

In short, the Crimean War broke out because of Russia's desire to seize the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles from Turkey. However, France and England joined the conflict. Since the Russian Empire lagged far behind in economic terms, then it was only a matter of time before she lost. The consequences were heavy sanctions, the infiltration of foreign capital, the decline of Russian prestige, and an attempt to resolve the peasant question.

Causes of the Crimean War

The opinion that the war began because of a religious conflict and "protection of the Orthodox" is fundamentally wrong. Since wars never started for a reason different religions or infringement of some interests of co-religionists. These arguments are only a pretext for conflict. The reason is always the economic interests of the parties.

Turkey by that time was the “sick link in Europe”. It became clear that it would not last long and would soon fall apart, so the question of who inherited its territory became increasingly relevant. Russia, on the other hand, wanted to annex Moldavia and Wallachia with an Orthodox population, and also in the future to seize the Bosphorus and Dardanelles.

Beginning and end of the Crimean War

In the Crimean War of 1853-1855, the following stages can be distinguished:

Danube Campaign. On June 14, 1853, the emperor issued a decree on the beginning military operation. On June 21, the troops crossed the border with Turkey and entered Bucharest on July 3 without firing a shot. At the same time, small skirmishes began at sea and on land.

Sinop battle. On November 18, 1953, a huge Turkish squadron was completely destroyed. This was the largest Russian victory in the Crimean War.

Allied entry into the war. In March 1854 France and England declared war on Russia. Realizing that he could not cope with the leading powers alone, the emperor withdraws troops from Moldavia and Wallachia.

Blocking from the sea. In June-July 1854, the Russian squadron of 14 battleships and 12 frigates is completely blocked in the Sevastopol Bay by the Allied fleet, numbering 34 battleships and 55 frigates.

Landing of the allies in the Crimea. On September 2, 1854, the allies began to land in Evpatoria, and already on the 8th of the same month they inflicted a rather major defeat. Russian army(divisions of 33,000 people), which tried to stop the movement of troops to Sevastopol. The losses were small, but we had to retreat.

Destruction of part of the fleet. On September 9, 5 battleships and 2 frigates (30% of the total) were flooded at the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay to prevent the Allied squadron from breaking into it.

Deblockade attempts. On October 13 and November 5, 1854, Russian troops made 2 attempts to lift the blockade of Sevastopol. Both failed, but without major losses.

Battle for Sevastopol. From March to September 1855 there were 5 bombardments of the city. There was another attempt by the Russian troops to get out of the blockade, but it failed. On September 8, Malakhov Kurgan was taken - a strategic height. Because of this, the Russian troops left southern part cities, blew up rocks with ammunition and weapons, and also flooded the entire fleet.

Surrender of half of the city and flooding Black Sea squadron produced a strong shock in all circles of society. For this reason, Emperor Nicholas I agreed to a truce.

Participants in the war

One of the reasons for the defeat of Russia is called the numerical superiority of the allies. But actually it is not. The ratio of the land part of the army is shown in the table.

As you can see, although the allies had a general numerical superiority, this was far from being reflected in every battle. Moreover, even when the ratio was approximately parity or in our favor, the Russian troops still could not succeed. However, the main question remains not why Russia did not win without having a numerical superiority, but why the state could not supply more soldiers.

Important! In addition, the British and French caught dysentery during the march, which greatly affected the combat capability of the units. .

The balance of fleet forces in the Black Sea is shown in the table:

Home sea power were battleships- heavy ships huge amount guns. Frigates were used as fast and well-armed hunters who hunted transport ships. A large number of small boats and gunboats in Russia did not give superiority at sea, since their combat potential is extremely small.

Heroes of the Crimean War

Another reason is called command errors. However, most of these opinions are expressed after the fact, that is, when the critic already knows what decision should have been made.

Nakhimov, Pavel Stepanovich. He showed himself most of all at sea during Sinop battle when he sank the Turkish squadron. He did not participate in land battles, as he did not have the relevant experience (he was still sea admiral). During the defense, he served as a governor, that is, he was engaged in equipping the troops.

Kornilov, Vladimir Alekseevich. He showed himself as a brave and active commander. In fact, he invented the tactics of active defense with tactical sorties, laying minefields, mutual assistance of land and naval artillery.

