Liberal reforms 60 70g table.
World historical theory
Materialist historians(I.A. Fedosov and others) define the period of abolition of serfdom as a sharp transition from a feudal socio-economic formation to a capitalist one. They believe that the abolition of serfdom in Russia late, and the reforms that followed it were carried out slowly and incompletely. Half-heartedness in carrying out reforms caused indignation among the advanced part of society- the intelligentsia, which then resulted in terror against the tsar. Marxist revolutionaries believed that the country was “led” down the wrong path of development- “slowly cutting off the rotting parts”, but it was necessary to “lead” along the path of a radical solution to problems - carrying out the confiscation and nationalization of landowners’ lands, the destruction of the autocracy, etc.
Liberal historians contemporaries of the events, V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), S.F. Platonov (1860-1933) and others, welcomed both the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms. Defeat in Crimean War, they believed, revealed Russia's technical lag behind attack and undermined the country's international prestige.
Later liberal historians ( I. N. Ionov, R. Pipes, etc.) began to note that in in the middle of the nineteenth century serfdom reached its highest point economic efficiency . The reasons for the abolition of serfdom are political. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War dispelled the myth of the military power of the Empire, caused irritation in society and a threat to the stability of the country. The interpretation focuses on the cost of reform. Thus, the people were not historically prepared for drastic socio-economic changes and “painfully” accepted the changes in their lives. The government had no right to cancel serfdom and carry out reforms without comprehensive socio-moral preparation of the entire people, especially the nobles and peasants. According to liberals, the centuries-old way of Russian life cannot be changed by force.
ON THE. Nekrasov in his poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” writes:
The great chain has broken,
tore and hit:
one end on the master,
others - man!...
Historians of the technological direction (V. A. Krasilshchikov, S. A. Nefedov, etc.) believe that the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms are due to the stage of Russia’s modernization transition from a traditional (agrarian) society to an industrial one. The transition from traditional to industrial society in Russia was carried out by the state during the period of influence from the 17th-18th centuries. European cultural and technological circle (modernization - Westernization) and took the form of Europeanization, that is, a conscious change in traditional national forms according to the European model.
“Machine progress V Western Europe“forced” tsarism to actively to impose industrial order. And this determined the specifics of modernization in Russia. The Russian state, selectively borrowing technical and organizational elements from the West, simultaneously preserved traditional structures. As a result, the country has developed situation of “overlapping historical eras””(industrial - agrarian), which later led to social shocks.
Industrial society, introduced by the state at the expense of the peasants, came into sharp conflict with all the fundamental conditions of Russian life and should inevitably give rise to protest both against the autocracy, which did not give the desired freedom to the peasant, and against the private owner, a figure previously alien to Russian life. Appeared in Russia as a result industrial development industrial workers inherited the hatred of the entire Russian peasantry, with its centuries-old communal psychology, towards private property.
Tsarism interpreted as a regime forced to industrialize but unable to cope with its consequences.
Local historical theory.
The theory is represented by the works of Slavophiles and Narodniks. Historians believed that Russia, unlike Western countries, follows its own special path of development. They justified the possibility in Russia of a non-capitalist path of development to socialism through the peasant community.
Reforms of Alexander II
Land reform. The main question in Russia during the 18th-19th centuries there was a land-peasant system. Catherine II raised this question in Volny’s work economic society, which reviewed several dozen programs for the abolition of serfdom by both Russian and foreign authors. Alexander I issued a decree “On Free Plowmen,” which allowed landowners to free their peasants from serfdom along with the land for a ransom. Nicholas I during the years of his reign he created 11 secret committees for peasant question, whose task was to abolish serfdom and resolve the land issue in Russia.
In 1857, by decree of Alexander II started to work secret committee on the peasant issue, main task which was the abolition of serfdom with the mandatory allocation of land to peasants. Then such committees were created in the provinces. As a result of their work (and the wishes and orders of both landowners and peasants were taken into account) there was a reform has been developed to abolish serfdom for all regions of the country, taking into account local specifics. For different areas there were the maximum and minimum values of the allotment transferred to the peasant are determined.
