Mineral industrial and thermal waters. Thermal waters

Mineral waters, common in our country, are very diverse in quality. The close connection that exists between the chemical composition of water, the composition of rocks and hydrological conditions allows us to divide them into three large groups. Most often there are waters of the third group: saline highly mineralized waters. Mineral waters of therapeutic value have a moderate mineralization within the limits of drinking water concentrations. Mineral bath waters have increased mineralization up to 120-150 g/kg.

The main mass of therapeutic mineral waters is confined to artesian and adartesian pools. In the upper floor of these structures in areas of land in a humid climate, waters are widely developed without "specific" components of sulfate and chloride composition, less often ferruginous, radon, hydrogen sulfide and sometimes "naftusya" type with a high content of organic substances. In areas with an arid climate (Caspian lowland, etc.), in the upper level of these structures, mainly saline chloride-sulfate waters are developed without "specific" components.

In the lower level of artesian and adartesian basins with halogen formations, bromine, in places iodine, hydrogen sulfide, and radon waters are ubiquitous.

In hydrogeological massifs and admassifs in areas not covered by activation (with a relatively weakly dissected relief), radon and ferruginous mineral healing waters are widespread. In the activated areas, these structures also contain siliceous waters, locally radon and hydrogen sulfide, less often bromine and iodine.

In the areas of young and modern different types structures are formed carbonic medicinal waters of various ion-salt composition and mineralization. Among them are ferrous, arsenic, bromine, iodine, hydrogen sulfide, boric and other varieties.
Potential resources of therapeutic mineral waters in Russia are very large. Within the artesian basins of the platforms (East European and others), mineral waters without “specific” components are widespread: bromine, iodine, as well as hydrogen sulfide, siliceous, etc. The modules of potential resources range from 1 to 50 m3/day-km2. In these regions, the flow rates of wells with mineral waters often reach 500-600 m3 / day, which meets the needs of health resorts.

The total potential resources of carbon dioxide waters are 148 thousand m3/day, of which the third part (50 thousand m3/day) is located in Caucasus region. Potential resources of nitrogen therms - 517 thousand m3/day - are mainly concentrated in the Kuril-Kamchatka folded region.

Industrial mineral waters are mainly distributed in artesian (and Adartesian) basins, where they are represented by bromine, iodine, iodine-bromine, boron and polycomponent (K, Sr, Li, Rb, Cs) liquid ores.

Significant resources of iodine waters are confined to the saline water zone in many artesian basins. They are especially large in the basins of the West Siberian Plate (1450 thousand m3/day).
Bromine or iodine-bromine industrial waters are almost universally associated with brines with a mineralization of up to 140 g/kg. Polycomponent industrial waters with very high concentrations of bromine, potassium, strontium, often rare alkaline elements, and sometimes heavy metals (copper, zinc, lead, etc.) .). Such brines are especially widespread in basins, in the structure of which thick strata of halogen formations participate. These include the basins of the Siberian (Angaro-Lena and Tunguska) and Russian platforms (Ural, Caspian).

Industrial- water containing certain components in concentrations that allow them to be extracted for industrial purposes. They occur at depths of more than 500 m and occupy small areas. They are characterized by iodine, bromine, boron, lithium, germanium, copper, zinc, aluminum and tungsten.

mineral- water, have a beneficial effect physiological influence on the human body due to general mineralization, ionic composition, gas content and active components. Their mineralization exceeds 1 g/l (brackish - up to 10 g/l, saline - 10-35 g/l, brines - over 35 g/l). There are medicinal waters with mineralization up to 1 g/l with a high content of specific biologically active components. Mineral waters are divided into cold (up to 20C), warm (20-37C), thermal (37-42C), hot (over 42C). They are also divided into ferrous, arsenic, hydrogen sulfide, carbonic, radon, iodine, bromine. The provinces of carbonic waters are confined to the regions of Alpine folding (Caucasus, Pamir, Kamchatka, etc.), chloride ones - to the deep parts of large artesian basins.

2.8 Physical properties and chemical composition groundwater

The simplest formula H 2 O has a molecule of vaporous moisture - hydrol; a water molecule in the liquid state (H 2 O) 2 dihydrol; in the solid state (H 2 O) 3 -trihydrol.

The study of the physical properties and chemical composition of groundwater is necessary to assess their quality for drinking and industrial and economic purposes, to determine the nutritional conditions, origin, and when choosing a material for fixing mine workings and selecting mine equipment.

The main physical properties of groundwater are temperature, transparency, color, smell, density, radioactivity.

Groundwater temperature varies widely: in permafrost areas it is up to -6C, in areas of volcanic activity - more than 100C.

By temperature, water is divided into very cold - up to + 4C; cold - 4-20C; warm - 20-37C; hot -37-42C; very hot - 42-100C. Water temperature greatly affects the rate of physical and chemical processes.

The temperature of shallow underground waters is +5 - +15С, of deeply submerged waters of artesian basins - +40- +50С; at a depth of 3-4 km, waters with a temperature of more than 150C were revealed.

The transparency of water depends on the presence of mineral salts, mechanical impurities, colloids and organic substances. Groundwater is transparent if the 30 cm layer does not contain suspended particles.

The color of water depends on the chemical composition and the presence of impurities. Groundwater is usually colorless. Hard waters have a bluish tint, iron oxide salts and hydrogen sulfide give the water a greenish-blue color, organic humic acids color the water yellow, and waters containing manganese compounds are black.

There is no smell of groundwater. A specific smell may be due to the presence of hydrogen sulfide compounds, humic acids, organic compounds formed during the decomposition of animal and plant residues. To determine the smell, the water is heated to 50-60C.

The taste of water depends on the presence of dissolved minerals, gases and impurities in it. Sodium chloride gives water a salty taste, sulfate salts of sodium and magnesium - bitter, nitrogenous compounds - sweetish, and free carbonic acid - refreshing. When determining the taste, the water is heated to 30C.

The density of water is determined by the salts, gases, suspensions and temperature dissolved in it.

Radioactivity is due to the presence of natural radioactive elements: uranium, radon, radium, their decay products - helium, their formation is determined by geological, hydrogeological and geochemical factors.

Due to the presence of three hydrogen isotopes - 1 H (protium), D (deuterium), T (tritium) and six oxygen isotopes 14 O, 15 O, 16 O, 17 O, 18 O, 19 O, there are 36 isotopic varieties of water, of which only nine are stable.

The D 2 O compound is called heavy water, the content of which in nature is 0.02.

The study of the composition and properties of groundwater is carried out at all stages of exploration, as well as in the process of opening and exploitation of deposits.

The study of the composition of groundwater pursues the main goals:

Finding out their suitability for domestic and drinking and technical water supply;

Assessment of the possible harmful effects of water on the concrete and metal structures of mines and mining equipment.

The chemical composition of groundwater also makes it possible to judge the features of the formation and nutrition of groundwater, the relationship of aquifers.

The chemical composition of groundwater is determined by the amount and ratio of the ions contained in them (water mineralization), hardness, the amount and composition of gases dissolved and undissolved in water, the reaction of water (pH), aggressiveness, etc.

The main chemical components of groundwater are cations - Na +, K +, Ca 2+, Mg 2+, anions - HCO 3 -, Cl -, SO 4 2-, microcomponents - Fe 2+, Fe 3+, Al 3+, Mn 2+, Cu 2+, Zn 2+, Br, I, N, gases - N 2, O 2, CO 2, CH 4, H 2, complex organic compounds - phenols, bitumen, humus, hydrocarbons, organic acids.

The chemical composition of groundwater is expressed in ionic form in mg/l and g/l.

The main sources of these components are rocks, atmospheric gases, surface waters and geochemical conditions that have developed within the distribution area.

In terms of mineralization, groundwater can be fresh, with mineralization up to 1 g/l, slightly brackish - 1-3 g/l: saline - 3-10 g/l, very saline - 10-50 g/l and brines - more than 50 g/l l.

Water hardness (H) is a property of water due to the presence of calcium and magnesium salts in it. Hardness is expressed in mg. equiv/l. There are general, temporary and permanent stiffness.

General hardness is estimated by the content of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ salts in the form of Ca (HCO 3) 2, Mg (HCO 3) 2, CaSO 4, MgSO 4, CaCl 2, MgCl 2 and is calculated by summing these ions in mg. equiv/l.

where the values ​​of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ are given in mg/l;

20.04 and 12.16 are the equivalent masses of calcium ion and magnesium ion.

Temporary stiffness due to bicarbonate and carbonate salts of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+: (Ca (HCO 3) 2, Mg (HCO 3) 2, CaCO 3 and MgCO 3).

Temporary hardness:

, (2.6)

where the value of HCO 3 - is taken in mg / l, 61.018 is its equivalent mass.

Constant hardness is due to chlorides, sulfates and non-carbonate salts of calcium and magnesium. It is defined as the difference between the total and temporary stiffness:

H post. = H total. – N time. (2.7)

Hardness is expressed in mg. equiv./l Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ in 1 mg. equiv./l hardness.

Natural waters are divided according to the degree of hardness into five groups (mg. Eq. / L): very soft - up to 1.5; soft - 1.5-3; moderately hard - 3.0-6.0; hard - 6.0-9; very hard - 9.0.

Alkalinity due to the presence of alkalis Na + - NaOH, Na 2 CO 3 and NaHCO 3 in water. 1 mg. eq./l alkalinity corresponds to 40 mg/l NaOH; 53 mg/l NaCO 3 and 84.22 mg/l NaHCO 3 .

active reaction water- the degree of its acidity or alkalinity, characterized by the concentration of hydrogen ions pH ( decimal logarithm concentration of hydrogen ions, taken with a positive sign): very acidic - 5; sour - 5-7; neutral - 7; alkaline - 7-9; highly alkaline 9.

Water aggressiveness- the ability to destroy concrete, reinforced concrete and metal structures. Distinguish between sulfate, carbonic, magnesian leaching and general acid types of aggression.