Menshikov, Alexander Sergeevich. It is on him that all the accusations of losing the war are poured. However, firstly, Menshikov personally supervised only 2 operations. In one, he retreated for quite objective reasons (the numerical superiority of the enemy). In another, he lost because of his miscalculation, but at that moment his front was no longer decisive, but auxiliary. Secondly, Menshikov also gave quite rational orders (the sinking of ships in the bay), which helped the city to hold out longer.

Reasons for the defeat

Many sources indicate that the Russian troops were losing because of the fittings, which in in large numbers the Allied armies had. This is an erroneous point of view, which is duplicated even in Wikipedia, so it needs to be analyzed in detail:

The Russian army also had fittings, and there were also enough of them.
The fitting was fired at 1200 meters - just a myth. Really long-range rifles were adopted much later. On average, the fitting fired at 400-450 meters.
The fittings were fired very accurately - also a myth. Yes, their accuracy was more accurate, but only by 30-50% and only at 100 meters. With increasing distance, the superiority fell to 20-30% and below. In addition, the rate of fire was 3-4 times inferior.
During major battles of the first half of XIX For centuries, the smoke from gunpowder was so thick that visibility was reduced to 20-30 meters.
The accuracy of the weapon does not mean the accuracy of the fighter. It is extremely difficult to teach a person even from a modern rifle to hit a target from 100 meters. And from a fitting that did not have today's aiming devices, it is even more difficult to shoot at a target.
During combat stress, only 5% of soldiers think about aimed shooting.
Artillery always brought the main losses. Namely, 80-90% of all killed and wounded soldiers were from cannon fire with grapeshot.

Despite the numerical disadvantage of guns, we had an overwhelming superiority in artillery, which was due to the following factors:

our guns were more powerful and more accurate;
Russia had the best artillerymen in the world;
the batteries stood in prepared high positions, which gave them an advantage in firing range;
the Russians were fighting on their territory, because of which all positions were shot, that is, we could immediately start hitting without a miss.

So what were the reasons for the loss? First, we completely lost the diplomatic game. France, which put the bulk of the troops in the theater, could be persuaded to stand up for us. Napoleon III had no real economic goals, which means that there was an opportunity to lure him to his side. Nicholas I hoped that the allies would keep their word. He did not request any official papers, which was a big mistake. This can be deciphered as "dizziness from success."

Secondly, the feudal command and control system was significantly inferior to the capitalist military machine. First of all, this is manifested in discipline. A living example: when Menshikov gave the order to sink the ship in the bay, Kornilov ... refused to carry it out. Such a situation is the norm for the feudal paradigm of military thinking, where there is not a commander and a subordinate, but a suzerain and a vassal.

However, the main reason for the loss is the huge economic backlog of Russia. For example, the table below shows the main indicators of the economy:

This was the reason for the lack of modern ships, weapons, as well as the inability to supply ammunition, ammunition and medicines on time. By the way, cargoes from France and England approached the Crimea faster than from central regions Russia to Crimea. And another great example - Russian empire, seeing the deplorable situation in the Crimea, was not able to deliver new troops to the theater of operations, while the allies brought reserves across several seas.

Consequences of the Crimean War

Despite the locality of hostilities, Russia has overstrained itself greatly in this war. First of all, there was a huge state debt- more than a billion rubles. The money supply (banknotes) grew from 311 to 735 million. The ruble fell in price several times. By the end of the war, sellers in the market simply refused to exchange silver coins for paper money.

Such instability led to a rapid rise in the price of bread, meat and other foodstuffs, which led to peasant riots. The schedule for the performances of the peasants is as follows:

1855 – 63;
1856 – 71;
1857 – 121;
1858 - 423 (this is the scale of Pugachevism);
1859 – 182;
1860 – 212;
1861 - 1340 (and this is already a civil war).

Russia lost the right to have warships in the Black Sea, gave away some lands, but all this was quickly returned during subsequent Russian-Turkish wars. Therefore, the main consequence of the war for the empire can be considered the abolition of serfdom. However, this “cancellation” was only the transfer of peasants from feudal slavery to mortgage slavery, as clearly evidenced by the number of uprisings in 1861 (mentioned above).

Results for Russia

What conclusions can be drawn? In war after the 19th century, the main and only means of victory is not modern missiles, tanks and ships, but the economy. During mass military clashes, it is extremely important that weapons are not only high-tech, but that the economy of the state can constantly update all weapons in the face of the rapid destruction of human resources and military equipment.