Emperor On February 19, 1861, he signed a number of laws. Was here Manifesto and Regulations on the granting of freedom to the peasants us, documents on the entry into force of the Regulations, on management rural communities and etc.
Abolition of serfdom was not a one-time event. First, landowner peasants were freed, then appanage peasants and those assigned to factories. Peasants received personal freedom, but the land remained the property of the landowners, and while plots were allocated, peasants were in the position of “temporarily obligated” bore duties in favor of the landowners, which were essentially no different from the previous serfs. The plots transferred to the peasants were on average 1/5 smaller than those they had previously cultivated. To these lands buyout agreements were concluded, after this, the “temporarily obligated” state ceased, the treasury paid for the land with the landowners, the peasants - with the treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption payments).
Use of land and relationships with authorities were built through the community. It was preserved as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to society (the world).
As a result of reforms serfdom was abolished- that “obvious and palpable evil”, which in Europe was directly called “ Russian slavery." However, the land problem was not solved, since the peasants, when dividing the land, were forced to give the landowners a fifth of their plots.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the first Russian revolution broke out in Russia, a peasant revolution largely in terms of the composition of the driving forces and the tasks that faced it. This is what made P.A. Stolypin to implement land reform, allowing peasants to leave the community. The essence of the reform was to resolve the land issue, but not through the confiscation of land from the landowners, as the peasants demanded, but through the redistribution of the land of the peasants themselves.
Liberal reforms of the 60-70s
Zemstvo and city reforms. The principle of 1864. zemstvo reform consisted of election and classlessness. In the provinces and districts of Central Russia and part of Ukraine zemstvos were established as bodies local government. Elections to zemstvo assemblies were carried out on the basis of property, age, education and a number of other qualifications. Women and employees were deprived of the right to participate in elections. This gave an advantage to the wealthiest segments of the population. The meetings elected zemstvo councils. Zemstvos were in charge affairs local significance, promoted entrepreneurship, education, healthcare - they carried out work for which the state did not have the funds.
Conducted in 1870 urban reform in character she was close to the zemstvo. In major cities city councils were established on the basis of all-estate elections. However, elections were held on a licensing basis, and, for example, in Moscow only 4% of the adult population participated in them. The city councils and the mayor decided internal self-government issues, education and medical care . For control for zemstvo and city activities it was created presence on city affairs.
Judicial reform. New judicial statutes were approved on November 20, 1864. The judicial power was separated from the executive and legislative. A classless and public court was introduced, and the principle of irremovability of judges was established. Two types of court were introduced - general (crown) and magistrate. The general court was in charge of criminal cases. Trial became open, although in a number of cases cases were heard behind closed doors. An adversarial court was established, the positions of investigators were introduced, and the legal profession was established. The question of the defendant’s guilt was decided by 12 jurors. The most important principle of the reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects of the empire before the law.
For the analysis of civil cases it was introduced Institute of Magistrates. Appeal the authority for the courts were court cases You. The position was introduced notary. Since 1872, major political cases were considered in Special presence of the governing Senate, which simultaneously became the highest court of cassation.
Military reform. After his appointment in 1861, D.A. Milyutin, Minister of War, begins the reorganization of the management of the armed forces. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, subordinate directly to the Minister of War. In 1867, a military judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a long discussion, the tsar approved the Charter on General conscription. A flexible recruitment system was introduced. Recruitment sets were cancelled, and the entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. The service life was reduced in the army to 6 years, in the navy to 7 years. Clergymen, members of a number of religious sects, the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, as well as some peoples of the Caucasus and the Far North were not subject to conscription into the army. Released from service The only son, the only breadwinner in the family. In peacetime, the need for soldiers was significantly less number conscripts, so everyone fit for service, with the exception of those who received benefits, drew lots. For those who graduated from primary school, service was reduced to 3 years, for those who graduated from high school - to 1.5 years, and from university or institute - to 6 months.