Sulfate aggression is determined by the increased content of the SO 4 2- ion. With an excess of SO 4 2- ion, new compounds crystallize in concrete: gypsum CaSO 4 is formed. 2H 2 O with an increase in volume by 100% and calcium sulfoaluminate (concrete bacillus) with an increase in volume by 2.5 times, which leads to the destruction of concrete. Water is aggressive to concrete when the content of SO 4 2- ion is over 250 mg/l.

Carbon dioxide aggressiveness. When exposed to carbonic acid, CaCO 3 - dissolves and is carried out of concrete. With an excess of CO 2, the transition of CaCO 3 to Ca (HCO 3) 2 is observed, which is easily dissolved and removed from the concrete.

An excess of CO 2 20 mg / l is called aggressive carbon dioxide.

The aggressiveness of leaching occurs due to the dissolution and leaching of CaCO 3 lime from concrete with a deficiency in the water of the HCO 3 - ion. Waters containing less than 30 mg/l of bound carbon dioxide and hardness up to 1.4 mg/l are aggressive.

Magnesian aggressiveness leads to the destruction of concrete with an increased content of Mg 2+. Depending on the type of cement, conditions and construction of the structure, SO 4 2- ion, more than 250 mg/l, the maximum allowable amount of Mg 2+ ions is 750-1000 mg/l.

General acid aggressiveness depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions pH. Water is corrosive at pH 6.5.

2.9 Formation of the chemical composition of underground and mine waters

Groundwater constantly interacts with atmospheric water and rocks. As a result, dissolution and leaching occurs. rocks, especially carbonates, sulfates, halides. If carbon dioxide is present in water, the decomposition of water-insoluble silicates occurs according to the following scheme:

Na 2 Al 2 Si 6 O 16 + 2H 2 O + CO 2 NaCO 3 + H 2 Al 2 Si 2 O 8 (2.8)

As a result, carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium, magnesium, and calcium accumulate in the water. Their distribution is subject to the general hydrochemical zonality. Vertical hydrochemical zonality is determined by the geological conditions for the formation of groundwater associated with the composition, structure and properties of rocks.

Three hydrodynamic zones are distinguished in the vertical section of the earth's crust:

a) upper - the intensity of water exchange, with a thickness of tens to several hundred meters. Here, groundwater is under the influence of modern exogenous factors. By composition - hydrocarbonate calcium low-mineralized waters. Water exchange is calculated in years and centuries (average 330 years);

b) medium - slow water exchange. The depth of the zone is variable (about 3-4 km). The rate of movement of groundwater and their drainage is reduced. The composition of the waters of this zone is influenced by secular changes in exogenous conditions. Waters are sodium, sulfate-sodium or sulfate-sodium-calcium. Water exchange lasts tens and hundreds of thousands of years;

c) lower - very slow water exchange. Exogenous conditions have no effect here. They are usually confined to the deep parts of the depressions. Distributed at depths of more than 1200 m and more. The waters are highly mineralized, the composition is calcium-sodium chloride and chloride-magnesium-sodium. The renewal of groundwater takes millions of years.

Accordingly, hydrodynamic zones are allocated hydrochemical zones. Hydrochemical zone - part of the artesian basin, relatively homogeneous in hydrochemical structure;

d) upper - fresh waters with salinity up to 1 g / l with a capacity of 0.3-0.6 m;

e) intermediate, brackish and saline waters with salinity 1-35 g/l;

f) lower - brines (more than 35 g/l).

The formation of the chemical composition of groundwater in solid mineral deposits is significantly affected by oxidative and reducing conditions, which are formed in the process of mining.

Coal deposits are characterized by two types of natural environment: in the upper parts - oxidizing, in the deep - reducing.

When mining coal, an oxidizing environment is artificially created, into which groundwater enters, and the course of natural chemical processes is disrupted.

In deeper horizons, waters are saturated with more stable compounds (NaCl, Na 2 SO 4), are inactive and resistant to the environment.

As they move along the workings, the content of Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ and SO 4 - increases in the water, hardness and mineralization increase. To a lesser extent increases the content of Na + , Cl - , Al 2 O 3 , SiO 2 , Fe 2 O 3 .

With a decrease in pH, CO 3 2- sometimes disappears and HCO 3 - appears. The content of CO 2 and O 2 varies depending on the situation.

The greatest changes are undergoing groundwater coming in the form of drops, especially in the treatment workings. Acidic waters are formed only on the upper horizons, where groundwater of low salinity and less alkalinity enters. Usually acidic waters form in old abandoned workings.

Acidic waters are good solvents, as a result of which their mineralization rapidly increases as they flow through the workings.

Zone possible education acidic water covers groundwater, where in their composition strong acids prevail over alkalis. The lower boundary coincides with the upper boundary of the methane zone (approximately 150 m deep) and with the upper boundary of the distribution of sodium. The maximum thickness of the zone of possible formation of acidic waters is 350-400 m.

Mine waters are aggressive, in the upper parts they have sulfate, in the lower - the aggressiveness of leaching.

2.10 Groundwater regime- a set of changes over time in the level, head, flow, chemical and gas composition, temperature conditions, groundwater velocity.

Changes in the groundwater regime occur under the influence of natural (climatic and structural) factors and man-made human activities. Especially drastic changes their regimes are observed in mining areas. Drainage from mine workings reduce the pressure of groundwater, and sometimes completely drain aquifers, violating the natural regime of groundwater. Mining or drainage systems increase the water exchange coefficient, resulting surface deformations contribute to an increase in underground runoff; the relationship between aquifers and surface waters is noted.

In some conditions, the amount of pumped mine water can be compensated by the natural inflow of groundwater, in others, an intensive inflow into mine workings leads to the depletion of groundwater resources of a mine field or deposit.

During the exploitation of deep horizons in the appropriate geological conditions, there usually occurs a change in the inflow of mine waters with depth, which does not depend on their resources.

For the conditions of Donbass, the highest water abundance is observed at depths of 150-200 m, below 300-500 m water inflows decrease. With horizontal bedding and confinement of aquifers to porous rocks, the inflows of mine water during flood periods do not exceed 20-25%. The sloping occurrence of rocks contributes to a seasonal increase in flood waters by 50, 100% or more. Especially sharp fluctuations are observed in the presence of karst rocks with an increase in inflow up to 300-400%.

Violations of the natural regime of groundwater occur already at the very beginning of mine construction, during the sinking of shafts.

Many aquifers of carboniferous deposits are opened up to depths of 500-600 m, and when laying deep mines - up to 1000-1200 m. areas (Krasnoarmeisky) up to 70-100 m 3 / hour. Therefore, there are no wide depressions around the mine shafts and insignificant areas fall into the drainage zone.

Further drainage of groundwater occurs during development workings, especially crosscuts that open several aquifers, but inflows do not exceed 10-15 m 3 /hour. Intensive drainage is observed during the clearing works, during the collapse and subsidence of rocks above the mined-out area. Accompanied by the formation of cracks that connect previously isolated aquifers that lie above the developed seams within 30-50 times the thickness of the coal seam.

In the future, collapse cracks are crushed and their water permeability decreases, the inflow into the lava in this area will decrease or completely stop, and groundwater levels are restored to the surface levels of the general mine depression. The depression funnels formed above the stopes are temporary, they migrate over the mining area following the movement of the longwall face.

With a shallow occurrence of a mineral bed, the zone of water-conducting cracks can reach the earth's surface and water inflows into the mine will be formed due to the seepage of atmospheric precipitation over the area of ​​​​cleaning operations.

At the opening of tectonic disturbances, the inflows are 300-400 and more m 3 /hour, sometimes 1000 m 3 /hour.

As a result of work mining aquifers, there are isolated cases of failure of groundwater intakes.

2.11 Origin of groundwater.

1) infiltration groundwater - formed as a result of infiltration into permeable rocks of atmospheric precipitation. Sometimes water flows into aquifers from rivers, lakes and seas. Infiltration can be considered the main source of groundwater replenishment, common in the upper horizons with intensive water exchange.

2) condensation The groundwater. In arid regions, an important role in the formation of aquifers is played by the condensation of air water vapor in the pores and cracks of rocks, which occurs due to the difference in the elasticity of water vapor in atmospheric and soil air. As a result of condensation in deserts, lenses of fresh water are formed above saline groundwater.

3) sedimentogenic groundwater - water of marine origin. They formed simultaneously with the accumulation of precipitation. In the course of subsequent tectonic development, such waters change during diagenesis, tectonic movements, falling into zones of elevated pressures and temperatures. A large role in the formation of sedimentogenic waters is assigned to elision processes (elisio - squeeze). Primary sediments contain up to 80-90% of water, which, when compacted, is squeezed out. The natural moisture content of rocks is 8-10%.

4) juvenile (magmatic) groundwater is formed from vapors released from magma as it cools. Getting into areas of lower temperatures, magma vapor condenses and passes into a drop-liquid state, creating special type groundwater. Such waters have an elevated temperature and contain compounds and gas components unusual for surface conditions in the dissolved state. They are confined to areas of modern volcanic activity. Near the surface, such waters mix with normal groundwater.

5) revived (d dehydration) waters are formed when it is isolated from mineral masses containing crystallization water. Such a process is possible at elevated temperatures and pressures.

test questions

1. Name the main tasks and sections of hydrogeology and engineering geology.

Describe the water cycle in nature.

Name the main types of water in rocks.

What are the main water-physical properties of groundwater.

Describe the types of groundwater according to the conditions of occurrence and their main features.

Name the physical properties of groundwater.

What are the main parameters determined by the chemical composition of groundwater.

Formulate the concept of groundwater regime. How does the regime of mine waters change?

Describe the types of groundwater by origin.

thermal springs or hot waters of the Earth- this is another amazing gift nature to man. thermal springs are an indispensable element global ecosystem our planet.

Briefly define what is thermal springs .

thermal springs

Thermal springs are underground water temperatures above 20°C. Note that it is more "scientific" to say geothermal springs, since in this version the prefix "geo" indicates the source of water heating.

Ecological Encyclopedic Dictionary

Hot springs - sources of thermal waters with a temperature of up to 95-98 ° C. Distributed mainly in mountainous areas; are extreme natural conditions for the spread of life on Earth; they are inhabited by a specific group of thermophilic bacteria.

