Poland in the second half of the 20th century. Local government and the judiciary

Poland in the 20th century: Essays on political history. M.: "Indrik", 2012. 952 p.

A fundamental monograph on a topical scientific topic was written by historians of a number of institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov and Perm State University on the basis of modern domestic and foreign literature and documents, including new ones, from the archives of Russia and Poland. The book examines the political development of the country from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 21st century. The process of the birth of Polish political movements and parties in the struggle for an independent state, the formation and evolution of the party-political system from parliamentary democracy to the “sanation” regime in the interwar period are shown; presents the politically diverse resistance movement of 1939-1945, the confrontation of forces in determining the boundaries and appearance of post-war Poland. Considerable attention is paid to the role of the USSR in solving the Polish question, including Poland in the sphere of its interests; participation in the suppression of the underground, the promotion of communist hegemony and the creation of a system of people's democracy. The monopolization of power by the communists and the features of the Soviet-type regime, attempts to democratize it, the causes and results of the crisis of 1956, the transition of the PUWP to authoritarian methods of management, the specifics of the party's course in the 60–70s are considered; shows the birth of the "Solidarity" movement, its internal evolution, features of Poland's progress from state socialism to Western-style democracy at the end of the 20th century.

Editorial board: G. F. Matveev, A. F. Noskova (editor-in-chief), L. S. Lykoshina

Reviewers: Doctor of Historical Sciences E. Yu. Guskova, Doctor of Historical Sciences L. N. Shishelina

To readers of the XXI century

Section I. The last years of captivity

Essay I. Searching for new paths to independence

I.1. Polish lands at the turn of the century

I.2. Formation of a new political scene

I.3. Revolution 1905–1907

Essay II. The eve of the great war. Russia and the Polish question

II. 1. Struggle for language and minds in the Kingdom of Poland

II.2. Fight for language and land in Germany

II.3. Political life in the Polish lands of Austria-Hungary (Galicia)

Essay III. Great War and the fate of the Polish question

III.1. Pre-war concepts for resolving the Polish question: verification by practice

III.3. Towards a final solution to the Polish question

Notes

S e c tio n II. Second Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1918–1939)

Essay I. Constitution of the Polish Republic 1918–1923

I.1. Formation of institutions of state power: government, head of state, parliament, army

I.2 The Political System of the Constituent Seimas

I.3. Struggle for international legal recognition of Poland and its borders

I.4. The conflict between J. Pilsudski and Parliament on foreign and military policy. Constitution of 1921

Essay II. Polish democracy of the 1921 model in action

II.1. The first crisis of the regime of parliamentary democracy

II.2. First stage the formation of the "Polish majority » in the Seimas

II.3. From the government of national unity to the coup d'état of 1926 .

Essay III. Towards a quasi-presidential republic

III.1. Legitimization of the "sanation" regime and adjustment of the political system

III.2. The struggle for the mastery of Parliament

III.3. The initial stage of opposition consolidation

Essay IV. The political system of the “rehabilitation” regime

IV.1. Subjugation of Parliament and the fruits of the triumph of "sanation"

IV.2. Solution of the constitutional question

IV.3. Pilsudski's foreign policy maneuver

Essay V. Poland after Piłsudski

V.1. The public fiasco of "sanation". Regrouping of political forces

V.2. Foreign policy zigzags

Notes

Section III. War years: from the September catastrophe to the liberation and revival of the country (1939–1945)

Essay I. September 1939 - June 1941: The military-political defeat of the "sanation". government in exile. Resistance organization

I.1. Before the German attack

I.3. Polish lands under the rule of the Nazis: the occupation regime, Germanization, deportations, terror

I.4. Government in exile: political image, organization of resistance, international interaction

I.5. Western Ukraine and Western Belarus: Sovietization, depolonization of power, repressions

Essay II. July 1941 - 1943 Soviet-Polish relations. Consolidation of the Left. Underground disengagement. Conference in Tehran

II.1. Soviet-Polish relations: declarations, contradictions, interests

II.2. Government underground structures. Home Army and the transition to hostilities

II.3. Consolidation of left organizations. PPR and an attempt to unite the underground

II.4. Rupture of relations between Moscow and the government of Poland. Underground changes. The Polish question at a conference in Tehran

Essay III. USSR and the design of the left alternative. Confrontation in the struggle for power and borders (1943 - January 1945)

III.1. Polish emigration to the USSR: socio-political and military organizations

III.2. Spring 1944: the tactics of the "London" government and the steps of Moscow

III.3. Decisive summer: KRN in Moscow, meetings in London, creation of the PCNW

III.4. Warsaw uprising: the doom of the plan, the heroism of the rebels. Soviet-English-Polish negotiations

III.5. The situation in the liberated lands. From PKNO to the Provisional Government

Essay IV. From the Provisional Government to the Government of National Unity and International Recognition (January–August 1945)

IV.1. Liberation; situation in the country. Polish problems at the conference in Yalta

IV.2. Implementation of the Yalta agreements. The Polish aspect of the Potsdam conference

Notes

Section IV. From People's Democracy to Stalinism. the crisis of 1956 and the de-Stalinization attempts of 1945–1959

Essay I. People's Democracy Regime: Plans and Reality (Summer 1945 - 1947)

I.1. New political "scene": ruling coalition and opposition

I.2. Test of strength: electoral bloc and referendum

I.3. PPR-PPS: political contradictions. Elections to the Sejm

I.4 . Sunset" PSL. "Polish path to socialism"

Essay II. From the political hegemony of the PPR to the monopoly power of the PZPR (1947–1948)

II.1. Beginning of the Cold War. Creation of the Cominformburo and changes in the PPR course

II.2. On the way to the unification of the PPR and the teaching staff. The resignation of V. Gomulka and the creation of the PUWP

Essay III. Stalinism in the Polish version (1949–1953)

III.1. The power monopoly of the PUWP. Formation of the ruling layer. Constitution of 1852

III.2. Political repression: an instrument of intimidation of society, and the Bolshevization of the PUWP

III.3. The state and the Polish Roman Catholic Church: from promoting revival to confrontation and oath of allegiance to power

Essay IV. Socio-political crisis of 1956 and attempts at de-Stalinization (1953–1959)

IV.1. Pre-crisis situation: "fermentation of minds"

IV.2. XX Congress of the CPSU. Beginning of change. Riots in Poznan. VII plenum of the Central Committee of the PUWP

IV.3. Political turning point: VIII plenum of the Central Committee of the PUWP and the meeting in the Belvedere

IV.4. After the Crisis: De-Stalinization Attempts. Elections to the Sejm

IV.5. Growing discontent. Changes in the church policy of the state. Soviet-Polish negotiations

Notes

Section V. Socialism in the Era of Władysław Gomułka and Edvard Gierek (1960s–1970s)

Essay I. The political situation in the country in 1959–1967.

I.1. The tightening of the PUWP policy at the turn of the 1950s–1960s. The growth of opposition sentiments among the creative intelligentsia

I.2. Gomułka's policy towards the Catholic Church

I.3. Groupings in the PUWP leadership

I.4. Economic policy and social problems

Essay II. Crisis of 1968: student revolt, repressions, "personnel revolution"

II.2. Gomułka and the "Prague Spring"

II.3. Soviet-Polish relations

Essay III. The end of the era of W. Gomulka

III.1. Underlying struggle for power in 1969-1970 .

III.2. Mechanisms for exercising power

Essay IV. On the wave of moral and political upsurge (1971–1976)

IV.1. New political style of E. Gierek. Stabilization of the situation in the country

IV.2. A new concept for the development of Poland. Formation of a "team"

IV.3. On the path of success

IV.4. The appearance of the first difficulties

IV.5. Gierek's relationship with the Catholic Church

IV.6. The mood of the opposition intelligentsia

IV.7. Soviet-Polish relations

Essay V. Difficult five-year period (1976–1980)

V.1. Dramatic Events of June 1976

V.2. Growing difficulties

V.3. The emergence of non-systemic opposition

V.4. On the eve of a new explosion

Notes

Section VI. On the way from socialism to democracy (80s of the XX - beginning of the XXI century)

Essay I. "Solidarity": legend of the 80s and reality (1980-1989)

I.1. Formation of "Solidarity". Confrontation between the authorities and the trade union

I.3. The first congress of "Solidarity": development of a program of action

I.4. Introduction of martial law. "Solidarity" in the underground: the search for new tactics of struggle

I.5. Difficult rapprochement between power and opposition

I.6. Polish "revolution", or "round table"

Essay II. Movement of the "political pendulum" (90s of the XX century - beginning of the XXI century)

II.1. Explosion of multiparty system. Non-solidarity "Solidarity". Election 1990

II.2. Formation of the party system and parliamentary elections in 1991

II.3. Bitter fruits of political pluralism. Parliament in 1991–1993

II.4. "New Left" in new Poland

II.5. Movement of the political pendulum to the right. 1997 parliamentary elections

II.6. Levica is back in power

II.7. Right turn. "Civil Platform" - the party of pragmatists

II.8 The Law and Justice Party and the Polish-Polish War »

II.9. Leftist in opposition

II.10. Populism in the political life of Poland

II.11. 2010 presidential election

Essay III. Geopolitical priorities of the Republic of Poland

III.1. Russian-Polish relations at the turn of the century

III.2. Poland on the way to the EU and NATO

III.3. Poland in regional cooperation

The struggle for the choice of the political image of the country.

In June 1945, the Provisional Government of National Unity was established. The left-wing socialist Edvard Osubka-Moravsky, who had previously headed the PKNO and the Provisional Government, became its prime minister, Vladislav Gomulka (PPR) and S. Mikolajczyk became its deputies, former head the London government, who left at the end of 1944 and agreed to return to Poland. Supporters of the ex-premier received several ministerial posts. At the expense of the former politicians of the London camp, the composition of the KRN was expanded. This was followed by a band of recognition of the government by the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition.

S. Mikołajczyk created his own party - the Polish People's Affiliation (PSL), which quickly turned into one of the largest political organizations. It has become a center of attraction for all the forces that disagree with the policy of the PPR and its allies.

The PPR believed that the united left parties (PPR, socialist, peasant and democratic) were able to build a new society that would differ in its socio-economic structure from both the USSR and the bourgeois states. Its economic base would be a mixed economy. In the political field, the basis of the system would be a bloc of parties with similar goals in the leading role of the PPR, and the opposition PPR parties also participated in the government. A society organized in this way would gradually, as the objective preconditions mature, move along the path of socialist transformations. In foreign policy, the new Poland was supposed to be guided by the USSR, while at the same time developing good-neighborly relations with the Western powers. It should be said that this concept, the most consistent supporter of which was W. Gomulka (1905-1982), General Secretary of the Central Committee of the PPR, was not shared by all the leading and rank-and-file members of the party.

S. Mikolajczyk and the forces blocking around him were supporters of the liberal-democratic social structure based on private ownership of the means of production and the free play of political forces. In foreign policy, they adhered to a pro-Western orientation.

In addition to the legal opposition in Poland, the political and armed underground continued to operate. The confrontation between the regime and the underground took on a character civil war. The total losses of the parties to the conflict amounted to about 30 thousand people.