Financial reform. In 1860 there was State Bank established, happened abolition of the tax-farm 2 system, which was replaced by excise taxes 3(1863). Since 1862 The only responsible manager of budget revenues and expenses was the Minister of Finance; the budget became public. Was done attempt at monetary reform (free exchange credit notes for gold and silver at the established rate).
Educational reforms. “Regulations on primary public schools” dated June 14, 1864 eliminated the state-church monopoly on education. Now both public institutions and private ones were allowed to open and maintain primary schools persons under control by district and provincial school councils and inspectors. Charter high school introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions y, but entered tuition fees.
Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real new In classical gymnasiums, mainly humanities were taught, in real ones - natural subjects. After the minister's resignation public education A.V. Golovnin (in 1861 D.A. Tolstoy was appointed instead) was accepted new gymnasium regulations, retaining only classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums were replaced by real schools. Along with male secondary education a system of women's gymnasiums appeared.
University Us tav (1863) provided universities had broad autonomy, elections of rectors and professors were introduced. Management of the educational institution was transferred to the Council of the Prof. Essor, to whom the students were subordinate. Were universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk, higher courses for women in St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Moscow, Kazan.
As a result of the publication of a number of laws in Russia there was a harmonious education system was created, including primary, secondary and higher educational establishments .
Censorship reform. In May 1862 censorship reform began, were introduced "temporary rules”, which in 1865 were replaced by a new censorship charter. According to the new charter, preliminary censorship was abolished for books of 10 or more printed sheets(240 pages); editors and publishers could only be held accountable in court. With special permissions and upon payment of a deposit of several thousand rubles, they were exempt from censorship and periodicals, however, they could be suspended administratively. Only government and scientific publications, as well as literature translated from a foreign language, could be published without censorship.
Preparation and implementation of reforms were important factor socio-economic development of the country. Administratively, the reforms were quite well prepared, but public opinion did not always keep up with the ideas of the reformer tsar. The diversity and speed of transformations gave rise to a feeling of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost their bearings, organizations professing extremist, sectarian principles appeared.
For economy Post-reform Russia is characterized by rapid development commodity-money relations. Celebrated growth of sown areas and agricultural production, but performance Agriculture remained low. Harvests and food consumption (except bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time in the 80s. compared to the 50s. The average annual grain harvest increased by 38%, and its export increased by 4.6 times.
The development of commodity-money relations led to property differentiation in the countryside, middle peasant farms went bankrupt, and the number of poor people grew. On the other side, strong kulak farms appeared, some of which used agricultural machines. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But completely unexpectedly for them in the country the traditionally hostile attitude towards trade has intensified That is, to all new forms of activity: to a kulak, a merchant, a buyer - to a successful entrepreneur.
In Russia large industry was created and developed as a state-owned. The government's main concern after the failures of the Crimean War was enterprises producing military equipment. Russia's military budget in general terms was inferior to that of England, France, and Germany, but in the Russian budget it had a greater weight. Special attention addressed to development of heavy industry and transport. It was in these areas that the government directed funds, both Russian and foreign.
The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state based on the issuance of special orders, That's why the big bourgeoisie was closely associated with the state. Fast the number of industrial workers increased, however, many workers retained economic and psychological ties to the village; they carried within them the charge of discontent of the poor who had lost their land and were forced to seek food in the city.
The reforms laid the foundation new credit system. For 1866-1875 was 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual credit societies and other financial institutions were created. Since 1866 they began to actively participate in their work largest European banks. As a result of government regulation foreign loans and investments went mainly to railway construction. Railways ensured the expansion of the economic market across the vast expanses of Russia; they were also important for the rapid transfer of military units.
In the second half of the 19th century political situation has changed several times in the country.