Ecological encyclopedic dictionary. - Chisinau: Main edition of the Moldavian Soviet Encyclopedia. I.I. Grandpa. 1989

Technical Translator's Handbook

thermal springs
Sources with a temperature significantly higher than the average annual air temperature near the source.

Handbook of the technical translator. - Intent. 2009 - 2013

Classification of thermal springs

Classification thermal springs depending on the temperature of their waters:

• thermal springs with warm waters - springs whose water temperature is above 20 ° C;
• Thermal springs with hot water— springs with a water temperature of 37-50°С;
• Thermal springs, which chen hot water- springs with water temperature above 50-100°C.

Classification thermal springs depending on the mineral composition of the waters:

Mineral composition thermal waters different from the composition of minerals. This is due to their deeper penetration, compared with mineral waters, into the thickness of the earth's crust. Based on the medicinal properties, thermal springs are classified as follows:

• thermal springs with hypertonic waters - these waters are rich in salts and have a tonic effect;
• thermal springs with hypotonic waters - stand out due to the low salt content;
• thermal springs with isotonic waters - soothing waters.

What heats the water thermal springs to these temperatures? The answer, for most it will be obvious - it is geothermal heat our planet, namely its earthly mantle.

Thermal water heating mechanism

heating mechanism thermal waters occurs according to two algorithms:

1. Heating occurs in places volcanic activity, due to the "contact" of water with igneous rocks formed as a result of the crystallization of volcanic magma;
2. Heating occurs due to the circulation of water, which, sinking into the thickness of the earth's crust for more than a kilometer, "absorb the geothermal heat of the earth's mantle", and then, in accordance with the laws of convection, rise upward.

As the results of studies have shown, when immersed in the depths of the earth's crust, the temperature rises at a speed of 30 deg / km (excluding areas of volcanic activity and the ocean floor).

Types of thermal springs

In the case of water heating according to the first of the above principles, water can escape from the bowels of the Earth under pressure, thereby forming one of the types of fountains:

• Geysers - fountain hot water;
• Fumaroles - a fountain of steam;
• Mud fountain - water with clay and mud.

These fountains attract many tourists and other lovers of the natural beauties of nature.

Use of thermal waters

long time ago hot water were used by man in two directions - as a source of heat and for medicinal purposes:

• Heating houses - for example, even today, the capital of Iceland, Reykjavik, is heated thanks to the energy of underground hot water;
• In balneology - Roman baths are well known to everyone ...;
• To generate electricity;
• One of the most famous and popular qualities thermal waters are their medicinal properties. Water circulating through the earth's crust geothermal sources, dissolve in themselves a huge amount of minerals, thanks to which they have amazing healing healing qualities.

Pro healing properties Thermal waters have been known to man for a long time. There are many world-famous thermal resorts open on the basis of thermal springs. If we talk about Europe, the most popular resorts are in France, Italy, Austria, the Czech Republic and Hungary.

At the same time, one should not forget about one important point. Despite the fact that the waters of thermal springs can be very hot, bacteria dangerous to human health live in some of them. Therefore, it is mandatory to check each geothermal source for "purity".

And in conclusion, we note that thermal springs, or hot waters of the Earth, are a vital and necessary resource for entire regions of our planet and many types of living beings.

PUBLISHING DATE: Aug 24, 2014 13:05

The national economic use of mineralized (salty) groundwater is becoming increasingly significant. In addition to their wide use for water supply (mainly for industrial and technical, for household and drinking after desalination and water treatment) and irrigation, they are used in balneology, the chemical industry and thermal power engineering. In the last three cases, mineralized groundwater (usually with a mineralization of more than 1 g/l) must meet the requirements for mineral, industrial and thermal groundwater (1, 3-5, 7-12).

Mineral (medicinal) waters include natural waters that have a therapeutic effect on the human body, due either to an increased content of useful, biologically active components of the ion-salt or gas composition, or the general ion-salt composition of water (1, 3, 7). Mineral waters are very diverse in terms of genesis, mineralization (from fresh to highly concentrated brines), chemical composition (microcomponents, gases, ionic composition), temperature (from cold to high-thermal), but their main and common indicator is the ability to have a therapeutic effect on the human body.

Industrial waters include groundwater containing useful components or their compounds in solution ( salt, iodine, bromine, boron, lithium, potassium, strontium, barium, tungsten, etc.) in concentrations of industrial interest. Underground industrial waters can contain physiologically active components, have an elevated temperature (up to high-thermal) and mineralization (usually saline waters and brines), have a different origin (sedimentary, infiltration and other waters), and be characterized by a wide regional distribution.

Underground waters with a temperature exceeding the temperature of the “neutral layer” are classified as thermal. In practice, waters with temperatures above 20-37°C are considered thermal (4, 6-9, 12). Depending on the geothermal and geological-hydrogeological conditions, as well as the geochemical conditions of formation, thermal waters may contain elevated concentrations of industrially valuable elements and their compounds and have an active physiological effect on the human body, i.e. meet the requirements for mineral waters. Often, therefore, it is possible and expedient to use thermal waters for balneology, industrial extraction of useful components, heating and thermal power engineering. Naturally, the assessment of the prospects for the practical use of thermal groundwater requires taking into account not only their temperature (thermal energy potential), but also the chemical and gas composition, the conditions for the industrial extraction of useful microcomponents, the area's needs for groundwater of various types (mineral, industrial, thermal), the sequence and technologies for the use of thermal waters and other factors.

The needs of an intensively developing national economy and the tasks of ensuring the steady growth of the people's well-being determine the need for a broader setting of prospecting and exploration work on mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters.

The methodology of their hydrogeological studies depends on each specific field on the characteristics of the natural conditions for the formation and distribution of the considered types of groundwater, the degree of knowledge and complexity of hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical conditions, the specifics and scale of groundwater use, and other factors. However, even a simple analysis of the above definitions of mineral, industrial and thermal waters indicates a certain generality of the conditions for their formation, occurrence and distribution. This gives grounds to outline a unified scheme for their study and to characterize general issues methods of their hydrogeological research.

§ 1. Some general questions of prospecting and exploration of deposits of mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters

Mineral, industrial and thermal waters are widely distributed on the territory of the USSR. Unlike fresh groundwater, they are opened, as a rule, in deeper structural horizons, have increased mineralization, a specific microcomponent and gas composition, are characterized by an insignificant dependence of their regime on climatic factors, often complex hydrogeochemical features, manifestations of an elastic regime during operation, and other distinctive features. features that determine the specifics of their hydrogeological studies. In particular, mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters of significant mineralization have a wide regional distribution within the deep parts of the artesian basins of platforms, foothill troughs and mountain-folded areas. Mineral, thermal, and less commonly industrial waters that are specific in some respects are found in areas of individual crystalline massifs and areas of modern volcanic activity. Within the limits of these territories, according to the commonality of geological-structural, hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical, geothermal and other conditions, characteristic provinces, regions, districts and deposits of mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters are distinguished. In accordance with the previously given definition (see Chapter I, § 1), deposits include spatially contoured accumulations of groundwater, the quality and quantity of which ensure their economically viable use in the national economy (in balneology, for the industrial extraction of useful components, in thermal power engineering, their complex use), The economic feasibility of using mineral, industrial and thermal groundwater at each specific field must be established and proven by technical and economic calculations performed in the process of designing exploration work, studying the deposit and assessing its operational reserves. The indicators that determine the economic feasibility of exploiting a particular groundwater deposit and on the basis of which an assessment of its operational reserves is given are called standard. Conditional indicators are requirements for the quality of groundwater, and the conditions for their operation, under which it is possible to use them economically with a water withdrawal equal in size to the established operational reserves. Usually, the conditions take into account the requirements for the general chemical composition of groundwater, the content of individual components and gases (biologically active, industrially valuable, harmful, etc.). ), temperature, well operating conditions (minimum flow rate, maximum drawdown, discharge conditions Wastewater, life of wells, etc.), the depth of productive horizons, etc.

The areas of deposits within which it is economically feasible to use groundwater for the purposes of balneology, industry or thermal power engineering are called operational. They are identified and studied in the course of special prospecting and exploration work, which is carried out in full accordance with the general principles of hydrogeological research (see details in Chapter I, § 3).

Exploration work is one of the most important elements in the rational development of mineralized groundwater deposits (1, 5, 10). Their main goal is to identify deposits of mineral, industrial or thermal underground waters, study geological and hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and geothermal conditions, assess the quality, quantity and conditions for the rational economic use of their operational reserves.

In accordance with the general principles of prospecting and exploration work and the current regulations, hydrogeological studies of the named types of groundwater are carried out sequentially in compliance with the established staging of work; prospecting, preliminary reconnaissance, detailed reconnaissance and operational reconnaissance (1,2, 5-10). Depending on the specific conditions of the deposits under consideration, the degree of their exploration and complexity, the size of water consumption and other factors, in some cases it is possible to combine individual stages (with good knowledge of the deposit and a small need for water), in others there is a large demand for water, difficult natural conditions, weak exploration of the territory) it may be necessary to identify additional stages (substages) within the individual established stages of hydrogeological research. Thus, when exploring thermal waters and designing their industrial development with a small number of production wells, due to the very significant cost of building exploration wells, it seems justified and expedient to combine preliminary exploration with detailed exploration and drilling exploration and production wells (with their subsequent transfer to the category of production wells). When prospecting for industrial groundwater, research is often carried out in two stages (substages). At the first stage, based on the materials of previous studies, areas of distribution of industrial waters that are promising for prospecting and exploration are identified, and locations for exploratory wells are outlined. At the second stage of the exploratory stage, the identified areas (deposits) are studied by drilling and testing exploratory wells. The purpose of the study is the selection of productive horizons and areas of deposits that are promising for exploration (5.8).

Searches for mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters in each area should be linked to the prospects for economic development, the needs for a certain type of groundwater and the expediency of their use in a given area.

The general tasks of the exploration stage include: identifying the main patterns of distribution of mineralized waters, identifying certain types of their deposits or areas that are promising for the opening of mineral (industrial, or thermal) groundwater, and, if necessary, studying these deposits and areas using drilling and testing of exploratory wells, and sometimes carrying out special surveys (hydrogeological, hydrochemical, gas, thermometric and other types of surveys).