In January 1946, industrial enterprises with more than 50 people employed in one shift were nationalized. Their owners were legally entitled to compensation.

On June 30, 1946, a nationwide referendum was held, the participants of which were supposed to express their attitude to such issues as the liquidation of the Senate in the future parliament, land reform and the nationalization of major industries, as well as a new western border. In fact, it was about clarifying the attitude of society to the main political and socio-economic transformations carried out at the initiative of the left forces in the previous two years. It is now impossible to assess the true results of the referendum in connection with the falsification of its results by the authorities, but according to official version the majority of the Poles who took part in it answered in the affirmative to all questions, especially to the second and third.

In January 1947, the first post-war elections to the Legislative Seimas took place. Their official results turned out to be unfavorable for the PSL, which filed protests over their fraud in all constituencies. But they were not satisfied. The Western embassies did not react to them either, since, according to the Yalta agreements of 1945, Poland was included in the sphere of exclusive interests of the USSR. The PPR and its allies received 80% of the parliamentary mandates. The Seimas elected PPR member Bolesław Bierut (1892-1956), who previously headed the KRN, as the country's president, and the socialist Józef Cyrankiewicz became prime minister.

The victory of the PPR and its allies in the elections opened the way for the implementation of their vision political structure. But she was not destined to come true.

Already in 1946 there were clear signs of a split in the anti-Hitler coalition into opposing military-political blocs. The hopes of the Soviet leadership for the possibility of establishing people's democratic regimes in Western Europe did not come true, the communists were removed from the governments in Italy, France and Belgium. Western politicians questioned the final nature of the territorial changes in Central Europe, especially the Polish-German border. The views of the former allies in the anti-Hitler coalition on the future of Germany became more and more divergent. The United States was not going to withdraw troops from Europe.

A trend has emerged in the international communist movement to abandon the search for the so-called national paths of advancing towards socialism, to adopt the Soviet model of socialist construction. In September 1947, a meeting of representatives of the communist parties of Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Romania, the USSR, France, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia was held in Poland, at which the Information Bureau (Cominform) was created. Very soon, it turned from a body for the exchange of experience into a center for directing the activities of the ruling communist parties of the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, connected with Moscow by allied military-political treaties.

The conflict between the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks and the Communist Party of Yugoslavia in 1948 and the curtailment of relations between the USSR and the FPRY testified to the desire of the Soviet leadership to dictate its will to the countries of people's democracy, which was very painfully perceived by their public. Dogmatic, orthodox forces, which did not share the concept of national paths to socialism, revived in the communist parties. With the support of the USSR, they went on the offensive.

In 1948, V. Gomulka was dismissed from the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the PPR, accused of "right-wing nationalist deviation." This post was taken by B. Bierut. He also headed the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP), formed in December 1948 as a result of the merger of the PPR and the Polish Socialist Party on the platform of the communists. The programmatic documents adopted by the uniting congress of the PUWP testified to its rejection of the concept of people's democracy.

51. Poland in the late 1940s-1980s. gg.

Formation of the command and distribution system. At the turn of the 40s - 50s. In Poland, a command and distribution system began to take shape according to the Soviet model. The central link is the Polish United Workers' Party, the goal of the PUWP is the accelerated construction of socialism: the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, understood as ensuring the monopoly position in the state for the Communist Party; accelerated industrialization of industry and collectivization of agriculture; a cultural revolution, which provides not only for raising the general educational level of the population, but also for the transformation of the dogmatized Marxist-Leninist ideology into the dominant one.

Destroyed in the late 40s. liberal opposition forces and the underground, the PUWP did not dare to liquidate the so-called “allied parties”. In 1948, the youth movement was unified. In 1949, the PSL ceased to exist (Mikolajczyk and other liberal-minded politicians left the country at the end of 1947), some of its members joined the United Peasants' Party (OKP). In 1950, the Labor Party dissolved itself, and some of its members joined the Democratic Party (DP). A new political system in which there was no place for opposition parties. The role of the OKP, DP, the Union of Polish Youth, trade unions and others public organizations was reduced to the function of "transmission" of the influence of the PUWP on the general population. Under the Seimas and the government, real power was concentrated in the Politburo and the Central Committee of the PUWP. The essentially totalitarian political system was enshrined in the constitution of 1952. At the same time, a new name for the country was adopted - Polish People's Republic(NDP).

The successful implementation of the three-year plan for the economic restoration of Poland for 1947-1949 created the conditions for the transition to an industrialization policy. It was predetermined by the need to eliminate the huge agrarian overpopulation, which gave rise to serious social problems, the tense atmosphere of the Cold War and the arms race. In the six-year plan for the socio-economic development of the country for 1950-1955. emphasis on the development of heavy and defense industry, mechanical engineering. Initially, disproportions were laid. Lack of consumer goods.

In agriculture, the course is towards industrial cooperation. High rates of cooperation through the use of administrative coercion, severe tax pressure on individual farmers, etc. Mandatory state deliveries of grain, meat, milk, and potatoes were introduced.

Growing discontent national politics, repression, oppression from above.

The first attempts to correct the course after the death of Stalin in 1953, but they are timid and inconsistent. The condemnation of the personality cult by the 20th CPSU Congress dealt a heavy blow to the positions of his followers in Poland. B. Bierut died almost immediately after the congress. Political crisis - open and universal. In June 1956, strikes began in Poznań, which put forward economic demands. Ignoring the authorities led the strikers to take to the streets of the city. The country's leadership decided to disperse the demonstrations by force, including with the use of firearms. The crisis continued to deepen. The leadership ceased to control the situation in the country. The political crisis threatened to escalate into a civil war.

Decisive action is needed. The VIII plenum of the Central Committee of the PUWP, held in October 1956, made personnel changes in the party leadership. V. Gomulka, who was imprisoned from 1951 to 1954 and was reinstated in the party only in the summer of 1956, was elected the first secretary of the PUWP Central Committee.

Attempts to modernize the regime in the late 50s - 60s.

V. Gomulka formulated the concept of building socialism in Polish conditions, which included a revision of agrarian policy, the normalization of relations with the Catholic Church, the development of workers' self-government, an increase in the role of the Sejm and people's councils in governing the country, the establishment of partnerships with the OKP, DP, organizations of secular Catholics, trade unions and other public organizations, ensuring equal positions for Poland in relations with the USSR, etc.

In 1956-1957, the first steps to implement this concept. Together with the United Peasant Party, the foundations of a new agrarian policy were developed. The vast majority of production cooperatives broke up or were disbanded. The dominant form of households. in the socialized sector, state agricultural enterprises became, in general - individual peasant farms ..

The head of the Polish Roman Catholic Church, Cardinal S. Vyshinsky, was released. At the request of the parents, the children could study the law of God in special catechism points.

Under the new electoral law, voters were given the right to choose from several candidates, => the proportion of representatives of allied parties, secular Catholics and non-partisans increased in the Sejm.

More than 100 thousand Poles were given the opportunity to return from the USSR to Poland, the issues of the Polish debt to the Soviet Union and the supply of Polish coal to the USSR were settled, and the status of the Northern Group of Forces of the Soviet Army in Poland was determined.

The first symptoms of a departure from the post-October course towards reforms appeared already at the III Congress of the PUWP in 1959, and in the 60s. economic and political difficulties began to grow again. In Poland, as in other countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, the course towards extensive development continued, primarily material- and capital-intensive industries with a large share of manual labor.

In March 1968, Polish university cents became the scene of an active protest of student youth against the ideological dictate of the party leadership in the field of culture and education. The students were supported by the creative intelligentsia and part of the professorship. A particularly active role was played by people from the circles of the political elite in the first half of the 1950s. J. Kuron, A. Michnik, K. Modzelevsky and others. Trying to stimulate the economy, the government decided in December 1970 to significantly increase the prices of food and some manufactured goods. Citizens' dissatisfaction. The workers of the enterprises of Gdansk, Gdynia, Szczecin, Elblag protested especially actively. The strikes ended only with the adoption in March 1971 of the decision to cancel the price increase.

The reaction to the tragic events on the coast were personnel changes in the leadership: the first secretary of the PUWP Central Committee V. Gomulka was removed from his post, instead of E. Gierek. Prime Minister J. Cyrankiewicz, who headed the government with short breaks since 1947, and Chairman of the State Council M. Spychalsky resigned. The Seimas appointed P. Yaroshevich as the new prime minister, and became chairman of the State Council famous historian and politician H. Yablonsky.

Building a society of "developed socialism" in Poland.

Economic reform was named as a top priority. Taking advantage of the favorable international situation associated with the preparation of the Pan-European Conference on Security and Cooperation, the Polish leadership began to pursue a policy active use Western loans and technologies for the modernization of the national economy. Wages were raised significantly. at a fast pace industry was being re-equipped, and the number of licenses purchased from the West increased. Inspired by success, the leadership of the PZPR declared that Poland had entered the stage of building a "developed socialist society."

In the mid 70s. again economic difficulties. At the end of 1974, the Polish debt to the West exceeded 100% of the value of its exports. Short-term loans were used to cover debts. Poland's public debt continuously grew and amounted to by the end of the 70s. about 20 billion dollars.

In an effort to 1976 sharply increased food prices with little compensation wages. determined resistance from the workers. Organized protest strikes took place in 10 voivodships, and workers took to the streets in Radom, Płock and at the Ursus Tractor Factory near Warsaw. Dispersal, arrests.

The emergence of organized opposition. The June events of 1976 gave a new impetus to the activities of the opposition-minded part of the intelligentsia. In September 1976, the Committee for the Defense of Workers was established, consisting of active participants in the student uprisings of 1968. Particular attention was paid to the working environment. They gave lectures about “blank spots” in the history of Poland and Polish-Soviet relations, explained the reasons for their poor financial situation, introduced them to the international conventions ratified by Poland in the field of protecting the rights of workers. At the end of the 70s. free trade unions began to form.

Other opposition organizations: the Movement for the Protection of Human and Citizen's Rights, the Confederation of Independent Poland, the Young Poland Movement, and others. forces that oppose the regime. This was especially evident during the pilgrimage of the Pope to Poland in 1979.

The crisis of 1980 and the birth of Solidarity. The party-state leadership is powerless in the face of the impending socio-political and economic crisis. The replacement of P. Yaroshevich by E. Babyukh as head of government did not help. In the summer of 1980, in response to rising food prices, a wave of strikes began to rise, at first under economic slogans. Apogee in August, when the enterprises of Gdansk, Szczecin, Silesia went on strike. Occupational character, there were no street demonstrations to exclude possible provocations from the authorities.

Signing agreements with strike committees, satisfying the economic demands of workers, and their right to create trade unions independent of the administration, release political prisoners, refuse to persecute advisers and experts of strikers from among members of opposition organizations.

In November 1980, the independent self-governing trade union "Solidarity" was registered. By the end of 1980, it had about 8 million members. In 1981, the trade union of individual peasants "Rural Solidarity" was created. "Solidarity" represented an association of autonomous organizations of individual regions. Its actions were coordinated by the All-Polish Conciliation Commission, headed by the chairman of the Gdansk inter-factory strike committee, an electrician from the Lenin shipyard L. Walesa. Great help was given famous figures opposition B. Geremek, J. Kuron, T. Mazowiecki, A. Michnik, J. Olszewski and others.