During the period of preparation of the reforms, from 1855 to 1861, the government retained the initiative of action and attracted all supporters of the reforms - from the highest bureaucracy to the democrats. Subsequently, difficulties in carrying out reforms aggravated the internal political situation in the country. The government’s struggle with opponents “from the left” became brutal: suppression of peasant uprisings, arrests of liberals, defeat Polish uprising. The role of the III Security (gendarmerie) department has strengthened.
IN 1860s a radical movement entered the political arena - populists. The common intelligentsia, relying on revolutionary democratic ideas and nihilism DI. Pisareva, created theory of revolutionary populism. The populists believed in the possibility of achieving socialism, bypassing capitalism, through liberation peasant community- rural "world". "Rebel" M.A. Bakunin predicted a peasant revolution, the fuse of which was to be lit by the revolutionary intelligentsia. P.N. Tkachev was the theorist of a coup d'etat, after which the intelligentsia, having carried out the necessary transformations, would liberate the community. P.L. Lavrov substantiated the idea of thoroughly preparing peasants for the revolutionary struggle. IN 1874 began a mass “going to the people”", but the agitation of the populists failed to ignite the flame of the peasant uprising.
In 1876 it arose organization "Land and Freedom"", which in 1879 split into two groups.
Group " Black redistribution" led by G.V. Plekhanov paid primary attention to propaganda;
« People's will"led by A.I. Zhelyabov, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovskaya in highlighted political struggle. The main means of struggle, according to the “People’s Will”, was individual terror, a regicide that was supposed to serve as a signal for popular uprising. In 1879-1881. Narodnaya Volya held a series assassination attempts on Alexander II.
In a situation of acute political confrontation, the authorities took the path of self-defense. On February 12, 1880 it was created “The Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace"led by M.P. Loris-Melikov. Having received unlimited rights, Loris-Melikov achieved a suspension of the terrorist activities of the revolutionaries and some stabilization of the situation. In April 1880 the commission was liquidated; Loris-Melikov was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs and began to prepare the completion of the “great work of state reforms”. The development of draft laws for final reform laws was entrusted to the “people” - temporary preparatory commissions with a wide representation of zemstvos and cities.
On February 5, 1881, the presented bill was approved by Emperor Alexander II. " Loris-Melikov Constitution"provided for the election of "representatives from public institutions..." to the highest bodies state power. In the morning March 1, 1881 The emperor appointed a meeting of the Council of Ministers to approve the bill; literally in a few hours Alexander II was killed members of the People's Will organization.
New Emperor Alexander III On March 8, 1881, he held a meeting of the Council of Ministers to discuss the Loris-Melikov project. At the meeting, the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod, K.P., sharply criticized the “constitution.” Pobedonostsev and the head of the State Council S.G. Stroganov. Loris-Melikov's resignation soon followed.
IN May 1883 Alexander III proclaimed a course called in historical materialist literature “ counter-reforms», and in the liberal-historical - “adjustment of reforms”. He expressed himself as follows.
In 1889, to strengthen supervision over the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from local noble landowners. Clerks and small traders, as well as other low-income strata of the city, lost their right to vote. Judicial reform has undergone changes. In the new regulations on zemstvos of 1890, class and noble representation was strengthened. In 1882-1884. Many publications were closed, and the autonomy of universities was abolished. Primary schools were transferred to the church department - the Synod.
These events showed the idea of "official nationality""from the time of Nicholas I - slogan " Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Spirit of Humility"was in tune with the slogans of a bygone era. New official ideologists K.P. Pobedonostsev (Chief Prosecutor of the Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of the Moskovskie Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (publisher of the newspaper Citizen) omitted the word “people” from the old formula “Orthodoxy, autocracy and the people” as “dangerous”; They preached the humility of his spirit before the autocracy and the church. On practice new policy resulted in an attempt to strengthen the state by relying on traditionally loyal to the throne nobility . Administrative measures were reinforced economic support for landowners.
Related information.
The liberal reforms that were carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century were a logical continuation of the abolition of serfdom. The new social structure required changes in administrative management and state structure.