One of the main and obligatory types of research at the search stage is the collection, analysis and purposeful thorough generalization of all hydrogeological materials collected in the research area (especially materials of deep reference and oil drilling and materials of the multi-volume edition "Hydrogeology of the USSR"), compiling the necessary maps, diagrams, sections , profiles, etc. Since drilling exploratory wells to deep horizons is expensive (the cost of a well with a depth of 1.5-2.5 km is 100-200 thousand rubles or more), it is advisable to use previously drilled wells for research (exploration wells oil and gas, reference, etc.).

As a result of exploration work, productive horizons and areas that are promising for exploration should be identified, approximate standard indicators should be developed and an approximate estimate of operational reserves within the selected areas should be given (usually in categories C 1 + C 2), the economic feasibility of exploration should be substantiated and priority objects.

In the process of preliminary exploration, the geological and hydrogeological conditions of the sites identified as a result of the search (there may be one or more) are studied to obtain data for their comparative assessment and substantiation of the object for detailed exploration. With the help of drilling and comprehensive testing of exploratory wells located over the area of ​​the study area (areas), the filtration properties of productive horizons, the water-physical characteristics of rocks and water, the chemical, gas and microcomponent composition of groundwater, geothermal conditions and other indicators necessary for compiling preliminary conditions and a preliminary estimate of operating reserves (usually in categories B and Ci).

With insufficient regional knowledge, in order to clarify the hydrogeological conditions in the zone of the alleged influence of the water intake (parameters, boundary conditions, etc.), it is advisable to lay separate exploration wells outside the studied production area (and, if possible, use previously drilled wells for this purpose). Since the cost of deep drilling is high, exploration wells at the preliminary exploration stage should be drilled with a small diameter and used later as observation and monitoring wells. In order to assess the industrial and balneological value and features of the further use of groundwater in the process of preliminary exploration, a special technological (for industrial waters) and laboratory (for all types of waters) study should be carried out.

Based on the results of preliminary exploration, a feasibility report (TED) is compiled, substantiating the expediency of setting up detailed exploration work at a particular site. TED is not obligatory only when studying mineral waters.

The report highlights the geological structure, hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and geothermal conditions of the explored areas, the results of the assessment of operational groundwater reserves and the main technical and economic indicators that substantiate the feasibility and effectiveness of their national economic use.

A detailed exploration of a production site is carried out in order to study its geological-hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and geothermal conditions in more detail and to reasonably calculate the exploitable groundwater reserves of productive horizons by category, allowing the allocation of capital investments for the design of their operation (usually by category A + B + Ci). Operating reserves are estimated by generally accepted methods (hydrodynamic, hydraulic, modeling and combined based on the conditional requirements approved by the GKZ) (1, 2, 5, 6, 8-10).

Detailed exploration and evaluation of operational reserves are carried out in relation to the most rational scheme for the location of production wells in the conditions of the field under study. Taking into account this provision, as well as for economic reasons, exploration and production wells are laid in the process of detailed exploration, the design of which must satisfy the conditions for their subsequent operation. At the detailed stage, cluster pumping is mandatory (and in difficult natural conditions, long-term pilot pumping). Special observation wells are constructed only when productive horizons occur at a depth of no more than 500 m; in other conditions, exploratory and exploration wells are used as observation points. If necessary, they are concentrated in the areas of experimental bushes due to their partial discharge in areas with simpler natural conditions.

In accordance with the intended purpose, in the process of prospecting and exploration, wells of the following categories are usually laid on deep mineral (mineralized) waters: exploration, exploration (experimental and observational), exploration and production and production. Since, in deep drilling, wells are the most reliable and often the only source of information about the target being explored, each of them must be carefully documented and examined during its drilling (selection and study of core, cuttings, mud, the use of formation testers) and appropriately tested after structures (special geophysical, hydrogeological, thermometric and other studies).

When hydrogeological and other types of testing of deep wells, mineral, industrial and thermal groundwater should take into account their specific features due to the chemical composition and physical properties of groundwater (the effect of dissolved gas, density and viscosity of the liquid, changes in temperature), design features of wells (head loss to overcome resistance when water moves along the wellbore) and other factors.

Hydrogeological testing of wells is carried out by releases (with groundwater self-draining) or pumping (usually by airlift, less often by artesian or rod pumps). The scheme of equipment and testing of wells that provide water by self-spill is shown in fig. 57. In this test, tubing (tubing) is used to run downhole tools and is used as a piezometer for level observations. Their shoe is usually installed at a depth that excludes the release of free gas. The scheme of equipment and testing of wells with a water level below the mouth with an airlift is shown in fig. 58.

In practice, single-row and double-row airlift schemes are used. According to the conditions for measuring the dynamic level, a two-row scheme is more appropriate. Before testing, reservoir pressure (static level), water temperature in the reservoir and at the wellhead are measured, during testing - flow rate, dynamic level (bottomhole pressure), wellhead temperature, gas factor. Water and gas samples are taken and analyzed.

The accuracy of measurements of static and dynamic water levels is affected by dissolved gas, changes in water temperature, resistance to the movement of water in pipes. The influence of the GOR can be eliminated by measuring levels in piezometers lowered below the zone of free gas release, or by depth gauges. Otherwise, the measured water level in the well will differ from the true one by the value ΔS r determined by the formula of E. E. Kerkis:

v 0 - gas factor, m 3 /m 3; R o, P 1 and R r - the value of atmospheric pressure, wellhead and saturation, Pa; - temperature coefficient, equal to τ= 1+t/273 (where t is the temperature of the gas mixture, 0 С); ρ is the density of water, kg / m 3; g- acceleration free fall, m/s 2 .

Figure 57. Scheme of equipment and testing of wells that provide water

self-draining: 1 - lubricator; 2 - manometers; 3 - X-mas tree; 4 - ladder-gas separator; 5 - gas flow rate meter; 6-dimensional capacity; 7 - valve; 8 - tubing; 9 - aquifer

Rice. 58. Scheme of equipment and testing of wells with a water level below the mouth

When pumping thermal waters from a well, an elongation of the water column in it is observed due to an increase in temperature; when idle, the “shrinkage” of the column due to its cooling is observed. The value of the temperature correction Δ St ° at known values ​​of the water temperature at the mouth before pumping out t p ° and at the outflow t p ° Can be determined by formula (5):

, (XI.1)

where H 0 - column of water in the well, m; ρ(t 0 °) and ρ(t π °) are the density of water at temperatures t 0 ° and t π °. At large well depths (≈2000 m and more), the temperature correction can reach 10–20 m.

When determining the level drop during pumping from deep wells, it is also necessary to take into account the pressure loss ΔS n to overcome the resistance to the movement of water in the wellbore, determined by the formula (IV.35).

Taking into account the nature of the influence of the considered factors, the permissible value of the decrease in the level S d taken into account when assessing the operational reserves of mineral, industrial and thermal groundwater is determined by the formula

(XI.3)

where h d is the allowable depth of the dynamic level from the wellhead (determined by the capabilities of the water-lifting equipment); P and - excess groundwater pressure above the wellhead; ΔS r , ΔS t ° and ΔS n are corrections that take into account the influence of the gas factor, temperature and hydraulic pressure losses and are determined respectively by formulas (XI.1), (XI.2) and (IV.35).

Exploitation exploration is carried out on exploited or prepared for exploitation sites and deposits. It aims at hydrogeological substantiation of the increase in operational reserves and their transfer to higher categories in terms of the degree of knowledge, adjustment of the conditions and mode of operation of water intake facilities, implementation of forecasts when the mode of their operation changes, etc. In the process of operational exploration, systematic observations are made of the regime of underground waters under their operating conditions. If it is necessary to ensure the growth of operational reserves, exploration work is possible in areas adjacent to the operational area (if this is necessary according to geological and hydrogeological indicators).

These are general provisions and principles of hydrogeological studies of deposits of mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters. The features of their implementation at each specific site are determined depending on the geological-structural, hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical conditions of the studied deposits, the degree of their knowledge, the given water demand and other factors, the consideration of which ensures targeted, scientifically based and effective prospecting and exploration and rational economic development of groundwater deposits (1, 2, 5-10).

§ 2. Some features of hydrogeological studies of mineral, industrial and thermal groundwater

Mineral water. To classify natural waters as mineral waters, the standards established by the Central Institute of Balneology and Physiotherapy are currently used and determine the lower limits for the content of individual components of water (in mg / l): mineralization - 2000, free carbon dioxide - 500, total hydrogen sulfide -10, iron - 20, elemental arsenic - 0.7, bromine - 25, iodine - 5, lithium - 5, silicic acid - 50, boric acid - 50, fluorine - 2, strontium-10, barium - 5, radium - 10 -8, radon (in Mach units; 1 Mach ≈13.5 10 3 m -3 s -1 \u003d 13.5 l -1 s -1) - 14.

To assign mineral waters to one or another type of mineralization, the content of biologically active components, gases and other indicators, the evaluation criteria regulated by GOST 13273-73 (1, 3, 8) are used. Below are the maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of some components established for mineral waters (in mg / l): ammonium (NH 4) + - 2.0, nitrites (NO 2) - -2.0, nitrates (NO 3) - -50.0, vanadium -0.4, arsenic - 3.0, mercury - 0.02, lead - 0.3, selenium - 0.05, fluorine - 8, chromium -0.5, phenols - 0.001, radium -5 10 -7, uranium - 0.5. The number of colonies of microorganisms in 1 ml of water should not exceed 100, if the index is 3. The specified norms and values ​​​​of MPC. should be taken into account when characterizing the quality of mineral waters and geological and industrial assessment of their deposits.

The mineral waters of the USSR are represented by all their main types: carbonic, hydrogen sulfide, carbonic-hydrogen sulfide, radon, iodine, bromine, ferruginous, arsenic, acidic, slightly mineralized, thermal, as well as non-specific and brine mineral waters. They are widely distributed within artesian basins of various orders, fissure water systems, tectonic zones and faults, massifs of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Mineral water deposits are classified according to various criteria (by type of mineral water, by the conditions of their formation and other indicators) (1, 3, 7, 8).