Solidarity was predominantly a socio-political, rather than a trade union movement. She grew up on a wave of labor protest, and at first she had no clear plans further development countries. Fears of Soviet intervention forced the intellectual headquarters of the movement to come up with the concept of a “self-regulating revolution”: Poland, while remaining a member of the Soviet military-political bloc, should simultaneously strive for an internal transformation of the socio-political system: political pluralism, the establishment of public control over the activities of the state, ensuring the independence of public and state institutions from PURP.

In 1981 there was a concentration of power in the party-state leadership of the PPR. General V. Jaruzelsky was appointed chairman of the Council of Ministers, elected first secretary of the PUWP Central Committee and retained the post of minister of national defense.

A sharp escalation of political confrontation in December 1981. The radical wing in the Solidarity leadership headed for open confrontation with the government, threatening to hold a general strike. There was a danger of an uncontrolled development of the conflict with the escalation into a civil war and the intervention of the allies under the Warsaw Pact. Under these conditions, the State Council introduced martial law in the country on December 13, 1981. The activities of all political parties, public organizations and trade unions were suspended, over 5 thousand leading figures of Solidarity at all levels were interned. All power is in the hands of the Military Council of National Salvation, headed by V. Jaruzelsky.

From martial law to the "round table". The economic reform launched in 1982, in accordance with which the activities of enterprises were based on the principles of independence, self-government and self-financing, did not bring the expected results. The imposition of an embargo on economic relations with Poland by the West also prevented overcoming the crisis. Foreign debt continued to grow, prices in the domestic market rose.

Solidarity was weakened, but not crushed, and its structures at all levels were gradually resurrected underground. In April 1982, the Temporary Coordinating Commission of Solidarity was created. In October 1982, the Seimas decided to dissolve all trade unions and create new ones based on the sectoral principle. Long-term struggle for the legalization of "Solidarity".

All this time, Solidarity enjoyed the active support of the Catholic Church. In 1983, L. Walesa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. By 1988, the inability of the government to bring the country out of the crisis without a significant drop in the living standards of the population became obvious. In April 1988 there was an explosion of strikes. demanded higher wages and the legalization of Solidarity. The authorities were forced to start negotiations with Solidarity, which expressed their readiness for this, and from the end of August, preparations began for meetings of the round table between the authorities and the opposition. Only in mid-January 1989, a group of party reformers, which included the first secretary of the PUWP Central Committee V. Jaruzelsky and Prime Minister M. Rakovsky, managed to pass a resolution on political and trade union pluralism at the plenum of the Central Committee - the path to the legalization of Solidarity. The “Round Table” with the participation of representatives of Solidarity, the government, the PZPR, allied parties, the All-Polish Agreement of Trade Unions (UASP) - the trade union center of new trade unions, created after 1982 and the episcopate, took place from February 6 to April 5, 1989. Among its most important The results were decisions to hold early parliamentary elections, introduce the presidency, create a second chamber in the parliament - the Senate, as well as on the division of mandates between various political forces in the diet.

52. Poland in the late 1980s = early 2000s

changes in the political life of Poland. In November 1989, 154 political parties were registered. During November 1989 - May 1990, the peasant political movement, the place of the United Peasants' Party as its core was taken by the Polish Peasants' Party (PSL). In January 1990, the last, XI Congress of the PZPR took place, which decided on its self-dissolution. One of the strongest parties that emerged from it was the Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland (SDRP), headed by Aleksander Kwasniewski (b. 1954) and Leszek Miller. In the summer of 1990, ministers who had once represented the PUWP were withdrawn from the government. In December 1989, work began on a new constitution in the Sejm and the Senate. With the adoption on 29 December 1989 of the amended text of the constitution, the Polish People's Republic formally ceased to exist. The new state became known as the Republic of Poland (or III Speech Commonwealth), the crown was returned to the eagle on the state emblem.

The persecution of people with leftist views began in the media, public administration, universities, the army, etc. . The rise to power of post-opposition forces from the Solidarity camp

Walesa rushed to independent political activity. criticized the Mazowiecki government. Under pressure from Walesa, Jaruzelski resigned.

Five candidates took part in the general presidential elections scheduled for the end of November, including L. Walesa and Prime Minister T. Mazowiecki, who decided to achieve a public mandate of confidence. crisis in the Solidarity camp. The process of its decay has acquired irreversible forms. And again, as in 1989, the results of the elections amazed everyone. L. Walesa was able to win only in the second round, and his main rival was not T. Mazowiecki, but Stanislav Tyminski, an unknown immigrant from Peru. In May 1991, a decision was made on the proportional distribution of deputy mandates in the future legislature. In October 1991, free parliamentary elections were held. The absolute predominance of right-wing and centrist parties and movements that emerged from the Solidarity camp. The left, led by the SDLP, achieved the second result. The situation of the early 1920s was repeated, 29 factions were formed in the Seimas, which made the creation of a government a very difficult task. The formed right-wing government of J. Olszewski lasted a little more than six months. The reason for his downfall was the scandal connected with the adoption by the Seimas of a decision on the lustration of higher statesmen and the disclosure of a secret list prepared in connection with this by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the highest officials of the state who collaborated with the authorities state security Poland. Among them is President L. Walesa.

center-right coalition.

The main achievement of the Seimas was the adoption in August 1992 of the so-called. "small" constitution, according to which the parliamentary system of government was transformed into a parliamentary-presidential one, which ensured a greater balance between the Sejm, the president and the government. In accordance with it, the president, who was elected for 5 years, received the right to appoint a government formed by the Sejm, accept his resignation, and express an opinion on candidates for ministers of law enforcement agencies and foreign affairs. He could also dissolve parliament if it did not propose a new one after the resignation of the cabinet. Such an occasion presented itself to Walesa already in May. next year, when the Sejm voted no confidence in the government of Hanna Suchocka by a majority of 1 vote.

The 1993 elections were won by the Union of Democratic Left Forces. Having come to power, the left did not raise the question of the correctness of the socio-economic model chosen after 1989. This meant that the course towards the creation of a Western-style society was recognized as the only possible one by all the influential political forces in Poland. The coexistence of the leftist government (Waldemar Pawlak (PSL) and the Social Democrat Józef Oleksy were prime ministers in succession) and President L. Walesa, who was oriented towards the right and center-right parties, lasted for two years. In November 1995, presidential elections were held. According to the results of the second round, in which L. Walesa and SDLP leader A. Kwasniewski entered, the left-wing candidate won. In the spring of 1997, the parliament adopted a new constitution for the Republic of Poland, approved in a national referendum. The constitution defined Poland as a "democratic rule of law, implementing social justice." The constitution was based on the principles of the sovereignty of the people and the separation of powers. Parliament was elected for 4 years, and the president for 5 years. Not only the Sejm, the Senate, the Government and the President, but also groups of citizens numbering at least 100,000 people received the right to initiate legislation. The parliament formed and recalled the government, the head of which was nominated by the winning party or coalition, and formally approved by the president. The president was deprived of his former powers when appointing ministers of law enforcement agencies and foreign affairs, but received the right to veto laws adopted by parliament, which the Sejm could only overcome with a qualified majority of 3/5 votes, or could send them to the Constitutional Tribunal. The decisions of the latter were final. The head of state retained the right to dissolve the Sejm if the Sejm could not form the Cabinet of Ministers.

A law on lustration was adopted, according to which persons holding high state and public positions had to submit declarations that they did not cooperate with the special services of the PPR. All the archives of the secret services of the PPR were transferred to the Institute of National Remembrance (INP. The second activity of the Buzek government was the preparation of the profound reforms promised during the election campaign in the system of administration, healthcare, education, the army and social security.

In the fall of 2000, another, already the third, presidential election was held in the new Poland. They were already won in the first round by A. Kwasniewski. 2001 became a time of further restructuring of the Polish political scene, and both the Union of Freedom and the IAS survived the crisis and split. Part of the right and centrists who left these organizations created the Civic Platform (GP). Other new political entity Right-wing became Law and Justice (PiS), headed by the twin brothers Lech and Yaroslav Kaczynski, at one time ardent supporters of Walesa, and then his no less decisive opponents. The Self-Defence party, led by the populist Andrzej Lepper, enjoyed increasing support.

The parliamentary elections of 2001 ended with the victory of the coalition of the SDLS and the Union of Labor, which received more than 40% of the votes. In total, 6 parties led their deputies to the Sejm, including the Electoral Action "Solidarity" and the Union of Freedom. L. Miller (SDLS) became prime minister. The primary tasks of the cabinet were to improve finances, prevent the economic crisis threatening the country and accelerate accession to the European Union. The economic situation in Poland was very difficult. The budget deficit amounted to about PLN 88 billion, the industry was stagnant, unemployment reached 2.8 million people.

The coalition with the PSL proved to be fragile. Like the Buzek government in its day, Miller's cabinet did not resign. More than two years of rule by the Sejm minority began, accompanied by a continuous decline in the popularity of both the cabinet and the SDLS. In March 2004, the first split in its history took place in the SDLS, and in May of the same year, the day after Poland's entry into the EU, L. Miller resigned as prime minister. He was succeeded by Marek Belka, who managed to keep his government until the parliamentary elections in September 2005.

Of the 52 parties that entered the election campaign, only 6 overcame the electoral threshold of 5%. The right-wing Law and Justice party became the winner, the center-right Civic Platform came in second, and, to everyone's surprise, Self-Defense took third place.

In October 2005, presidential elections were held. In the second round, PiS candidate Lech Kaczynski (b. 1949), president of Warsaw, won, ahead of the leader of the Civic Platform Donald Tusk, who had best result after the first round.

D. Tusk lost to L. Kaczynski main reason his party's refusal to enter into a coalition with PiS. In Poland, in November 2005, another minority government was created, headed by PiS representative Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz. It lasted until the beginning of May 2006, when they finally managed to form a coalition majority in the Sejm, which included PiS, Self-Defence, and the clerical League of Polish Families.

MAIN PROBLEMS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT III

In the first half of 1989, inflation rose sharply. An attempt made in July by the last government of the PPR, headed by M. Rakovsky, to freeze prices and salaries did not produce results, because enterprises, waiting for the implementation of the decisions of the "round table" on the introduction of free prices, did not supply their products to the market. Store shelves were empty. The introduction of market prices at the end of July 1989 led to a sharp increase in the cost of living and hyperinflation, which at the turn of 1989-1990 amounted to. 558%. On the black market, 1 US dollar was worth 13,000 zlotys.

The government of Mazowiecki adopted a stabilization plan (the plan of Leszek Balcerowicz), which was based on liberal economic principles: an increase in the cost of loans, the introduction of strict control over the financial sector, a consistent reduction in state subsidies for enterprises and consumer goods, ensuring the internal convertibility of the zloty and allowed for a reduction in employment and the emergence of unemployment ( "shock therapy"). Its implementation, starting from January 1, 1990 Simultaneously, the government began to corporatize and privatize enterprises. In 1992, the recession was finally overcome industrial production and began a rise that continued until 2000.