The course of modernization of the state was supported by urban, zemstvo, military and judicial reforms. Thanks to such transformations, the Russian autocracy adapted to the rapid development of capitalism in the state.
Judicial reform
In 1864, the Russian Empire introduced new system legal proceedings, which was regulated by the law “On New Judicial Statutes”. The court became a democratic body; its composition included representatives of all classes of society, the process became transparent, and the procedure of mandatory judicial competition was maintained.
The competence of the courts was strictly delimited; civil claims were considered in the magistrate's court, and criminal offenses in the district court. The highest court was the Senate.
To consider political crimes, including those directed against the autocracy, special courts were organized, during the proceedings of which the principle of openness was excluded.
Military reform
The crushing defeat of Russian troops in the Crimean War showed that an army based on recruitment is ineffective and in many ways loses to the European armed forces. Emperor Alexander II initiated the creation new army with a reserve of personnel.
Since 1874, all men over 20 years of age were required to undergo universal military training, which lasted 6 years. Citizens of the Russian Empire who had higher education, were often exempted from military service. By the end of the 70s, the material and technical base of the army was completely updated - smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, a steel artillery system was introduced, and horse reserves were increased.
Also during this period, the steam fleet was actively developing. Educational institutions were opened in the state in which military specialists were trained. Due to the fact that the Russian Empire did not participate in military confrontations, imperial army managed to significantly strengthen and increase combat effectiveness.
Zemstvo reform
After the adoption of the Peasant Reform, there was a need to transform local government bodies. In 1864, the Russian Empire began to introduce zemstvo reform. In districts and provinces, zemstvo institutions were formed, which were elected bodies.
Zemstvos did not have political functions; their competence primarily included solving local problems, regulating the work of schools and hospitals, building roads, and controlling trade and small industrial facilities.
Zemstvos were controlled by local and central authorities, who had the right to refute the decisions of these bodies or suspend their activities. In cities, city councils were created, which had the same powers as zemstvos. The dominant role in zemstvos and city dumas belonged to representatives of the bourgeois class.
Despite the fact that the reforms had a very narrow structure and did not actually solve the problems of socio-economic life, they became the first step towards the introduction of liberal democracy in the Russian Empire. Further introduction of reforms was completely stopped by the death of the emperor. His son Alexander II saw a completely different path of development for Russia.
Question 1. Why, after the abolition of serfdom, did the state face the need to carry out other reforms?
Answer. Initially, it was clear that to modernize Russia, a whole set of reforms was needed, the basis for which should be the peasantry, but besides this, other transformations were also needed using the abolition of serfdom. For example, Russia lost the Crimean War largely because its soldiers used outdated smoothbore guns. The liberation of the peasants in itself could not rearm the army; this required a special reform.
Question 2. What were the circumstances that led to the creation of local government? Give a description of the zemstvo reform. What do you see as its pros and cons?
Answer. Before the reform, all power was in the hands of officials who monitored not the state of affairs locally, but rather looking good in front of their superiors (this is perfectly shown in N.V. Gogol’s “The Inspector General”), therefore economic life, education, healthcare in the province has fallen into complete decline. At the same time, the nobles needed some kind of compensation for the way the peasant reform was carried out. Under these conditions, the zemstvo reform was developed. In general, the reform was carried out so that representatives of the propertied strata received local power. However, in the conditions of those years it was reasonable, because it was the propertied strata who were often more educated and at the same time were against revolutionary changes because they were afraid for their property. However, zemstvos were elected bodies of power, elected among a relatively limited circle of people, which made it easier to defend their opinions, that is, in general, they accustomed Russians to using civil rights. It was not for nothing that at the beginning of the twentieth century, supporters of the legal political struggle for reforms (the Cadets) relied mainly on the zemstvos. It is not known what Russia could have achieved thanks to zemstvos if fate had given these local self-government bodies more time.
Question 3. What principles formed the basis of judicial reform? Why do you think judicial reform has proven to be the most consistent?