For exploration, the typification of deposits according to their geological-structural and hydrogeological conditions is of particular interest. According to these features, 6 characteristic types of mineral water deposits are distinguished: 1) reservoir deposits of platform artesian basins, 2) reservoir deposits of foothill and intermountain artesian basins and artesian slopes, 3) deposits of artesian basins and slopes associated with zones of discharge of deep mineral waters into overlying pressure aquifers (“hydro-injection” type), 4) deposits of fissure-vein water-pressure systems, 5) deposits confined to zones of discharge of pressure flows in the groundwater basin (“hydro-injection” type), 6) deposits of ground mineral waters (1,2) .

The deposits of the first two types are characterized by relatively simple hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical conditions, significant excess head and natural reserves. Identification of prospective areas for exploration is possible based on the analysis of regional hydrogeological materials; exploration by drilling and testing of single wells (rarely clusters) is recommended. Estimation of operational reserves is expedient by hydrodynamic and hydraulic (with significant tectonic disturbance of rocks and gas saturation of water) methods.

Deposits of other types, and especially those of the third, fifth, and sixth, are distinguished by much more complex hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical conditions. They are characterized by limited areas of development of mineral waters (like domes), variability of boundaries, reserves and chemical composition over time and during pumping, and limited operational reserves. To allocate areas for exploration in addition to comprehensive analysis regional materials often require exploratory geophysical, thermometric and other types of research, drilling of exploratory and prospecting wells and their mass deep testing, special survey work. Such deposits are explored by drilling wells along exploration sites and special areal surveys. Due to the significant instability of the chemical composition and the dependence of operational reserves on the geological, tectonic and geothermal conditions for the inflow of the mineral component and the formation of the dome of mineral waters, their assessment is carried out mainly by the hydraulic method, the use of the modeling method is promising.

The issues of methodology for hydrogeological studies of the identified types of mineral water deposits are considered in detail in a special methodical literature(1, 2, 8). The work of G. S. Vartanyan (2) especially highlights the methodology for prospecting and exploration of mineral water deposits in fissure massifs with their detailed typification and analysis of the features of studying each of the identified types of deposits.

industrial water. As criteria for classifying mineralized natural waters as industrial, some conditional standard indicators are used that determine the minimum concentrations of useful microcomponents and the maximum permissible harmful components that complicate the technology of industrial development of underground mineralized waters.

Currently, such indicators are established only for some types of industrial waters: iodine (iodine at least 18 mg / l), bromine (bromine at least 250 mg / l), iodine-bromine (iodine at least 10, bromine at least 200 mg / l). l), iodo-boron (iodine not less than 10, boron not less than 500 mg/l). The content of naphthenic acids in water should not exceed 600 mg / l, oil - 40 mg / l, halogen absorption should not exceed 80 mg / l, alkalinity of water - no more than 10-90 mol / l.

Relevant research is being carried out to study the conditions for extracting some other industrially valuable components from groundwater: boron, lithium, strontium, potassium, magnesium, cesium, rubidium, germanium, etc.

The above indicators do not take into account the operating conditions of industrial waters, the method of extracting microcomponents, the conditions for the discharge of waste water and other factors that determine the economic feasibility of the industrial extraction of microcomponents. Their use is advisable only for general tentative estimates of the possibility of industrial development of groundwater. At the same time, it is conditionally assumed that at a well depth of 1-2 km and the limiting position of the dynamic level at a depth of 300-800 m, the flow rate of individual wells should be at least 300-1000 m 3 /day. Actual indicators that determine the conditions for the appropriate use of industrial waters of a particular deposit for the extraction of industrial components are established in the process of prospecting and exploration work on the basis of variant technical and economic calculations. These are the so-called standard indicators, which are the basis of the geological and industrial assessment of industrial water deposits.

Underground industrial waters are increasingly attracting the close attention of scientists as a source of mineral resources and energy resources. It is known that in addition to the main salts - sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium chlorides - mineralized underground waters and brines contain a huge complex of metallic and non-metallic microcomponents (including rare and trace chemical elements), the complex extraction of which can make these waters exclusively valuable raw materials for the chemical and energy industries and significantly increase the economic efficiency of their industrial use.

In the Soviet Union, industrial waters are mainly used for the extraction of iodine and bromine. A technology is being developed for the industrial extraction from groundwater and some other microcomponents (lithium, strontium, potassium, magnesium, cesium, rubidium, etc.). In the USA, apart from iodine and bromine, lithium, tungsten and salts (CaCl 2 , MgSO 4 , Mg (OH) 2 , KCl and MgCl 2) are mined from groundwater. Underground mineralized waters and brines of industrial importance are widely developed on the territory of the USSR. They are usually located in the deep parts of the artesian basins of ancient and epi-Hercynian platforms, foothill and intermountain depressions of the alpine geosynclinal zone in the south of the USSR. The generalization of a large number of regional materials allowed a team of Soviet hydrogeologists to compile a map of the industrial waters of the territory of the USSR, on the basis of which a schematic map of promising regions of the USSR for various types of industrial waters was compiled (5, 6). At present, under the guidance of the staff of the VSEGINGEO institute, maps of the regional assessment of the operational and forecast reserves of industrial waters are being compiled for individual regions and the territory of the USSR as a whole.

An analysis of regional materials and experience in the exploration of industrial waters indicates that, for exploration and geological and industrial assessment, according to the peculiarities of the nature of occurrence, distribution and hydrodynamic conditions, industrial water deposits can be divided into two main types:

1) deposits located in large and medium artesian basins of platform areas, marginal and foothill troughs, characterized by a relatively calm regional distribution of sustained productive horizons, and

2) deposits confined to the water-driven systems of mountain-folded areas, characterized by the presence of complexly dislocated structures with tectonic faults of a discontinuous nature, separating the productive aquifers of the stratigraphic complexes of the same name.

The belonging of industrial water deposits to one or another type determines the features of conducting hydrogeological studies during their exploration and geological and industrial assessment.

When studying deposits of industrial waters and preparing them for industrial development, it is necessary, first of all, to identify: 1) the size of the deposit; 2) its position within the water pressure system; 3) the depth and thickness of the industrial aquifer; 4) hydrogeological and hydrodynamic features, etc. Taken together, these factors make it possible to assess the hydrogeological conditions of the deposit, substantiate the basic design scheme, assess the quantity, quality and conditions of occurrence of industrial waters, conduct a geological and industrial assessment of the deposit and outline rational ways for its development.

Despite the variety of conditions for the occurrence and distribution of industrial waters, their deposits are characterized by the following common features that determine the features of their prospecting and exploration: 1) the location of productive horizons in the deep parts of artesian basins (their occurrence depth reaches 2000-3000 m or more); 2) wide distribution of productive deposits, their relative persistence and high water abundance; 3) significant size of deposits and their operational reserves; 4) manifestation of the elastic water-pressure regime during operation; 5) the presence of several productive horizons in the context of deposits; 6) limited areas within which the exploitation of the deposit is rational, etc.

Each of the above features characterizing underground industrial waters determines special approach in the search and exploration of their deposits. Thus, the deep occurrence of the productive formation and the presence of several industrial horizons in the section of the field necessitates the drilling of deep expensive wells and complex geological and hydrogeological testing of them, ensuring the possibility of using exploratory wells for exploration, and exploratory wells for operation, wide involvement of materials from regional studies and the use of oil and gas wells for exploration purposes. The wide regional distribution of productive deposits, the great depth of their occurrence and the peculiarities of the formation of operational reserves in the elastic water-driven mode of operation lead to the need to study the hydrogeological parameters of aquifers over a large area of ​​their distribution and to identify geological and structural features to establish the boundaries of operational areas, etc.

The functions of prospecting, exploratory, exploration and development and production wells in the study of industrial waters are especially significant and diverse. Based on the results of the study of well sections during drilling (studies of core, cuttings, mud, mechanical logging, geophysical surveys, special methods) and their subsequent testing, the tasks of stratigraphic, lithological and hydrogeological division of the productive part of the section, assessment of physical properties, chemical and gas composition of groundwater, identification of the geochemical situation of the site, reservoir properties of productive horizons, well operating conditions, determination of technological indicators of industrial waters, etc.

The most appropriate methods for estimating operating margins are hydrodynamic, modeling, and less often hydraulic. For deposits of industrial waters in large artesian basins of platform areas and medium artesian basins of marginal and foothill troughs, characterized by a wide regional distribution of productive horizons and relatively simple hydrogeological conditions, the most appropriate is the use of hydrodynamic methods. The legitimacy of schematization of individual elements of hydrogeological conditions can be substantiated by the results of modeling, experimental data, etc. With a significant degree of knowledge of the field, it is possible to estimate operational reserves using modeling methods.

For deposits of industrial waters in geosynclinal areas, characterized by uneven productive horizons and complex hydrogeological conditions (heterogeneity, the presence of supply contours, wedging out, displacements, etc.), it is advisable to use complex hydrodynamic and hydraulic methods for assessing operational reserves. With a significant degree of knowledge, it is possible to use hydrodynamic methods and modeling, and in some fields, the modeling method can be recommended as an independent method for assessing production reserves.

Technical and economic calculations and justifications are of great importance in the geological and industrial assessment of deposits of industrial and thermal waters and in the choice of ways for their rational national economic use. The principles of such calculations and justifications were set forth earlier (see Chapter IX, §2 and 3) and discussed in detail in the methodological manual (5).

When exploring, geological and industrial assessment and justification of projects for the development of industrial water deposits, one should keep in mind the possibility of exploiting industrial waters under conditions of reservoir pressure maintenance (RPM). The possibility and expediency of using this method are determined by the current lack of water-lifting equipment that ensures the operation of wells at level drops of more than 300 m from the earth's surface and well flow rates of 500-1000 m 3 /day or more, as well as great difficulties in organizing the discharge of waste water by surface (high cost of wastewater treatment, lack of facilities for water discharge or their great remoteness, etc.). Under such conditions, the method of exploiting industrial waters with the re-injection of waste waters into productive formations and maintaining the necessary formation pressure in them seems to be the most advantageous. At the same time, along with maintaining favorable operating conditions for wells (high dynamic level, the possibility of using various types of high-capacity water-lifting equipment, constancy of the operating mode, etc.), the utilization of waste water by the enterprise is ensured, opportunities are created for a significant increase in operating reserves and a more complete depletion of natural reserves industrial waters, pollution of surface watercourses is excluded, etc.