Curbing inflation made it possible in 1995 to carry out the denomination of the national currency - the zloty in the ratio of 10,000:1. Poland's worst social problem remains high registered unemployment

In December 1990, at the insistence of Warsaw, negotiations began on the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Poland, which were successfully completed in 1992. After the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in the summer of 1991, the problem of ensuring national security became imperative. In 1991, Poland joined the Central European Initiative (CEI), a regional cooperation organization for the countries of Central, Eastern and Southern Europe, which at that time included Austria, Hungary, Italy, the SFRY and Czechoslovakia. In August 1991, together with Germany and France, the Weimar Triangle was formed, and together with Czechoslovakia and Hungary, the Visegrad Triangle. Poland took an active part in the creation in the early 1990s. regional structures such as the Council of States Baltic Sea, Central European Free Trade Agreement (CFTA).

The procedure for Poland's accession to the EU was finally completed in May 2004. A nationwide referendum held in June 2004 confirmed this decision of the government. Poland's accession to NATO and the EU completed the process of reorienting its foreign policy. Warsaw consistently follows in the wake of Washington's policy.

The history of each country is shrouded in secrets, beliefs and legends. The history of Poland is no exception. In its development, Poland has experienced many ups and downs. Several times it fell into the occupation of other countries, was barbarously divided, which led to devastation and chaos, but, despite this, Poland, like a phoenix, always rose from the ashes and became even stronger. Today Poland is one of the most developed European countries, with a rich culture, economy and history.

The history of Poland dates back to the 6th century. The legend says that there once lived three brothers, and their names were Lech, Czech and Russ. They wandered with their tribes through various territories and finally found a cozy place that stretches between the rivers called the Vistula and the Dnieper. Towering above all this beauty was a large and ancient oak, on which an eagle's nest was located. Here Lech decided to found the city of Gniezno. And the eagle, from which it all began, began to sit on the coat of arms of the founded state. The brothers went on to seek happiness further. And so two more states were founded - the Czech Republic in the south, and Russia in the east.

The first documented memories of Poland date back to 843. The author, who was called the Bavarian geographer, described the tribal settlement of the Lechites, who lived in the territory between the Vistula and the Odra. It had its own language and culture. And it did not obey any neighboring state. This territory was remote from the commercial and cultural centers of Europe, which for a long time kept it hidden from the bulk of nomads and conquerors. In the IX century, several large tribes emerged from the Lekhites:

1. glade - settled their settlement on the territory, which was later called Greater Poland. The main centers were Gniezno and Poznań;
2. Vistula - with the center in Krakow and Wislice. This settlement was called Lesser Poland;
3. mazovshan - center in Plock;
4. the Kuyavians, or, as the Goplians also called it, in Kruszwitz;
5. Ślązie - the center of Wrocław.

The tribes could boast of a clear hierarchical structure and a primitive state foundation. The territory where the tribes lived was called - "opolye". It was ruled by elders - people from the most ancient families. In the center of each "opolye" there was a "grad" - a fortification that protected people from bad weather and enemies. The elders sat hierarchically at the highest level of the population, they had their own retinue and guards. All issues were resolved at a meeting of men - "veche". Such a system shows that even in times of tribal relations, the history of Poland developed progressively and civilized.

The most developed and strongest of all the tribes was the Vislan tribe. Located in the basin of the Upper Vistula, they had large and fruitful lands. The center was Krakow, which was connected by trade routes with Russia and Prague. Such comfortable living conditions attracted more and more people, and soon the Wislanians became the largest tribe, with developed foreign and political contacts. It is generally accepted that they already had their own "prince sitting on the Vistula."

Unfortunately, almost no information has been preserved about the ancient princes. We know only about one prince of Polyan, named Popel, who sat in the city of Gnezdo. The prince was not very good and fair, and for his deeds he got what he deserved, he was first overthrown, and then expelled into everything. The throne was occupied by a simple hard worker Semovit, the son of a plowman Piast and a woman Repka. He ruled with dignity. Together with him, two more princes sat in power - Lestko and Semomysl. They united various neighboring tribes under their rule. In the conquered cities, their governors ruled. They also built new castles and fortifications for defense. The prince had a developed squad and this kept the tribes in obedience. Such a good springboard was prepared by Prince Semovit, for his son - the great and just first ruler of Poland - Bag I.

Mieszko I sat on the throne from 960 to 992. During his reign, the history of Poland underwent a series of radical changes. He doubled his territory by conquering the Gdansk Pomerania, Western Pomerania, Silesia and the lands of the Vistula. Turned them into rich, both demographically and economically territories. The number of his squad was several thousand, which helped to restrain the tribes from uprisings. In his state, Mieszko I introduced a system of taxes for the villagers. Most often it was food and agriculture. Sometimes, taxes were paid in the form of services: construction, handicraft, etc. This helped to upset the state, and people not to give the last piece of bread. This method suited both the prince and the population. The ruler also had monopoly rights - "regalia" on increasingly important and profitable areas of the economy, for example, coinage, mining of precious metals, market fees, fees from beaver hunting. The prince was the sole ruler of the country, he was surrounded by a retinue and several military leaders who helped in state affairs. Power was transferred according to the principle of "primogeniture" and in the ranks of one dynasty. Mieszko I, with his reforms, won the title of the founder of the Polish state, at the same time with a developed economy and defense capability. His marriage to a princess from the Czech Republic, Dobrava, and holding this ceremony according to the Catholic rite, was the impetus for the adoption of Christianity, once a pagan state. This marked the beginning of the acceptance of Poland by Christian Europe.

Boleslav the Brave

After the death of Sack I, his son Boleslav (967-1025) ascended the throne. For his fighting power and courage in defending his country, he was nicknamed the Brave. He was one of the most intelligent and resourceful politicians. During his reign, the country expanded its possessions and significantly strengthened its position on the world map. At the beginning of his journey, he was actively involved in various missions to introduce Christianity and his power in the territories occupied by the Prussians. By their nature, they were peaceful and in 996 he sent Bishop Adalbert, in Poland he was called Wojciech Slavnikovets, in the territory under the control of the Prussians, to preach Christianity. In Poland he was called Wojciech Slavnikoviec. A year later, he was killed, cut into several pieces. In order to redeem his body, the prince paid as much gold as the bishop weighed. The Pope heard this news, canonized Bishop Adalbert, who over the years became the heavenly protector of Poland.

After the failed peace missions, Bolesław began to annex territories with the help of fire and weapons. He increased the size of his squad to 3,900 cavalry soldiers and 13,000 infantry, turning his army into one of the largest and most powerful. The desire to win led to ten years of problems for Poland with a state like Germany. In 1002 Bolesław seized the territories that were under the possession of Henry II. Also, 1003-1004 was marked by the seizure of territories that belonged to the Czech Republic, Moravia and not a large part of Slovakia. In 1018, the Kyiv throne was taken by his son-in-law Svyatopolk. True, he was soon overthrown by the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. With him, Boleslav signed an agreement guaranteeing non-aggression, since he considered him a good and intelligent ruler. Another way to the diplomatic resolution of conflicts was the Gniezney Congress (1000). This was a meeting of Boleslav with the German ruler Otto III, during a pilgrimage to the tomb of the holy bishop Wojciech. At this congress, Otto III called Bolesław the Brave his Brother and Partner of the Empire. He also put a diadem on his head. In turn, Boleslav presented the German ruler with the brush of the holy bishop. This union led to the creation of an archbishopric in the city of Gniezno and a bishopric in several cities, namely: Krakow, Wroclaw, Kolobrzeg. Bolesław the Brave, through his efforts, developed the policy that his father had begun to promote Christianity in Poland. Such recognition from Otto III and later, the Pope, led to the fact that on April 18, 1025 Bolesław the Brave was crowned and became the first King of Poland. Boleslav did not enjoy the title for a long time and died a year later. But the memory of him, as a good ruler, lives on today.

Despite the fact that power in Poland was transferred from father to eldest son, Bolesław the Brave bequeathed the throne to his favorite, Mieszko II (1025-1034), and not Besprima. Mieszko II did not distinguish himself as a good ruler even after several high-profile defeats. They led to the fact that Mieszko II renounced his royal title and divided specific lands between his younger brother Otto and close relative Dietrich. Although until the end of his life he was still able to reunite all the lands, he failed to achieve his former power for the country.

The ruined lands of Poland and feudal fragmentation, that's what was inherited from his father, the eldest son of Mieszko II - Casimir, who later received the nickname - Restorer (1038-1050). He established his residence in Kruszwitz and this became the center of defensive missions against the Czech king, who wanted to steal the relics of Bishop Adalbert. Casimir started liberation war. The first to become his enemy was Metslav, who occupied large areas of Poland. To attack such a powerful opponent alone was a huge stupidity, and Casimir asked for the support of the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. Yaroslav the Wise not only helped Casimir in military affairs, but also became related to him by marrying him to his sister Maria Dobronega. The Polish-Russian army actively fought against the army of Metzlav, and Emperor Henry III attacked the Czech Republic, which removed the Czech troops from the territory of Poland. Casimir the Restorer gets the opportunity to freely restore his state, his economic and military policies have brought many positive changes to the life of the country. In 1044, he actively expanded the borders of the Commonwealth and transferred his court to Krakow, making it the central city of the country. Despite Meclav's attempts to attack Krakow and overthrow the Piast heir from the throne, Casimir mobilizes all his forces in time and cracks down on the enemy. At the same time, in 1055, they annexed Slensk, Mazowska and Silesia, once controlled by the Czechs, to their possessions. Casimir the Restorer became a ruler who succeeded, bit by bit, in uniting and turning Poland into a strong and developed state.

After the death of Casimir the Restorer, an internecine struggle for the throne broke out between Boleslav II the Generous (1058-1079) and Vladislav Herman (1079-1102). Boleslav II continued the policy of conquest. He repeatedly attacked Kyiv and the Czech Republic, fought against the policies of Henry IV, which led to the fact that in 1074 Poland declared its independence from imperial power and became a state that was under the protection of the Pope. And already in 1076 Boleslav was crowned and recognized as the King of Poland. But the strengthening of the power of the magnates, and the constant battles that tired the people, led to an uprising. It was headed by the younger brother Vladislav. The king was overthrown and expelled from the country.

Vladislav German took power. He was a passive politician. Relinquished the title of king and returned the title of prince. All his deeds were aimed at reconciliation with neighbors: peace treaties were signed with the Czech Republic and the Roman Empire, taming local magnates and fighting the aristocracy. This led to the loss of some territories and the displeasure of the people. Uprisings began against Vladislav, led by his sons (Zbigniew and Boleslav). Zbigniew became the lord of Greater Poland, Boleslaw - Lesser. But this alignment did not suit the younger brother, and on his orders, the older brother was blinded and expelled because of his alliance with the Roman Empire and bulks in Poland. After this event, the throne completely passed to Boleslav Wrymouth (1202-1138). He defeated German and Czech troops several times, which led to further reconciliation of the heads of these states. Having dealt with external problems, Boleslav set his sights on Pomorie. In 1113, he captured the area near the river Notes, also the fortress of Naklo. And already 1116-1119. subjugated Gdansk and Pomerania in the east. Unprecedented battles were fought to capture Western Primorye. rich and developed region. A number of successful operations carried out in 1121 led to the fact that Szczecin, Rügen, Wolin recognized the suzerainty of Poland. The policy of promoting Christianity in these territories began, which further strengthened the significance of the power of the prince. In Wolin, in 1128, the Pomeranian bishopric was opened. More than once, uprisings broke out in these territories, and Boleslav became engaged to the support of Denmark to pay them off. For this, he gave the territory of Rügen to Danish rule, but the rest of the territories remained under the suzerain of Poland, although not without omnage to the emperor. Bolesław Krivousty before his death in 1138 created a will - a statute according to which he divided the territories between his sons: the elder Vladislav sat in Silesia, the second, named Boleslav, in Mazovia and Kuyavia, the third Mieszko - in part of Greater Poland with a center in Poznan, the fourth son Heinrich, received Lublin and Sandomierz, and the youngest, named Casimir, remained in the care of brothers without lands and power. The rest of the lands passed into the power of the eldest of the Piast family and formed an autonomous lot. He created a system called seigniorate - the center of which was in Krakow with the power of the great Krakow prince-princeps. He had sole power over all territories, Pomorye and dealt with foreign policy, military and church issues. This led to feudal civil strife for a period of 200 years.