Answer. The judicial reform reproduced a ready-made system that operated successfully in some Western countries. That’s why it was the most consistent: the government clearly saw what result it should achieve and what principles it should follow. The theoretical development of the basic principles was also taken care of long before in the West. These are principles such as:
1) equality of all classes before the law;
2) publicity of the court;
3) independence of judges;
4) adversarial nature of the prosecution and defense;
5) election of some judicial bodies.
Question 4. What changes have occurred in the army? Why did conscription no longer meet the needs of the state?
Answer. First of all, the army and navy were rearmed; henceforth they received new items in a timely manner in accordance with latest achievements world military thought. This required especially large expenses in the case of the fleet, because it actually had to be built anew every few years. The most important change was the change in approach to officer training. The cadet corps created during the reform made it possible to train truly competent personnel for the army. But what was most noticed in society, naturally, was the replacement of conscription with universal military service. When recruiting, the army remained almost the same in size at any time. Because of this, in a war its numbers might not be enough, and in years of peace it required too much expenditure from the treasury. Now, current tasks were carried out by those who were in active service, and in case of war, those who were in the reserves could be called up. However, the long term of service did not cause much indignation in society, because all men were subject to conscription, but in fact not all were conscripted. Every year the state determined how many soldiers and sailors it needed, and among the young people of the appropriate age, those who were drawn by lot wore the uniform. Among other things, such a system encouraged people to get an education, because it significantly reduced the length of active service.
Question 5. What do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of reform in the field of education?
Answer. Advantages:
1) the creation of primary public schools by institutions and individuals was allowed, thanks to which educational institutions of various types appeared;
2) gymnasiums were divided into classical and real with graduates specializing in fundamental scientific knowledge, or on practical skills (also related to engineering) and natural sciences(thus, real gymnasiums provided education no worse than classical ones, just with a different focus);
3) children were accepted into the gymnasium regardless of class, parental rank and religion;
4) women's gymnasiums also appeared;
5) the direct management of universities was in the hands of professors, who elected the main officials, that is, self-government was actually introduced at universities, which had never happened before in Russia;
6) higher women's courses were opened for graduates of women's gymnasiums instead of universities.
Flaws:
1) the amount of knowledge in women's gymnasiums was much lower than in men's;
2) certain levels of education remained paid (and there were no opportunities that exist today in some Western countries, for example, to take out a loan and then pay it back from the salary you receive thanks to your education), therefore, in fact, they were not available to all classes .
Question 6. Evaluate project M. T. Loris-Melikova. Can this project be considered constitutional?
Answer. The project can be called an attempt to develop a constitution. The statesman did not propose specific foundations for the future structure of the state, he proposed principles on the basis of which these foundations could be developed democratically. Further, everything would depend on the work of the commissions described by Loril-Melikov, State Council and the goodwill of the emperor himself. The developed mechanism could even lead to the adoption of a constitution, but only if the monarch shared his power voluntarily. However, the Loris-Melikov project itself, I repeat, was only a possible mechanism for developing a constitution, but not the constitution itself.
By the middle of the 19th century. Russia's lag behind advanced capitalist states in the economic and socio-political spheres became clear. International events(Crimean War) showed a significant weakening of Russia in the foreign policy area. That's why main goal internal government policy in the second half of the 19th century. was to bring the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time.
In the internal politics of Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th century. There are three stages:
1) second half of the 50s - early 60s - preparation and implementation of peasant reform;
2) – 60-70s carrying out liberal reforms;
3) 80-90s economic modernization, strengthening of statehood and social stability traditional conservative administrative methods.
Defeat in the Crimean War played an important role political background abolition of serfdom, because it demonstrated the backwardness and rottenness of the country's socio-political system. Russia has lost its international authority and almost lost influence in Europe. The eldest son of Nicholas 1, Alexander 11, ascended the throne in 1855 and went down in history as the “Liberator” Tsar. His phrase about “it is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for it to begin to be abolished from below” meant that the ruling circles finally came to the idea of the need to reform the state.