Evaluation of the operational reserves of industrial waters and designing their development are possible only on the basis of taking into account and an appropriate forecast of the operating conditions of production and injection wells, the nature and pace of progress of substandard waters injected into productive formations (with the obligatory consideration of the effect of heterogeneity of reservoir properties), an assessment of the scale of dilution of industrial waters, substantiation of the most rational layout of water intake and injection wells. To solve these problems, it may be necessary to set up special experimental work and test wells, use modeling to implement hydrodynamic and hydrogeochemical forecasts of the field development process, development effective means control and management of the operation of water intake and injection wells.

Thermal waters. Thermal waters include waters with a temperature above 37 ° C (in practice, waters with a temperature of more than 20 ° C are often taken into account). Groundwater with a temperature above 100°C is classified as a steam hydrotherm (8-10).

Thermal waters are widespread on the territory of the USSR. They usually occur at considerable depths within platform and mountain-fold areas, as well as in areas of young and modern volcanism. In many areas, thermal waters are both mineral (that is, they have balneological value), and often industrial (or rather, all industrial underground waters are thermal). This circumstance predetermines great prospects for their integrated national economic use.

The beautiful fairy-tale city of Teplogorsk with clean air and streets, with thermal swimming pools, a geothermal power plant, heated streets, an evergreen park, subtropical vegetation and healing baths in houses, described in I. M. Dvorov's book "Deep Heat of the Earth", is not a fairy tale , but a reality of tomorrow, which will come true through the use of thermal groundwater. Teplogorsk is a prototype of the cities of the near future in Kamchatka, Chukotka and the Kuril Islands, in Western Siberia and many other regions of the USSR.

Thermal waters are used in thermal power engineering, heating, for hot water supply, cold supply (creation of highly efficient refrigeration plants), in greenhouse and greenhouse facilities, in balneology, etc. (4, 6, 9). The prospects for the use of thermal waters on the territory of the USSR are reflected in the schematic map shown in fig. 7 (see Ch. II).

According to preliminary calculations (4), the predicted reserves of thermal waters (up to a depth of 3500 m) in the territory of the USSR are 19,750 thousand m 3 /day, and operational - 7900 thousand m 3 /day. With an increase in the depth of well drilling for thermal waters, their thermal energy potential can increase significantly.

For exploration and evaluation of exploitable reserves, thermal water deposits can be typified as follows:

1) deposits of artesian basins of platform type,

2) deposits of artesian basins of piedmont troughs and intermountain depressions, 3) deposits of fissure systems of igneous and metamorphic rocks, 4) deposits of fissure systems of volcanic and volcanic-sedimentary rocks.

The deposits of thermal waters of the first two types are similar to the corresponding types of deposits of industrial waters, the features of prospecting and exploration of which were considered earlier. The hydrodynamic method is the most effective for estimating the operational reserves of thermal waters of such deposits.

Deposits of fissure systems of igneous and metamorphic rocks, rejuvenated mountain-folded systems are characterized by thermal water outlets along the lines of tectonic faults, insignificant natural reserves of thermal waters, influence on their regime and conditions of movement of overlying groundwater. Therefore, at the stage of exploration, large-scale structural-hydrogeological and thermometric surveys are expedient here (identification of tectonic disturbances, fracture zones, zones of thermal water movement, etc.). In wells, it is advisable to carry out a complex of thermometric and geophysical studies and their zonal hydrogeological testing. At the stage of preliminary exploration, exploration and production wells are laid, explored and tested by long-term pilot pumping (releases) (with systematic observations of the regime of flow rates, levels, temperature, and the chemical composition of groundwater). Exploitation reserves are best assessed by the hydraulic method, combining preliminary exploration with detailed exploration. If it is possible to pull up waters that are substandard in temperature during operation, it is advisable to preliminarily lay observation wells along the alignment passing through the zone of thermal water discharge.

The deposits of fissure systems in areas of modern and recent volcanism are characterized by shallow depth, high temperature and low salinity of thermal waters, the presence of numerous thermal anomalies, fractured reservoirs, manifestation of parahydrotherms (characterized by temperature, flow rate, steam pressure and water level, which determine the height of the release of water and steam). At the search stage, aerial photography, surface thermometric surveys (measurement of temperature in springs, surface water bodies, mud pots, etc.), hydrogeological surveys, and geophysical surveys are effective. Deposits and areas are delineated using geothermal maps and profiles. Exploratory wells are placed along the established tectonic faults, to which the centers of unloading of steam hydrotherms are confined.

Operating reserves are usually estimated by the hydraulic method. To evaluate steam hydrotherms, it is necessary to predict all the components characterizing them (temperature, steam consumption and pressure, water level).

Specific issues that need to be addressed when assessing the operational reserves of thermal waters include the following: 1) forecasting the water temperature at the wellhead of a production well (according to thermometric observations along the wellbore and using analytical solutions), 2) assessing and accounting for the influence of the gas factor (measurement gas factor and the introduction of amendments in determining and forecasting the position of water levels), 3) calculations and forecasts for pulling cold water contours from the areas of recharge and discharge of groundwater.

The issues of prospecting, exploration and geological and industrial assessment of thermal water deposits are considered in detail in the manuals (6,8-10).

LITERATURE

1. Vartanyan G. S., Yarotsky L. A. Search, exploration and evaluation of operational reserves of mineral water deposits (methodological guide). M., "Nedra", 1972, 127 p.

2. Vartanyan G. S. Search and exploration of mineral water deposits in fractured massifs. M., "Nedra", 1973, 96 p.

3. Mineral drinking, medicinal and medicinal table waters. GOST 13273-73. M., Standartgiz, 1975, 33 p.

4. Dvorov I. M. Deep heat of the Earth. M., "Nauka", 1972, 206 p.

5. Surveys and assessment of industrial groundwater reserves ( Toolkit). M, "Nedra", 1971, 244 p.

6. Mavritsky B. F., Antonenko G. K. Experience in research, exploration and use in practical purposes thermal waters in the USSR and abroad. M., "Nedra", 1967, 178 p.

7. Ovchinnikov A. M. Mineralnye vody. Ed. 2nd. M., Goeoltekhizdat. 1963, 375 p.

8. Reference manual of a hydrogeologist. Ed. 2nd, vol. 1. L., "Nedra", 1967, 592 p.

9. Frolov N. M., Hydrogeothermy. M., "Nedra", 1968, 316 p.

10. Frolov N. M., Yazvin L. S. Search, exploration and assessment of operational reserves of thermal waters. M., 1969, 176 p.

11. Shvets V. M. organic matter groundwater. M., "Nedra", 1973, 192 p.

12. Shcherbakov A. V. Geochemistry of thermal waters. M., "Nauka", 1968, 234 p.

The text has been supplemented and edited according to 2015 data..

Map. Hydromineral regions of the Crimean peninsula

Conventions:
A. Hydromineral folded region of the Crimean Mountains with predominant development of sulfate and chloride (partly thermal in depth) mineral waters carbonated with nitrogen, in a subordinate sense methane, hydrogen sulfide and rarely carbon dioxide.

B. Kerch hydromineral area of ​​carbonic waters in deep aquifers, as well as hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen and methane cold and thermal in tertiary and underlying sediments.

C. Crimean hydromineral region of hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, methane and mixed gas composition of brackish and salty waters (plain Crimea), cold in the upper and thermal in the deep parts of artesian basins.

Water types
carbonic waters:
1 - carbonic mainly chloride-hydrocarbonate and hydrocarbonate-chloride sodium waters with a mineralization of 8.8-15.6 g / l (and others).

Hydrogen sulfide waters:
2 - chloride, sodium, predominantly saline waters with a high content of hydrogen sulfide everywhere (total H2S from 50 to 850 mg/l) and salinity from 7.8 to 32.5 g/l;
3 - sodium waters of variable anionic composition (hydrocarbonate-chloride, chloride-hydrocarbonate, etc.), with mineralization mainly up to 10 g / l and with very different content of total hydrogen sulfide - from several tens to more than 300 mg / l and weakly hydrogen sulfide waters with a content of H2S about 10 mg/l. Nitrogen, methane, mixed gas composition and other waters.

Thermal:
4 - nitrogen fresh hydrocarbonate sodium with mineralization up to 1 g/l. Temperature 26-35°C;
5 - predominantly nitrogen chloride-hydrocarbonate, hydrocarbonate-chloride and chloride sodium (sometimes magnesium) with a mineralization of 1 to 3-7 g / l. Temperature 20-46°C;
6 - nitrogen, methane-nitrogen, nitrogen-methane and methane chloride and chloride-hydrocarbonate sodium, salt waters (mineralization 10-35 g / l) with a temperature of 30 to 40 ° C and above;
7 - nitrogen-methane and methane-nitrogen (sometimes methane) chloride calcium-sodium waters of marine mineralization (35-40 g / l) with a temperature above 50 ° C (up to 100 °);
8 - predominantly nitrogenous very hot over (45-50 ° C) waters in composition sodium or calcium-sodium chloride, sulfate-chloride, hydrocarbonate-chloride and chloride-hydrocarbonate with a mineralization of 8-50 g / l.

Cold:
9 - sulfate (pure sulfate, chloride-sulfate and sulfate-chloride (sodium-calcium and others) weakly mineralized from 1.5 to 10 g / l of water;
10-chloride and bicarbonate-chloride sodium, as well as calcium-magnesium waters with a mineralization mainly from 3 to 20 g/l;
11 - chloride-sulfate and sodium chloride highly mineralized waters (brines) with salinity above 50 g/l.

The waters are insufficiently studied: 12 - fresh carbon dioxide-nitrogen with rare gases (according to the assumption).

13 - the border of the areas of mineral waters;
14 - source;
15 - well;
16 - mud hill with the release of carbon dioxide.