True, there was one positive moment in the history of Poland, which is associated with the reign of Boleslav Krivoust. After the Second World War, it was its territorial boundaries that were taken as the basis for the restoration of modern Poland.

The second half of the 12th century for Poland, as well as for Kievan Rus and Germany, became a turning point. These states collapsed, and their territories fell under the rule of vassals, who, together with the church, minimized his power, and then did not recognize it at all. This led to greater independence, once controlled areas. Poland began to look more and more like a feudal country. Power was concentrated in the hands not of the prince, but of the big landowner. Settlements were populated and new systems of cultivating the land and harvesting were actively introduced. A three-field system was introduced, they began to use a plow, a water mill. The reduction of princely taxes and the development of market relations led to the fact that the villagers and artisans received the right to dispose of their goods and money. This significantly increased the standard of living of the peasant, and the landowner received a better performance of the work. Everyone benefited from this. The decentralization of power made it possible for large landowners to establish a lively work, and then trade in goods and services. The constant internecine wars between the princes, who forgot to deal with state affairs, only contributed to this. And soon Poland began to actively develop as a feudal-industrial state.

The 13th century in the history of Poland was vague and bleak. Mongol-Tatars attacked Poland from the east, as well as Lithuanians and Prussians advanced from the north. The princes made attempts to protect themselves from the Prussians and convert the pagans to Christianity, but they were unsuccessful. Desperate, Prince Konrad of Mazovia in 1226. called on the help of the Teutonic Order. He gave them the Helminsky land, although the order did not stop there. The crusaders had at their disposal material and military means, and also knew how to build fortification defenses. This made it possible to conquer part of the Baltic lands and establish there a small state - East Prussia. It was settled by immigrants from Germany. This new country limited Poland's access to the Baltic Sea and actively threatened the integrity of Polish territory. So the saving Teutonic Order soon became the unspoken enemy of Poland.

In addition to the Prussians, Lithuanians and crusaders in Poland in the 40s, an even bigger problem arose - the Mongolian bulk. Which has already managed to conquer Russia. They broke into the territory of Lesser Poland and, like a tsunami, swept away everything in their path. In 1241 in the month of April, a battle took place on the territory of Silesia, near Legnica, between the knights under the leadership of Henry the Pious and the Mongols. Prince Mieszko, knights from Greater Poland, from the orders of the Teutonic Order, St. John's Order, the Knights Templar, came to support him. 7-8 thousand soldiers gathered in the sum. But the Mongols had more coordinated tactics, more weapons and used gas, which was intoxicating. This led to the defeat of the Polish army. No one knows whether it's the resistance or the strength of the Poles' spirit, but the Mongols left the country and didn't attack like that again. Only in 1259. and in 1287. repeated their attempt, which was more like an attack for the purpose of robbery than conquest.

After the victory over the conquerors, the history of Poland flowed in its natural course. Poland acknowledged that sovereignty concentrated in the hands of the Pope and annually paid tribute to him. The Pope had great power in resolving all internal and external issues in Poland, which preserved its integrity and unity, and also developed the culture of the country. The foreign policy of all the princes, although ambitiously aimed at expanding their territories, was not revealed in practice. Internal expansion reached a high level, when each prince wanted to colonize as many territories as possible within the country itself. The feudal division of society was reinforced by status inequality. The number of serfs increased. The number of emigrants from other countries also increased, for example, Germans, Flemings, who brought their innovations to legal and other systems of government. Such colonists, in turn, received land, money and incredible freedom of action to develop the economy. This attracted more and more new settlers to the territory of Poland, the population density increased, the quality of labor increased. What led to the appearance in Silesia German cities, which were controlled by the Magdeburg, or as it was also called the Helminsky right. The first such city was Środa-Śląska. Rather, such legal administration spread to the entire territory of Poland and to almost all spheres of the life of the population.

A new stage in the history of Poland began in 1296, when Władysław Loketok (1306-1333) from Kujawia began the path to the reunification of all the lands together with the Polish knights and some burghers. He was successful in a short time united Lesser and Greater Poland and the Seaside. But in 1300, Vladislav fled from Poland because the Czech prince Wenceslas II became king and he did not want to engage in an unequal battle with him. After the death of Vladislav, Vladislav returned to home country and began to gather the lands together again. In 1305, he regained power in Kuyavia, Sieradze, Sandomierz and Lenchice. And a year later in Krakow. Strangled a number of uprisings in 1310 and 1311. in Poznan and Krakow. In 1314 it merged with the Principality of Greater Poland. In 1320 he was crowned and returned royal power to the territory of fragmented Poland. Despite his nickname Loketok, which Vladislav received due to his small stature, he became the first ruler who began the path to the restoration of the Polish state.

His father's work was continued by his son Casimir III the Great (1333-1370). With his coming to power, it is considered to be the beginning of the golden era of Poland. The country went to him in a very deplorable state. Lesser Poland wanted to capture the Czech king Jan Luxemburzky, Greater Poland was terrorized by the Crusaders. In order to preserve the shaky peace, Casimir in 1335 signed a non-aggression pact with the Czech Republic, while giving him the territory of Silesia. In 1338, Casimir, with the help of the Hungarian king, who was also his brother-in-law, captured the city of Lvov and united Galician Rus with his country. The history of Poland in 1343 survived the first settlement agreement - the so-called "perpetual peace", which was signed with the Teutonic Order. The knights returned to Poland the territories of Kuyavia and Dobzhinsk. In 1345, Casimir decided to return Silesia. This led to the beginning of the Polish-Czech war. The battles for Poland were not very successful, and Casimir was forced on the day of November 22, 1348. sign a peace treaty between Poland and Charles I. The lands of Silesia remained behind the Czech Republic. In 1366, Poland captured the Belsky, Kholmsky, Volodymyr-Volynsky lands and Podolia. Inside the country, Casimir also carried out many reforms according to the Western model: in administration, the legal system, financial system. In 1347, he issued a code of laws called the Wislice Statutes. He eased the duties of the krnstyan. Sheltered Jews who fled from Europe. In 1364, in the city of Krakow, he opened the first university in Poland. Casimir the Great was the last ruler of the Piast dynasty, and with his efforts he revived Poland, made it a large and strong European state.

Despite the fact that he married 4 times, not a single wife gave Casimir a son and his nephew Louis I the Great (1370-1382) became the heir to the Polish throne. He was one of the most just and influential rulers in all of Europe. During his reign, the Polish gentry in 1374. received a lead, which was called Kosice. According to him, the nobles could not pay most all taxes, but for this, they promised to give the throne to the daughter of Louis.

And so it happened, the daughter of Louis Jadwiga was given as a wife to the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello, which opened a new page in the history of Poland. Jagiello (1386-1434) became the ruler of two states. In Poland he was known as Vladislav II. He began the path to the unification of the Principality of Lithuania with the Kingdom of Poland. In 1386 in the city of Krevo, the so-called Krevo Pact was signed, according to which Lithuania was included in Poland, which made it the most big country XV century. Under this pact, Lithuania adopted Christianity, providing itself with assistance from the Catholic Church and the Pope. The prerequisites for such a union for Lithuania were a tangible threat from the Order of the Teutonic Knights, the Tatar bulk and the Moscow principality. Poland, in turn, wanted to protect itself from the oppression of Hungary, which began to lay claim to the lands of Galician Rus. Both the Polish gentry and the Lithuanian boyars supported the union, as an opportunity to gain a foothold in new territories, to gain new markets. The merger, however, did not go very smoothly. Lithuania was a state in which power was in the hands of the prince and feudal lords. Many, namely the brother of Jogaila, Vitovt, could not come to terms with the fact that after the union, the rights and freedoms of the prince would diminish. And in 1389. Vitov enlisted the support of the Teutonic Order and attacked Lithuania. The fighting continued from 1390-1395. although already in 1392. Vitovt reconciled with his brother and became the ruler of Lithuania, while Jagiello ruled in Poland.

Wayward behavior and constant attacks from the Teutonic Order led to the fact that in 1410. Lithuania, Poland, Russia and the Czech Republic united and held a large-scale battle at Gruwald, where they defeated the knights and got rid of their oppression for some time.

In 1413 in the city of Horodla, all questions on the unification of the state were clarified. The Union of Horodel decided that the Lithuanian prince was appointed Polish king with the participation of the Lithuanian council, the two rulers had to hold joint meetings with the participation of the lords, the position of voivode and castellans became a novelty in Lithuania. Following this union, the Principality of Lithuania embarked on the path of development and recognition, and turned into a strong and independent state.

After the union to the throne in Lithuanian principality Casimir Jagiellonchik (1447-1492) ascended, and his brother Vladislav occupied the Polish. In 1444 King Vladislav died in battle, and power passed into the hands of Casimir. This renewed the personal union and for a long time made the Jagiellonian dynasty heirs to the throne, both in Lithuania and in Poland. Casimir wanted to reduce the power of the nobles as well as the church. But he did not succeed, and he was forced to accept their right to vote during the Diet. In 1454 Casimir provided representatives of the nobility with the so-called Neshav Statutes, which resembled the Magna Carta in their content. In 1466 a joyful and very expected event happened - the end of the 13th war with the Teutonic Order came. The Polish state won. October 19, 1466 A peace treaty was signed in Torun. After him, Poland regained such territories as Pomerania and Gdansk, and the order itself was recognized as a vassal of the country.

AT XVI century the history of Poland experienced its dawn. It has become one of the largest states in all of Eastern Europe, with a rich culture, economy and constant development. Polish became the state language and replaced Latin. The concept of law, as power and freedom for the population, took root.

With the death of Jan Olbracht (1492-1501), a struggle began between the state and the dynasty that was in power. The Jagiellonian family was faced with the displeasure of the wealthy population - the gentry, who refused to give service in his favor. There was also a threat of expansion from the Habsburgs and the Moscow principality. In 1499 the Union of Horodel resumed, for which the king was elected at the elective congresses of the gentry, although the applicants were only from the ruling dynasty, so the gentry received their spoonful of honey. In 1501, the Lithuanian prince Alexander, for a place on the Polish throne, gave the so-called Melnitsky lead. Behind him, power was in the hands of parliament, and the king had only the function of chairman. Parliament could impose a veto - a ban on the ideas of the monarch, and also, without the participation of the king, decide on all issues of the state. Parliament became two chambers - the first chamber - the Sejm, with the petty nobility, the second - the Senate, with the aristocracy and the clergy. Parliament controlled all the expenses of the monarch, and issued sanctions for receiving funds. The higher versts of the population demanded even more indulgences and privileges. As a result of such reforms, the actual power was concentrated in the hands of magnates.