Members took part in the preparation of reforms royal family, representatives of the highest bureaucracy - Minister of Internal Affairs Lanskoy, Comrade Minister of Internal Affairs - Milyutin, Adjutant General Rostovtsev. After the abolition of red law, it became necessary to change local government in 1864. zemstvo reform. Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in provinces and districts. These were elected bodies from representatives of all classes. The entire population was divided into 3 electoral groups - curia. 1st curia - landowners with > 2 dessiatines of land or owners of real estate from 15,000 rubles; 2nd curia - urban, urban industrialists and traders with a turnover of at least 6,000 rubles per year were admitted here; 3rd curia - rural. For the rural curia, the elections were multi-stage. The curiae were dominated by landowners. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. The scope of their activity was limited to solving economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communications, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care for trade and industry. Zemstvos were under the control of central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any resolution of the zemstvo assembly. Despite this, the zemstvos played huge role in the development of education and health care. And they became centers for the formation of the liberal noble and bourgeois opposition. Structure of zemstvo institutions: This is a legislative and executive body. The chairmen were local leaders of the nobility. Provincial and district assemblies worked independently of each other. They met only once a year to coordinate actions. Executive bodies - provincial and district councils - were elected at zemstvo meetings. They solved the problems of tax collection, while a certain percentage remained in place. Zemstvo institutions were subordinate only to the Senate. The governor did not interfere in the activities of local institutions, but only monitored the legality of actions.
Positivity in reform:
· all-class
Flaws:
· election
· the beginning of the separation of powers was admitted to the center of government institutions,
· the beginning of the formation of civil society consciousness could not influence the policy of the center
· unequal voting rights were delivered
Contacts between zemstvos were prohibited
Urban reform . (1870) “City regulations” created all-class bodies in cities - city dumas and city councils headed by the city mayor. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, and provided educational and medical needs. The leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. It was under strict control of the government administration.
The candidacy of the mayor was approved by the governor.
Judicial reform :
1864 - New court statutes were promulgated.
Provisions:
the class system of courts was abolished
equality of all before the law was declared
publicity of proceedings was introduced
adversarial proceedings
presumption of innocence
irremovability of judges
unified judicial system
Two types of courts have been created:
1. Magistrates' courts - considered minor civil cases, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. Judges were elected at district assemblies and confirmed by the Senate.
2. There were 3 types of general courts: Criminal and grave - in district court. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in judicial chamber. The highest court became Senate. Judges for general courts were appointed by the tsar, and jurors were chosen at provincial meetings.
Flaws: Small class courts continued to exist - for peasants. For political processes The Special Presence of the Senate was created, closed meetings were held, which violated the attack of glasnost.
Military reform :
1874 - Charter on military service on all-class military service for men who have reached the age of 20. The period of active service was established in the ground forces - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. Recruitment was abolished. Valid dates military service determined by educational qualifications. Persons with higher education served for 0.5 years. To increase the competence of senior military leadership War Ministry was converted into General Staff The whole country was divided into 6 military districts. The army was reduced and military settlements were liquidated. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: replacing smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, introducing steel artillery pieces, improving the horse park, and developing a military steam fleet. Military gymnasiums, cadet schools and academies were created to train officers. All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and at the same time increase its combat effectiveness.
From military duty were released if there was 1 child in the family, if he had 2 children, or if he had elderly parents to support him. Cane discipline was abolished. The humanization of relations in the army has taken place.
Reform in the field of education :
1864 In fact, accessible all-class education was introduced. Along with state schools, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. The curriculum in gymnasiums was determined by universities, which created the possibility of a system of continuity. During this period, secondary women's education began to develop, and women's gymnasiums began to be created. Women are beginning to be admitted to universities as free students. University institution: Alexander 2 gave universities greater freedom:
students could create student organizations
received the right to create their own newspapers and magazines without censorship
All volunteers were allowed to attend universities
students were given the right to choose a rector
student self-government was introduced in the form of a council of fact
corporatism systems for students and teachers were created.