Points of mineral waters

Plain Crimea: 1 - outskirts of Dzhankoy, 2 - southwest of Dzhankoy, 3 - Sernovodskoye, 4 - Glebovo, 5 - Cretaceous (Tarkhankut), 6 - Northern Novoselovskaya well, 6a, 6b, 6c, 6d, 6d - Southern Novoselovskie wells, 7 - Nizhnegorsk. 8 - Evpatoria - Moinaki, 9 - Evpatoria - near the sea, 10 - Saki - behind the railway, 11 - Saki - resort, 12 - Saki - against Chebotarskaya beam, 13 - Novo-Andreevka, 14 - Novo-Aleksandrovka, 15 - Novozhilovka, 16 - Vasilievka, 17, 17a - Beloglinka, 18 - south of Belogorsk, 19 - Lechebnoye spring, 20 - Obruchev spring, 21, 21a - Goncharovka, 22 - Babenkovo, 23 - Akmelez source, 24 - hydrogen sulfide water near the city Feodosia, 25 - the source of Feodosia, 26 - the source of Kafa, 27 - Novo-Moskovskaya street in Feodosia.

Kerch Peninsula: sources: 28 - Syuartash. 29 - Karalar. 30 - Dzhailavsky, 31, 31a - Chokraksky, 32 - Tarkhansky, 33 - Baksinsky; mud hills: 34 - Burashsky, 35 - Tarkhansky, 36 - Bulganaksky, 37 - Yenikalsky, 38 - Kamysh-Burun, 39, 39a - Seit-Elinsky springs, 40 - Kayaly-Sart springs, 41 - Moshkarevskoye, 42 - Maryevsky, 43 - Kostyrino (former Chongelek).

Mountain Crimea: 44 - Koktebel, 45 - Kizil-Tash springs, 46 - Sudaksky spring, 47 - Karabakh source, 48 - Black waters source (Adzhi-Su bay), 49 - weakly carbonic water in the northern portal of the Yalta tunnel, 50 - sulfate water in southern portal of the Yalta tunnel, 51 - hydrogen sulfide water in the southern portal of the Yalta tunnel, 52 - Yalta deep well, 53 - Vasil-Saray source, 54 - Melas source.

Mineral and thermal waters of various types were identified in a number of places in the Crimea by deep boreholes. The mineral waters of the Crimea are different in salt (ionic) and gas composition: some of them are thermal - warm and hot (terms). They are of considerable interest both scientifically and practically. The waters can be used as drinking medicinal waters and for balneological purposes. However, so far they are still used to a small extent only in the resorts of Saki, Evpatoria, Feodosia, Sudak, Yalta, Alushta, Black Waters (Bakhchisarai region) and in some monasteries, as well as in rural fonts and baths.

According to the geological and structural conditions and the composition of the mineral and thermal waters present in the bowels of the Crimean Peninsula, three large hydrogeological areas:

A. Hydromineral folded area Mountain Crimea with the predominant development of sulphate and chloride, partly thermal (in depth) mineral waters, gassed with nitrogen, in a subordinate sense with methane, hydrogen sulfide and rarely carbon dioxide.

B. Kerch hydro-mineral area of ​​distribution of hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen and methane cold waters in tertiary and underlying sediments (some sources contain carbon dioxide).

B. Hydromineral area Plain Crimea hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, methane and mixed gas composition of brackish and saline waters, cold in the upper and thermal in the deep parts of the artesian basins.

Mountain Crimea

The area of ​​development of Tauride shales in the Crimean mountains is characterized by widespread brackish sulphate waters (with the content of HCO3 more than 25%-eq, sometimes more than SO4), formed as a result of the destruction and dissolution of pyrites. In some places there are weak hydrogen sulfide sources with a hydrogen sulfide content of 3-10 mg / l and with a different chemical composition of the waters - Melas, Karabakh, Sudak source.

In the southern half of the Yalta Tunnel, sulfate waters emerge in the zone of contact between the Upper and Middle Jurassic and from cracks in the very bottom of the Upper Jurassic limestones. The Middle Jurassic shales and Upper Jurassic limestones contain many gypsum veins and veinlets (probably an ancient formation). It can be assumed that in the modern period, gypsum is dissolved by limestone karst waters with the formation of sulfate waters. Mineralization of the latter 0.7-3.4 g/l; the most common mineralization is 2.0-2.5 g/l with a sulfate content of 0.4-2.0 g/l. This water contains small amounts of iodine, bromine and boron.

In some places of the tunnel, individual jets of sulfate water contain a significant amount of strontium (up to 7.6 mg/l) and lead (0.003-0.01%). boron up to 2.3 mg/l, a number of metals (iron, titanium, zirconium, nickel, vanadium) in small quantities, phosphorus (P2O5) up to 2.2 mg/l, iodine up to 2.1 mg/l, bromine 0, 4-3.0 mg/l, silicic acid up to 13.5 mg/l, manganese 0.18-0.30 mg/l, copper up to 0.003 mg/l. The presence of metals in water is probably related to the ore occurrence in the deep parts of the area of ​​distribution of the Tauride Series.

Hydrogen sulfide waters (H2S up to 40 mg/l) apparently form in the depths of the Taurian shales and rise under pressure along the lines of tectonic faults to the contact zone of the Middle and Upper Jurassic rocks. Strong hydrogen sulfide water in the tunnel contains about 70 mg/l of iodine and about 7 mg/l of bromine. Weak hydrogen sulfide waters in the mountainous part of the Crimea do not contain these components. The content of iodine in the strong hydrogen sulfide water of one of the sources (69.8 mg/l) is similar to the content of iodine (up to 56.3 mg/l) in Taurian shales at a depth of 1000-2257 m in the Yalta well.

Chloride waters are contained in the deep horizons of the Taurian shales. Their composition, apparently, is typical for the deep - chloride zone.

The chloride waters of the Crimean mountains can be considered as metamorphosed (partly chlorine-calcium), containing a complex of microcomponents of marine origin (iodine, bromine, boron).

The presence in these waters of a small amount of methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide may indicate what is happening at a depth biochemical processes. To salt water include: the source of the Black Waters (b. Aji-Su), salt water wells in Yalta. The depth of the Yalta well is 2257 m. The mineralization of the water of this well is from 38.9 to 49.3 g/l. Water contains a lot of iodine 52.3-56.3 mg/l, bromine 65.6 mg/l, HBO2 16 mg/l. The water of the Chernye Vody spring has a mineralization of 3.8-4.5 g/l.

In Koktebel, nitrate sulfate-chloride and chloride-sulphate-carbonate waters are known with a nitrate content of 0.68 to 5.3 g/l. Waters in Quaternary loams.

In the Crimean Mountains, there are also minor weakly carbonic occurrences in shales of the Tauride series. The content of free CO2 in the water sources (according to incomplete data) is 246-251 mg/l.

In the mountainous Crimea, in a number of cases, an undoubted connection has been established between mineral springs and gas manifestations and tectonic structure(fault lines).

Kerch Peninsula

In the eastern part of the Kerch Peninsula, individual sources contain carbon dioxide. According to the chemical composition of the water, chloride-hydrocarbonate sodium and hydrocarbonate-chloride sodium with a free carbon dioxide content of 500-2000 g / l and a mineralization of 8.8-15.6 g / l.

carbonic waters come to the surface in the form of three groups of small ascending springs: Kayaly-Syrt, Seit-Eli Nizhny and Tarkhansky No. 2. Near some sources, carbonic waters are revealed by boreholes 100-300 m deep (wells overflow with a flow rate of up to 0.3 l / s) . Mineral carbonic water rises along the cracks of the earth's crust in the areas mainly of the activity of ancient mud volcanism. The content of CO2 in the composition of water gases is from 36 to 96%. At some points in the composition of the gases there is a little hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide. The He:Ar ratio varies from 0.1 to 0.7, which can be attributed to the influx of gas from considerable and great depths. The Ar:N2 ratio indicates that nitrogen in gases is mainly deep-seated, but biochemical nitrogen is also found. There are also mud hills in the area. with the release of a certain amount of CO2 (Bulganaksky, Tarkhansky, etc.) - The presence of traces of mercury was established in the gas emissions of such hills. Obviously, mercury vapor should also be in the gases of carbon dioxide sources.

Carbonic and muddy waters contain fluorine, bromine, iodine, boron, barium, ammonium, nitrates, bituminous substance. Naphthenic acids are absent or present in small amounts. The waters contain (in mg/l): lithium 2.0-6.6; potassium 40-260; silicic acid 0-88; phosphorus (P205) 0-10; strontium 2.0-3.7 iron (Fe2+ + Fe3+) 0-4.0; fluorine 0-0.60; arsenic 0-0.05; boron - a lot (HBO2 800-1600); waters are poor in calcium (0-192) and magnesium (23-120).

Spectral analysis in carbonic waters identified manganese, nickel, cobalt, titanium, vanadium, chromium, molybdenum, zirconium, copper, lead, silver, zinc, tin, gallium, lanthanum, beryllium, mercury, arsenic, antimony, germanium and some other elements. The content of some of them is significant: chromium up to 0.01%, lead up to 0.005%, copper up to 0.001%, zinc up to 0.01%, tin up to 0.1%. Tin content is characteristic of all carbon dioxide sources.

Mercury in a number of cases was determined by the analytical method (0.002-0.005 mg/l). Mercury content according to spectral analysis 4 10-3% in water greatly exceeds its clarke content in the earth's crust (7.7 10-6%).

The total radioactivity, the content of radon, uranium in these waters ranges from 1.3 10-6 - 9.7 10-6 g/l.

carbon dioxide and hilly waters are fissure-vein subthermal (thermal) waters, in which carbon dioxide, boron, lithium, arsenic, antimony, mercury, phosphorus and some other trace elements are interconnected and come from a great depth (endogenous products). Most of them are found in the centers and near the centers of their appearance on the earth's surface. Kerch carbonic springs and hills are a kind of unique, and their waters are very complex in terms of formation conditions. The appearance of metal ions and a number of other (rare) microcomponents in these waters is apparently due to the complexity and considerable depth of their formation with the possible influence of basic (alkaline) igneous rocks bowels In particular, boron here can be in the form of deep volatile compounds with CO2, ammonia, arsenic, antimony, mercury, phosphorus and some other microcomponents in the gas phase. It is probably not necessary to associate the carbonic waters of the Kerch Peninsula with oil factors. These waters are not related to either oil shows or hydrogen sulfide waters confined only to the upper part of the peninsula section.