Sigismund I (1506-1548) The Old and his son Sigismund August (1548-1572) put all their efforts into reconciliation of the conflicting parties and satisfaction of the needs of these miles of population. It was customary to put the king, the senate and ambassadors on equal terms. This somewhat calmed the growing protests within the country. In 1525 Master of the Teutonic Knights, whose name was Albrecht of Brandenburg, was initiated into Lutheranism. Sigismund the Old transferred the Duchy of Prussia to him, although he remained the overlord of these places. Such a union, two centuries later, turned these territories into a strong empire.

In 1543 another thing happened outstanding event in the history of Poland. Nicolaus Copernicus declared, proved and even issued a book that the earth is not the center of the universe and rotates around its axis. In medieval times, the statement is shocking and risky. But later, found confirmation.

During the reign of Sigismund II Augustus (1548-1572). Poland blossomed and turned into one of the powerful powers in Europe. Hometown He turned Krakow into a center of culture. Poetry, science, architecture, and art were revived there. It was there that the Reformation began. On November 28, 1561, an agreement was signed, according to which Livonia was under the protection of the Polish-Lithuanian country. Russian feudal lords received the same rights as Catholic Poles. In 1564 allowed the Jesuits to carry out their activities. In 1569, the so-called Union of Lublin was signed, after which Poland and Lithuania were united into one state of the Commonwealth. This marked the beginning of a new era. The king is one person for two states and he was elected by the ruling aristocracy, laws were adopted by parliament, a single currency was introduced. For a long time, the Commonwealth territorially became one of the largest countries, second only to Russia. This was the first step towards gentry democracy. The legal and economic system was strengthened. The safety of citizens was ensured. The gentry received green light in all their undertakings, as long as they benefit the state. For a long time, this state of affairs suited everyone, both the population and the monarchs.

Sigismund Augustus died without an heir, which led to the fact that kings began to be elected. 1573 Heinrich of Valois was chosen. His reign lasted a year, but for such a short line he accepted the so-called "free election", according to which the gentry chooses the king. A pact of consent was also adopted - an oath for the king. The king could not even appoint an heir, declare war, increase taxes. All these issues had to be agreed with Parliament. Even the wife of the king was selected by the senate. If the king behaved inappropriately, the people could not obey him. Thus, the king remained only for the title, and the country turned from a monarchy into a parliamentary republic. Having done business, Henry calmly left France, where he sat on the throne after the death of his own brother.

After that, Parliament could not appoint a new monarch for a long time. In 1575, having married a princess from the Jagiellonian family to the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory, they turned him into a ruler (1575-1586). He made a number of good reforms: he fortified himself in Gdansk, Livonia and freed the Baltic states from the attacks of Ivan the Terrible. Received support from the registered Cossacks

(Sigismund August was the first to apply such a term to the fugitive peasants from Ukraine, taking them into military service) in the fight against the Ottoman army. He singled out the Jews, giving them privileges and allowing them to have a parliament within the community. In 1579 opened a university in Vilnius, which became the center of European and Catholic culture. Foreign policy was aimed at strengthening their positions on the part of Muscovy, Sweden and Hungary. Stefan Batory became a monarch who began to return the country to its former glory.

Sigismund III Vasa (1587-1632) received the throne, but did not receive support from either the nobility or the population. They simply didn't like him. Since 1592 the idea of ​​​​fixation for Sigismund was the spread and strengthening of Catholicism. In the same year he was also crowned King of Sweden. He did not exchange Poland for Lutheran Sweden, and because of his non-appearance in the country and not conducting political affairs, he was overthrown from the Swedish throne in 1599. Attempts to regain the throne led Poland into a long and unequal war with such a powerful enemy. The first step towards the transfer of Orthodox subjects to complete submission to the Pope of Rome was the Union of Berestey in 1596. initiated by the king. The Uniate Church got its start - with Orthodox rites, but with submission to the Pope. In 1597 he moved the capital of Poland from the city of the kings of Krakow to the center of the country - Warsaw. Sigismund wanted to return to Poland absolute monarchy, limit all the rights of Parliament, hindered the development of voting. In 1605 ordered that Parliament's veto power be abolished. The reaction was not long in coming. And an uprising of citizens broke out in 1606. The rokosh uprising ended in 1607. July 6th Although Sigismund crushed the uprising, his reforms were never adopted. Sigismund also brought the country into a state of war with Muscovy and Moldova. In 1610 The Polish army occupies Moscow, winning the battle of Klushino. Sigismund puts his son Vladislav on the throne. Although they could not hold the power. The people rebelled and overthrew the Polish ruler. In general, the reign of Sigismund brought the country more harm and destruction than development.

The son of Sigismnd Vladislav IV (1632-1648) became the ruler in a country that had weakened from the war with Muscovy and Turkey. Ukrainian Cossacks attacked her territory. Enraged by the situation in the country, the gentry demanded even more liberties, and also refused to pay income tax. The situation in the country was bleak.

The situation did not improve even after the leadership of Jan Casimir (1648-1668). The Cossacks continued to torment the territory. The Swedes did not refuse such pleasure either. In 1655 swedish king named Charles X conquered the cities of Krakow and Warsaw. Cities passed from one army to another several times, the result was their total devastation and death of the population. Poland was tormented by constant battles, the king fled to Silesia. In 1657 Poland lost Prussia. In 1660 the long-awaited truce between the rulers of Poland and Sweden was signed in Oliva. But Poland continued the exhausting war with Muscovy, which led to the loss of Kyiv and the eastern banks of the Dnieper in 1667. uprisings rose up inside the country, the magnates, guided only by their own interests, destroyed the state. In 1652 it got to the point that the so-called "liberium veto" was used in personal interests. Any deputy could, with his vote, reject a law he did not like. Chaos began in the country, and Jan Casimir could not stand it and abdicated in 1668.

Mikhail Vyshnevetsky (1669-1673) also failed to improve life in the country, and also lost Podolia, giving it to the Turks.

After such a reign, Jan III Sobieski (1674-1696) ascended the throne. He began to return territories that had been lost during numerous hostilities. In 1674 with the Cossacks went on a campaign to liberate Podolia. In August 1675 defeated a large Turkish-Tatar army near the city of Lvov. France, as protector of Poland, in 1676 insisted on a peace treaty between Poland and Turkey. In October of that year, the so-called Zhuravinsky Peace was signed, after which Turkey gave 2/3 of the territory belonging to Ukraine to Poland, and the remaining territory was placed at the disposal of the Cossacks. February 2, 1676 Sobieski was crowned and given the name Jan III. Despite the support of the French, Jan Sobieski wanted to get rid of Turkish oppression and on March 31, 1683, he made an alliance with Austria. This event led to the offensive of the troops of Sultan Mehmed IV to Austria. The army of Kara-Mustafa Keprulu captured Vienna. On September 12 of the same year, Jan Sobieski with his army and the army of the Austrians near Vienna defeated the enemy troops, stopping the Ottoman Empire from advancing into Europe. But the impending threat from the Turks forced Jan Sobieski in 1686. sign an agreement called "Eternal Peace" with Russia. Russia received at its disposal the Left-bank Ukraine and joined the coalition against Ottoman Empire. Domestic politics aimed at restoring hereditary power was not successful. And the act of the queen, who offered to take various government positions for money, completely shook the power of the ruler.

For the next 70 years, the Polish throne was occupied by various foreigners. Ruler of Saxony - August II (1697-1704, 1709-1733). He enlisted the support of the Moscow prince Peter I. He managed to return Podolia and Volhynia. In 1699 concluded the so-called Charles Peace with the ruler of the Ottoman Empire. He fought, but without result, with the Kingdom of Sweden. And in 1704. left the throne at the insistence of Charles XII, who gave power to Stanislav Leshchinsky.

Decisive for Augustus was the battle near Poltava in 1709, in which Peter I defeated the Swedish troops, and he returned to the throne again. 1721 brought the final victory of Poland and Russia over Sweden, the Northern War ended. This did not bring positive for Poland, because it lost its independence. In doing so, she became part of Russian Empire.

His son August III (1734-1763) became a puppet in the hands of Rossi. The local population, under the leadership of Prince Czartoryski, wanted to cancel the so-called "liberium veto" and restore Poland to its former greatness. But the coalition led by the Pototskys prevented this in every possible way. And 1764. Catherine II helped Stanislav August Poniatkovsky (1764-1795) ascend the throne. He was destined to be last king Poland. He made a number of progressive changes in the monetary and legislative system, replaced the cavalry with infantry in the army and introduced new types of weapons. Wanted to override the liberium veto. In 1765 introduced such an award as the Order of St. Stanislaus. The gentry dissatisfied with such changes in 1767-1678. The Repninsky Diet was held, at which it was decided that all freedoms and privileges are reserved for the gentry, as well as Orthodox citizens and Protestants have the same state rights as Catholics. The conservatives did not miss the chance to create their own union, called the Bar Conference. Such events ignited a civil war, and the interference in its course by neighboring countries became undeniable.

The result of this situation was the first division of the Commonwealth, which took place on July 25 in 1772. Austria took the territory of Lesser Poland. Russia - captured Livonia, the Belarusian cities of Polotsk, Vitebsk and some part of the Minsk province. Prussia received the so-called Greater Poland and Gdansk. The Commonwealth ceased to exist. In 1773 destroyed the Jesuit order. All internal affairs were handled by the ambassador, who sat in the capital Warsaw, and throughout Poland from 1780. permanent troops were stationed from Russia.

May 3, 1791 the winners created a code of laws - the constitution of Poland. Poland was turning into a hereditary monarchy. All executive power belonged to the ministers and the parliament. They are elected every 2 years. "Liberium veto" the constitution cancels. Judicial and administrative autonomy was given to cities. organized regular army. The first prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom were adopted. The history of Poland has received worldwide recognition, because the constitution was the first written constitution in Europe, and the second in the whole world.

Such reforms did not suit the magnates who created the Targowice Confederation. They asked for even more support from the side of the Russian and Prussian troops, the result of such assistance was the subsequent division of the state. January 23, 1793 became the day next section. Territories were attached to Prussia, such as the city of Gdansk, Torun, the territories of Greater Poland, Mazovia. The Russian Empire took a huge part of the territories belonging to Lithuania and Belarus, Volhynia and Podolia. Poland was torn apart and ceased to be considered a state.