Significance of reforms:
contributed more rapid development capitalist relations in Russia.
contributed to the beginning of the formation of Russian society bourgeois freedoms (freedom of speech, personality, organizations, etc.). The first steps were taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and transform Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.
contributed to the formation of civic consciousness.
contributed to the rapid development of culture and education in Russia.
The initiators of the reforms were some senior government officials, the “liberal bureaucracy.” This explained the inconsistency, incompleteness and narrowness of most reforms. The assassination of Alexander 2 changed the direction of the government course. And Loris-Melikov’s proposal was rejected.
The implementation of reforms gave impetus to the rapid growth of capitalism in all areas of industry. A free labor force appeared, the process of capital accumulation intensified, the domestic market expanded and connections with the world grew.
Features of the development of capitalism in Russian industry had a number of features:
1) Industry wore multi-layered character, i.e. large-scale machine industry coexisted with manufacturing and small-scale (handicraft) production.
2) uneven distribution of industry across the territory of Russia. Highly developed areas of St. Petersburg, Moscow. Ukraine 0- highly developed and undeveloped – Siberia, middle Asia, Far East.
3)Uneven development by industry. Textile production was the most advanced in technical equipment, and heavy industry (mining, metallurgy, oil) was gaining momentum. Mechanical engineering was poorly developed. Characteristic of the country was government intervention in industrial sphere through loans, government subsidies, government orders, financial and customs policies. This laid the foundation for the formation of a system of state capitalism. The insufficiency of domestic capital caused an influx of foreign capital. Investors from Europe were attracted by cheap labor, raw materials and, consequently, the possibility of high profits. Trade. In the second half of the 18th century. The formation of the all-Russian market was completed. The main product was agricultural products, primarily bread. Trade in industrial goods grew not only in the city, but also in the countryside. Iron ore and coal were widely sold. Forest, oil. Foreign trade – bread (export). Cotton from America, metals and machinery, and luxury goods from Europe were imported. Finance. The State Bank was created, which received the right to issue banknotes. State funds were distributed only by the Ministry of Finance. A private and public credit system emerged and contributed to the development of the most important industries (railway construction). Foreign capital was invested in banking, industry, railway construction and played a significant role in the financial life of Russia. Capitalism in Russia was established in 2 stages. 60-70 was the first stage when industrial restructuring took place. 80-90 economic recovery.
Alexander II is one of the most famous Russian emperors, a representative of the Romanov dynasty, who freed the peasants from serfdom. Alexander II was brought up by prominent artists, and Zhukovsky was responsible for his education, instilling in the future monarch liberal democratic standards of thinking.
In the future, Alexander Nikolaevich managed to implement all those reforms and projects that his predecessor, the monarch’s father Nicholas I, failed.
| Characteristics of the reform | results | |
|---|---|---|
pros | Minuses | |
Zemstvo reform of 1864 Reform of city government in 1870 |
|
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Stabilization of the financial system |
| popular unrest - the “temperance movement” of 1858-1859. |
Judicial reform of 1864 |
| Measures aimed at limiting judicial reform:
|
Military transformations of the 1860-1870s. |
| |
Reform of the public education system |
|
|
Censorship reform 1865 |
| |
Emperor Alexander II went down in history under the name of the Liberator, which is associated not only with the liberation of peasants from serfdom, but also with the implementation of a number of liberal reforms aimed at eliminating internal political problems in the country.
Alexander II's reforms were not limited to the abolition of serfdom. During his 20 years in power, the ruler was able to carry out quite competent financial and military reforms and change the position of the courts. Working on new reforms, Alexander II used international experience, but did not forget historical features development of the country. Like many great monarchs, Alexander II was not understood by his contemporaries, and was eventually shot dead in 1881. However, his liberal reforms had a significant impact on the shape of Russia in the future.
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