Such a turn in the history of Poland could not do without protests and uprisings. March 12, 1794 Tadeusz Kosciuszko became the leader of the mass popular uprising against usurpers. The motto of which was the revival of Polish independence and the return of lost lands. On this day, the Polish soldiers went to Krakow. And on March 24, the city was liberated. On April 4, the peasants near Racławice defeated the tsarist troops. On April 17-18, Warsaw was liberated. This was done by artisans under the leadership of J. Kilinky. On April 22-23, the same detachment also liberated Vilna. The taste of victories led the rebels to demand decisive action and the continuation of the revolution. On May 7, Kosciuszko created the Polaniec station wagon, but the peasants did not like it. A series of defeats in battles, troops from Austria and the offensive of Russian troops on August 11 under the leadership of the famous general A.V. Suvorov forced the rebels to leave Vilna and other cities. On November 6, Warsaw surrendered. The end of November became sad, the tsarist troops crushed the uprising.

In 1795 the so-called third partition of Poland took place. Poland has been erased from the world map.

The subsequent history of Poland was no less heroic, but also sad. The Poles did not want to put up with the absence of their country, did not give up trying to restore Poland to its former power. They acted independently with uprisings, or were part of the troops of countries that fought against the invaders. In 1807 when, during the defeat of Napoleon's Prussia, the Polish troops played an important role in this victory. Napoleon gained power over the occupied territories of Poland during the 2nd partition and created there the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1807-1815). In 1809 he added to this principality the lands lost after the 3rd partition. Such a small Poland pleased the Poles and gave hope for complete liberation.

In 1815 when, Napoleon received a rout, the so-called Congress of Vienna and there have been territorial changes. Krakow became autonomous with a protectorate (1815-1848). The joy of the people, what has become, the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw has lost its western lands taken over by Prussia. She turned them into her own Principality of Poznań (1815-1846); the eastern part of the country received the status of a monarchy - under the name "Kingdom of Poland", went to Russia.

November 1830. There was an unsuccessful uprising of the Polish population against the Russian Empire. The same fate awaited the opponents of power in 1846 and 1848. In 1863 the January uprising broke out, which for two years did not succeed. There was an active Russification of the Poles. In 1905-1917. Poles took part in 4 Dumas of Russia, while actively seeking national autonomy Poland.

In 1914 the world was drowned in the fires and devastation of the First World War. Poland received, as well as the hope of gaining independence, because the ruling countries fought among themselves, and many problems. The Poles had to fight for the country that owned the territory; Poland became a springboard for hostilities; The war exacerbated an already tense situation. The society was divided into two camps. Roman Dmovsky (1864-1939) and his comrades-in-arms believed that Germany created all the problems, and fiercely supported cooperation with the Entente. They wanted to unite all once Polish lands into autonomy under the protection of Russia. Representatives of the Polish Socialist Party acted more radically, their main desire was to defeat Russia. Liberation from Russian oppression was the main condition for independence. The party insisted on the creation of independent armed forces. Jozef Pilsudski created and led the garrisons of the people's army and took the side of Austria-Hungary in the battle.

The Russian ruler Nicholas I, in his declaration of 1914 of August 14, promised to accept the autonomy of Poland with all its lands under the protection of the Russian Empire. Germany and Austria-Hungary, in turn, two years later, on November 5, announced a manifesto, which stated that the Kingdom of Poland would be created on the territories belonging to Russia. In the month of August 1917. In France, they created the so-called Polish National Committee, whose leaders were Roman Dmowski and Ignacy Paderewski. Józef Haller was called to become commander-in-chief of the army. The history of Poland received an impetus for development on January 8, 1918. Wilson, President of the United States, insisted on the restoration of Poland. He called for Poland to regain its positions and become independent country with open access to the Baltic Sea. In early June, she was recognized as a supporter of the Entente. October 6, 1918 taking advantage of the confusion in government structures, the Polish Regency Council made a declaration of independence. November 11, 1918 power passed to Marshal Pilsudski. The country received the long-awaited freedom, but faced certain difficulties: the lack of borders, the national currency, state structures, the devastation and fatigue of the people. But the desire to develop gave an unrealistic impetus to action. And January 17, 1919. at the fateful Versailles Conference, the territorial boundaries of Poland were determined: Pomerania was attached to its territory, access to the sea was opened, Gdansk received the status of a free city. July 28, 1920 the large city of Cieszyn and its suburbs were divided between two countries: Poland and Czechoslovakia. February 10, 1920 joined Vilna.

On April 21, 1920, Pilsudski teamed up with the Ukrainian Petliura and dragged Poland into the war with the Bolsheviks. The result was the offensive of the Bolshevik army on Warsaw, but they were defeated.

Poland's foreign policy was directed towards a policy of not joining any country or union. January 25, 1932 signed a bilateral non-aggression pact with the USSR. January 26, 1934 a similar pact was signed with Germany. This idyll did not last long. Germany demanded that the city, which was free - Gdansk, be given to their location and that they be given the opportunity to build highways and railway across the Polish border.

April 28, 1939 Germany broke the non-aggression pact, and on August 25 a German battleship landed on the territory of Gdansk. Hitler explained his actions by the salvation of the German people, who are under the yoke of the Polish authorities. They also staged a brutal provocation. August 31 dressed up in Polish uniform German soldiers burst into the studio of the radio station in the city of Gleiwitz, accompanied by shots, read the Polish text, which called for war with Germany. This message was broadcast on all radio stations in Germany. And September 1, 1939. at 0445, armed German troops began shelling Polish buildings, aircraft destroyed everything from the air, and the infantry sent their forces to Warsaw. Germany began its "blitzkrieg". 62 infantry divisions, 2 air navies were to quickly break through and destroy the defenses of Poland. The Polish command also had a secret plan called "West" in case of a military conflict. Following this plan, the army was supposed to prevent the enemy from reaching vital areas, conduct active mobilization and receive support from Western countries, go on the counteroffensive. The Polish army was significantly inferior to the German one. 4 days was enough for the Germans to go 100 km inland. For a week, cities such as Krakow, Kielce and Lodz were occupied. On the night of September 11, German tanks entered the suburbs of Warsaw. On September 16, the cities were captured: Bialystok, Brest-Litovsk, Pshemishl, Sambir and Lvov. Polish troops, with the support of the population, waged a partisan war. On September 9, the Poznan garrison defeated the enemy over Bzura, and the Hel Peninsula did not surrender until October 20. Following the Molotov-Ribentrop Pact on September 17, 1939. like clockwork, the powerful Red Army entered the territory of western Ukraine and Belarus. On September 22, she entered Lvov without difficulty.

On September 28, Ribentrop signed an agreement in Moscow, according to which the border between Germany and the USSR was designated by the Curzon line. During the 36 days of the war, Poland was divided for the fourth time, between two totalitarian states.

The war brought a lot of grief and destruction to the country. Everyone suffered, despite their former power or wealth. The Jews suffered the most in this war. Poland is no exception in this regard. The Holocaust on its territory assumed a terrifying character. There were justified concentration camps for prisoners. They were not just killed there, they were mocked and escorted incredible experiences. Auschwitz is considered to be the largest death camp, but there were many smaller ones scattered around the country, and sometimes several in each city. People were scared and doomed.

On April 19, 1943, the inhabitants of the Warsaw ghetto could not stand it and on the night of Jewish Passover they began an uprising. From 400 yew. Only 50-70 thousand Jews remained alive in the ghetto at that time. of people. When the police entered the ghetto for a new batch of victims, the Jews opened fire on them. Methodically, in the weeks that followed, the SS corrals exterminated the inhabitants. The ghetto was set on fire and razed to the ground. In May, the Great Synagogue was blown up. The Germans declared the end of the uprising on May 16, 1943, although the outbreak of fighting continued until June 1943.

Another large-scale uprising took place on August 1, 1944. in Warsaw, as part of Operation Tempest. The main purpose of the uprising was to oust from the city german army, and showing independence to the Soviet authorities. The beginning was rosy, the army was able to take control of most of the city. Soviet army by virtue of different reasons stopped her advance. September 14, 1944 The first Polish army strengthened its positions on the eastern bank of the Vistula and helped the rebels to move to the western bank. The attempt was not successful and only 1200 people were able to do it. Winston Churchill demanded radical action from Stalin to help the uprising, but this did not succeed, and the Royal Air Force made 200 sorties and dropped aid and military ammunition directly from the board. But even this could not turn the Warsaw uprising into a successful one, and it was soon brutally suppressed. The number of victims is not known for certain, but they say that there were 16,000 killed and 6,000 wounded, and this was only during the fighting. In the operations carried out by the Germans to clean up the rebels, about 150-200,000 civilians died. 85% of the entire city was destroyed.

For another year, the history of Poland experienced murder and destruction, and for a year there were constant battles and hostilities. The Polish army took part in all the battles against the Nazis. She was a member of various missions.

January 17, 1945 the capital was liberated from the Nazis. Germany announced its surrender.

The first Polish army was the second largest after the Soviet one, which took part in the war, and in particular in the storming of Berlin.

May 2, 1945 During the battles for Berlin, Polish troops planted a white and red flag of victory on the Prussian Victory Column and on the Brandenburg Gate. On this day modern history Poland celebrates National Flag Day.

February 4-11, 1945 on the so-called Yalta Conference, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to attach the territories of Poland, which are located in the east, to the USSR. Poland compensates for the lost territories by receiving once German lands.

On July 5, 1945, the Polish government of Lublin was temporarily recognized as legitimate. Non-communists could also apply for a place in management. In August, a decision was made to annex to Poland the territories that belonged to eastern parts Prussia and Germany. 15% of the 10 billion reparations paid by Germany were to go to Poland. Post-war Poland became communist. The regular troops of the Red Army opened the hunt for members of various party forces. Boleslav Bieruta, a communist representative, became president. An active process of Stalinization began. In September 19948 general secretary Władysław Gomułka was removed from office due to his nationalistic biases. In the process of merging the two - the Polish Workers' Party and the Polish Socialist Party - in 1948, a new Polish United Workers' Party appeared. In 1949, the so-called United Peasant Party was approved. Poland received membership in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance of the USSR. June 7, 1950 signed an agreement between the GDR and Poland, beyond which the border of Poland in the west is located along the Oder-Neisse - the distribution line. In order to create a military coalition against the main enemy of the USSR - NATO, in 1955. the Warsaw Pact was signed. The coalition included such countries as: the USSR, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and for some time Albania.

Dissatisfaction with Stalin's policies led to mass riots in 1956. in Poznan. 50ths. people, workers and students, opposed the prevailing Soviet oppression. In October of this year, the nationalist Gomulka became the general secretary of the PZPR. He reveals all the abuses of power within the Communist Party, reveals the truth about Stalin and his policies. Removes from the post of Chairman of the Seim, also Rokossovsky and many other officers from the Union. By his actions he won some neutrality from the USSR. The lands were returned to the peasants, freedom of speech appeared, trade and industry gave the green light to all undertakings, workers could interfere in the management of enterprises, warm relations with the church were restored, and the production of missing goods was adjusted. The United States gave its economic assistance.

In the 1960s, the restored Soviet power canceled almost all of Gomulk's reforms. The pressure on the country increased again: peasant associations, censorship and anti-religious policies returned.

In 1967, the famous Rolling Stones gave a concert in the Palace of Culture in Warsaw.

And in March 1968. student anti-Soviet demonstrations swept across the country. The result of which were arrests and emigration. In the same year, the country's leadership refused to support the reforms of the so-called "Prague Spring". In August, under pressure from the USSR, Polish troops took part in the occupation of Czechoslovakia.

December 1970 was marked by mass demonstrations in the cities of Gdansk, Gdynia and Szczecin. People opposed the increase in prices for various goods, and mainly for products. It all ended sadly. About 70 workers were killed and about 1,000 were injured. Constant persecution and persecution of the “dissatisfied” led to the creation in 1798 of Committee of Public Protection, which was the first step to create an opposition.

October 16, 1978 the new Pope is not an Italian, but the Bishop of Krakow - Karol Wojtyla (John Paul II). He directs his works to bring the church closer to the people.

In July 1980, food prices skyrocketed again. A wave of strikes swept the country. The working class protested in Gdansk, Gdynia, Szczecin. This movement was also supported by miners in Silesia. The strikers united in committees and soon they developed 22 demands. They were economic and political in nature. People demanded lower prices, higher wages, the creation of trade unions, reduced levels of censorship, the right to rallies and strikes. The management accepted almost all requirements. This led to the fact that the workers began to en masse join trade union associations independent of the state, which soon turned into the Solidarity federation. Lech Walesa became its leader. The main requirement of the workers was the permission to manage the enterprises themselves, appoint management and select personnel. In September, Solidarity called on workers across Eastern Europe to form free trade unions. In December, the workers demanded a referendum to decide on the power of the Soviet Communist Party in Poland. Such a statement had an immediate reaction.

On December 13, 1981, Jaruzelski declared martial law in the country and arrested all the leaders of Solidarity. Strikes broke out, which were quickly suppressed.

In 1982 unions were established under the leadership of the country.

In July 1983 Pope John Paul II arrived in the country, which led to the abolition of the protracted martial law. Pressure from the international community granted an amnesty to the prisoners in 1984.

During 1980-1987. The economic situation in Poland worsened. The workers were also starving in the summer of 1988. strikes began in factories and mines. The government called for the help of the leader of the "Solidarity" Lech Walesa. These negotiations received the symbolic name of the Round Table. They decided to hold free elections, the legalization of "Solidarity".

June 4, 1989 elections were held. "Solidarity" pulled ahead, overtaking the Communist Party, and took all the leading positions in the government. Tadeusz Mazowiecki became the prime minister of the country. A year later, Lech Walesa became president. His leadership lasted one term.

In 1991 ended officially cold war. The Warsaw Pact was terminated. Early 1992 pleased with the active growth of GNP, new market institutions were created. Poland started an active economic development. In 1993 opposition was formed - the Union of Democratic Left Forces.

In the next elections, Aleksander Kwasniewski, head of the Social Democratic Party, ascended to the presidency. His government did not start easily. Members of Parliament demanded an active policy of dismissing traitors to the country and those who had long collaborated or worked for the union, and after Russia. They put forward a law on lustration, but it did not pass by the number of votes. And in October 1998, Kwasniewski signed this law. Everyone who was in power had to frankly confess their ties with Russia. They were not fired from their positions, but this knowledge became public knowledge. If suddenly someone did not confess, and such evidence was found, then the official was forbidden to hold office for 10 years.

In 1999 Poland has become an active member of the NATO alliance. In 2004 entered the European Union.

Elections 2005 brought victory to Lech Kachinsky.

In November 2007, Donald Tusk was elected Prime Minister. This government structure managed to maintain a stable political and economic situation. And even during the crisis of 2008. Poles did not feel big problems. They chose neutrality in foreign policy leadership and avoided conflicts with both the EU and Russia.

April 2010 plane crash took the lives of the president and representatives of the colors of Polish society. It was a dark page in the history of Poland. People mourned the just leader, the country plunged into mourning for a long time.

After the tragic incident, it was decided to hold early elections. The first round on June 20 and the second on July 4, 2010. In the second round, Bronisław Komorowski, a representative of the party called Civic Platform, won with 53% of the votes, overtaking L. Kaczynski's brother, Yaroslav Kaczynski.

Party "Civil Platform" October 9, 2011 won the parliamentary elections. The parties also came to power: "Law and Justice" J. Kaczynski, "Movement of Palikot" J. Palikot, PSL - Polish peasant party leader W. Pawlak and the Union of Left Democratic Forces. The ruling Civic Platform party, along with the budding PSL, formed a coalition. Donald Tusk was again chosen as prime minister.

In 2004 he was elected President of the European Council.

The history of Poland has come a long and very difficult road to becoming an independent state. Today it is one of the developed and strong countries European Union. removed fields, quality roads, good salaries and prices, handicrafts, modern education, assistance to the disabled and the needy, developed industry, economy, courts and governing bodies, and most importantly the people who are so proud of their country and would not change it for anything in the world - make Poland that country which we know, appreciate and respect. Poland proved by its own example that even from a completely destroyed, fragmented state, it is possible to build a new competitive country.

In Locarno, an international conference (until October 1) is discussing the possibility of concluding a security treaty and restoring the balance of German and French interests by concluding the following treaties: (a) guaranteeing the inviolability of the Franco-German and Belgian-German frontiers; (b) Germany with France, Belgium, Czechoslovakia and Poland; (c) mutual assistance between France, Czechoslovakia and Poland. Great Britain acts as a guarantor of the stability of the Franco-Belgian-German border, but does not fulfill this role on the eastern borders of Germany. An agreement was signed between the governments of the USSR and Poland (emigrant in London) on the restoration of diplomatic relations, mutual assistance in the war against Germany and on the formation of a Polish army on the territory of the USSR. A decision was made to form the Anders Army on the territory of the USSR and with the assistance of the Polish government in London. However, due to the lack of officer personnel - constant requests to the Soviet leadership about the fate of the Polish officers arrested in 1939, as a result, the Anders Army was decided to be evacuated from the USSR - by the spring of 1942. The evacuation went through Northern Iran, controlled by the USSR.

Notes:

* To compare the events that took place in Russia and in Western Europe, in all chronological tables, starting from 1582 (the year of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in eight European countries) and ending with 1918 (the year of the transition of Soviet Russia from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar), the DATE column indicates date according to the Gregorian calendar only , and the Julian date is shown in brackets along with a description of the event. In chronological tables describing the periods before the introduction of a new style by Pope Gregory XIII, (in the column DATES) dates are in the Julian calendar only . At the same time, the translation into the Gregorian calendar is not done, because it did not exist.

Applications:

Correspondence of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR with the Presidents of the United States and the Prime Ministers of Great Britain during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. M., 1958. Personally and secretly for Marshal Stalin from President Roosevelt . Received December 20, 1944. Personally and secretly from Prime Minister I.V. Stalin to President Mr. F. Roosevelt . December 27, 1944.

Cards:

Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Poland from 1918 to 2001(biographical guide).

Vitos (Witos) Vincenty (January 22, 1874, Wiezkhoslavitsy, Krakow Voivodeship, - October 31, 1945, Krakow), Polish politician. One of the founders and leaders of the peasant party "Piast" (1913-1931). In July 1920 - September 1921, May - December 1923 and from May 10 to May 15, 1926 - Prime Minister. He actively participated in the opposition to the "sanation" regime in the block of parties "Centrolev", for which he was imprisoned (1930). In 1931-35 he was the chairman of the Main Council of the Peasants' Party "Stronnitstvo Ludov", and since 1935 the chairman of the party. In the autumn of 1939 he was arrested by the Nazi invaders; after a year of imprisonment until the defeat of the fascist invaders, he was under police supervision. In June 1945 he was co-opted as a deputy chairman to the Craiova Rada of the People.

Voitsekhovsky(Wojciechowski) Stanisław (March 15, 1869, Kalisz, - April 9, 1953, Gołombki, near Warsaw), statesman and politician of Poland. He took part in the founding of the Polish Socialist Party (1892). In 1919-20 Minister of the Interior, in 1922-26 President of Poland. Author of works on the cooperative movement: "The Cooperative Movement in England" (1907) and "Cooperation in its Historical Development" (1923).

Snesarev Andrey Evgenievich(1865-1937), Soviet military commander.

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Socialist camp, a term that, after the Second World War 1939-1945. in the USSR, states were designated that followed the path of building socialism. It included the USSR and the states of Eastern Europe, in which the Communists established themselves in power, China after the end of the civil war (1949), then North Korea and North Vietnam. The confrontation between the two camps (socialism and capitalism) was seen as the most important feature of world development. Socialist camp The term "socialist camp" gradually fell into disuse, especially after the deterioration of Soviet-Chinese and Soviet-Albanian relations. It was replaced by the terms "socialist commonwealth", "world socialist system". The socialist countries included Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, East Germany, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia.

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As a result of the Second World War, Poland lost almost 40% national treasure and more than 6 million people. From the late 1940s to the late 1980s, the Polish economy was organized according to the Soviet model, characterized by central planning and state property to the means of production. Economic growth in the first years after the Second World War, despite the significant depletion of resources, took place at an accelerated pace. The government limited individual consumption in order to maintain a high level of capital investment. Unlike the Soviet Union and other countries of Eastern Europe, there was no general collectivization in Poland. Agriculture was the main source of livelihood for 35% of the population. Gradually, the importance of the manufacturing and extractive industries increased, and in the late 1970s, these industries accounted for half of the country's national income and a third of all jobs. The position of Poland after World War II

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Political figures August Zaleski. He served as President of Poland from June 7, 1947 to April 7, 1972. He was proclaimed president-in-exile. When 7 years of rule came to an end, Zaleski extended his powers indefinitely. Because of this, many politicians in Poland stopped their contacts with him. Shortly before his death, Zalesky appointed Stanislav Ostrovsky as his successor. Stanislav Ostrovsky - President of Poland in exile. He served at the post from April 8, 1972 to April 8, 1979. After his term ended, he appointed Edward Rachinsky as his successor. Edward Rachinsky served as president for 7 years from April 8, 1972 to April 8, 1979.

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Crisis in Poland in the 1980s In the 1980s, the government loosened control over the activities of enterprises. At the same time, enterprises continued to insist on state subsidies and other forms of support. The authorities, unable to finance higher levels of spending through tax revenues, were forced to resort to emission. As a result, the government of T. Mazowiecki, which came to power in September 1989, faced a huge budget deficit and rapidly growing inflation. In the 80s of the 20th century, the country of Eastern Europe including Poland experienced an economic crisis. The Polish government has begun to take action Minister of Economy L. Balcerowicz has developed a strategy economic reforms, consisting of two stages. During the first phase, implemented in the fall of 1989, the government took control of the budget and corrected some price imbalances, created an unemployment benefit system, and developed the legal basis for bankruptcy proceedings. The second phase began on January 1, 1990 and included a sharp reduction in the budget deficit

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Revolutions in Poland In 1980, the NDP was seized by a new, longest and most acute political crisis. In the summer, a wave of strikes swept the country, workers in port cities moved to create \"free \", trade unions. The Independent Trade Union \"Solidarity \", headed by an electrician, became the most massive LVA-Lance. Cells \"Solidarity \" began to form throughout the country. Already in the fall of 1980, the number of its members exceeded 9 million people. PUWP regime. Another change in the party leadership did not stabilize the situation in the country. Soviet leadership, frightened by the prospect of democratic forces coming to power in Poland, threatened military intervention in Polish affairs according to the Czechoslovak scenario of 1968. On December 13, 1981, martial law was introduced in Poland: the activities of all opposition organizations were banned