The formation of the ion-salt and gas composition of the carbonic waters of the Kerch Peninsula is apparently associated with very deep Mesozoic and, possibly, Paleozoic rocks. Small flow rates and low water temperature can be explained by the significant depth of the source of food and the length of the path of their entry along the cracks of the faults through the thick clayey thickness of the Maikop, which prevents vertical movement(rise) of waters to the earth's surface.

The Kerch Peninsula is rich hydrogen sulfide waters varying concentrations, associated mainly with the Chukrak horizon of limestones and sands, occurring on Maikop clays. According to M. M. Fomichev and L. A. Yarotsky, the area of ​​their feeding is the outlets of Chokrak sandy deposits, which are aquifers.

On the wings of anticlines, in places of faults, in relief depressions, in lakes and in places in the Sea of ​​Azov, these waters drain, forming ascending sources. They are also unloaded by boreholes.

The flow rates of hydrogen sulfide water sources are small. Despite this, research data indicate (L.A. Yarotsky) significant “accumulated” resources of hydrogen sulfide waters, as well as the possibility of obtaining them in some areas where there are no hydrogen sulfide sources.

The highest mineralization of hydrogen sulfide waters is observed in the sinkings of small (local) synclinal structures, where the underground runoff is the slowest and therefore the metamorphization is greater. Mineralization of hydrogen sulfide waters from a few to 32.5 g/l with a total hydrogen sulfide content of 5-10 to 360-640 mg/l.

The strongest (highly concentrated) hydrogen sulfide waters are represented by the Chokrak, Karalar, Syuyurtash, Dzhailav and other springs northwest of the city of Kerch in the area Lake Chokrak. Baksin sources northeast of the city of Kerch are less mineralized. They stem from the rocks of the Sarmatian. Strong hydrogen sulfide waters were also found in the southeast of the peninsula in the deposits of the Middle Miocene. Here Maryevsk waters contain total H2S from 40 to 292 mg/l with a mineralization of 9-12 g/l.

Hydrogen sulfide waters of the peninsula are chloride sodium, chloride-hydrocarbonate sodium and others. The content of iodine, bromine and boron in these waters is the greater, the more hydrogen sulfide.

The formation of hydrogen sulfide waters of the Kerch Peninsula is usually explained by reduction processes (reduction of sulfates). However, H2S-rich groundwater can also be explained by microbiological processes. The entire territory of the Kerch region is characterized by one or another contamination with hydrogen sulfide, which in general can be associated with the destruction of oil deposits and restoration processes in clayey strata.

On the southwestern plain of the Kerch Peninsula in 1963, one well (borehole 111 on the Moshkarevskaya anticline) produced a large self-outflow of salty methane thermal water from the Eocene-Upper Cretaceous. Water was revealed in two intervals at a depth of 1007-1030 m with a flow rate of 17.4 l/s and a temperature at the spout of 51°C, at a depth of 1105-1112 m with a flow rate of 10.3 l/s and a temperature at the spout of 54°C. Water is chloride-hydrocarbonate sodium with mineralization in the first interval 9.5 g/l and in the second 10.5 g/l.

In the area of ​​the village Kostyrino(B. Chongelek) in the southeastern part of the peninsula, a well revealed cold and thermal (up to 45 ° C at the outflow) nitrogen waters, insignificant in debit, associated with a small oil field. South of Kerch Kamysh-Buruna cold sodium chloride water with salinity up to 67 g/l was opened, with a significant flow rate in the Neogene deposits.

Plain Crimea

The distribution and diversity of groundwater in the plain Crimea as a whole is associated with a number of aquifers in complexes of various ages - from the Paleozoic to the Neogene inclusive.

On the southern outskirts of the plain Crimea in the Bakhchisarai region (foothills) there is a fresh Obruchev's source with carbon dioxide water in Upper Cretaceous marls. In addition, in the eastern part of this zone, there are areas with some reducing conditions in deposits, mainly of the Paleocene. Here, the waters are low-yielding, with a total hydrogen sulfide content of 10 to 130 mg/l.

On the area of ​​the northern part of the flat Crimea (in Sivash area) also in some places there are hydrogen sulfide waters confined to sediments, mainly of the Middle Miocene. Here, due to the remote position from the recharge area and subsidence of layers, the influence of external factors on the formation of the chemical composition and gas composition of groundwater weakens and the importance of internal and deep impact factors increases. In connection with this, desulfatization processes take place in certain aquifers, a certain reducing environment is created with the formation of hydrogen sulfide (usually weak) waters. Basically, the content of H2S is about 5-10 mg / l, and in the village. Nizhnegorsk(according to M. M. Fomichev) up to 130 mg / l. According to the chemical composition, hydrogen sulfide waters belong to hydrocarbonate-chloride sodium and sodium chloride waters with mineralization from 1-2 to 7-11 g/l.

Nitrogen, methane, mixed gases and other waters are widespread in the area of ​​the Crimean plains and partly in the foothills (near the feeding area). Yes, at Mr. Feodosia and in the city itself there are brackish mineral waters confined to the Cretaceous and Paleocene deposits, associated with tectonic fault cracks in marly rocks. These waters are represented by small springs of Feodosia and Kafa (Narzan Krymsky).

In the Crimean plains, nitrogen and methane waters are thermal from warm to hot when they flow from boreholes. Most of the hydrotherms are confined to confined aquifers, to a lesser extent - to tectonically fractured rocks.

The most ancient rocks in the Crimean plains containing mineral water are the Paleozoic limestones in the city of Kharkiv. Evpatoria. Here, well 2 and 8, chloride sodium nitrogen water was opened at a depth of 871 and 893 m with a flow rate of 7 and 10.4 l / s and a temperature at the spout of 40-41 ° C with a mineralization of 9.3-9.6 g / l. There is some difference in the composition of the gas (gas composition is given as a percentage of the total gas content) of the water of these two wells, namely: in the Moynak water and mud bath, in addition to the main nitrogen, there is CO2 (10.3%), methane - no; hydrogen sulfide 7 mg/l, very little helium (0.013%), radon 2 units. Mahe. In the well near the sea coast, the content of CO2 in the composition of the gas is 15.5%, methane 11.0%, H2S 4 mg/l, an increased content of helium (0.386%), radon 2 units. Mahe. The He:Ar ratio is 0.42. The last well above the Paleozoic revealed mineral water in the Albian deposits at a depth of 525-655 m: the flow rate at the spout is 7 l/sec, the water temperature is 36°C.

Mineral waters of the Middle Jurassic deposits, associated with cracks in conglomerates, are known in the village. Beloglinka 4 km northwest of Simferopol. Opened at a depth of 300-357 m from the surface. Water is poured from two wells with a flow rate of up to 2.5-3.0 l / s at a temperature of 22.7 ° and 24.2 ° C. Mineralization is 3.0-3.2 g / l, according to the type gases. An increased content of helium is noted; the He:Ar ratio is 0.43. Water contains fluorine, arsenic, antimony, iron, manganese, titanium, strontium, zirconium, vanadium, lead, zinc, silver, copper. The content of zinc is up to 0.05%, copper is up to 0.01% according to spectral analysis. The content of fluorine ranges from 0.6-3.5 mg/l. Fluorine, metals, helium in water can be explained by the location of the area on the area Simferopol anticline uplift, where, undoubtedly, Paleozoic deposits are close to the surface, and intrusions are possible at one or another depth. The increased content of helium and fluorine and the presence of metals in the water can also be explained by a fault that passes in this area along the valley of the river. Salgir.

Northeast of the city Old Crimea, at the village Babenkovo, Kirovsky area, in the northern deeply submerged part of the Upper Jurassic limestones of the Agarmysh mountain range at a depth of 728 m, bicarbonate-chloride sodium waters were discovered. AT gas composition water contains nitrogen (35.6%) and methane (61.8%). The flow rate of water from the well at the spout is significant - up to 30 l / s, the water temperature is 32.2 ° C. This type of water is formed in the bowels due to the subsidence of limestone to a fairly significant depth and some distance from the supply area.

Also northeast of the city of Stary Krym, near the village. Goncharovka, in limestones of the Lower Cretaceous, from a depth of 625 m, self-flowing chloride water with a mineralization of 6.2 g/l was discovered. The flow rate at the spout is 8-9 l / s, the water temperature is 32 ° C. The composition of gases includes methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide.

15 km east of the city Belogorsk there is sulfate sodium-calcium source water Medical(b. Katyrsha-Saray) with a very low flow rate and mineralization in different outputs from 3.8 (well) to 7.3 g/l (well). In addition, near the city of Belogorsk (to the south), from a well 10 m deep, chloride-sulphate sodium water of high mineralization was obtained from the same Albian rocks. The mineralization is explained by the salinity of the sandy-argillaceous lagoon deposits of the Albian.

In a wide area of ​​the southern, western, and northwestern parts of the Crimean steppe, in sandy-argillaceous deposits of the Neocomian, a high-pressure, rather abundant aquifer with self-flowing thermal waters was revealed (according to drilling and sampling). The feeding area is located in the foothills of the Crimea, in the area of ​​the Outer mountain range, where the Neocomian waters are fresh hydrocarbonate calcium. In the southernmost part of the flat Crimea, at a dive of up to 300-500 m, the Neocomian waters are also fresh, but with a mineralization already up to 0.8-0.9 g / l, sodium chloride-hydrocarbonate, warm nitrogen. Their temperature is 27-33 ° C. The flow rate at the spout is from 3.3 to 14.0 l / s at different points. Nitrogen in water of air origin.

With distance from the feeding area and with further subsidence in the northwest direction, the chemical composition of the Neocomian waters changes somewhat. So, in vil. Novo-Andreevka(30 km north of Simferopol) and in the area of ​​​​the Saki resort, the Neocomian waters are nitrogenous, hot, chloride-hydrocarbonate sodium with a mineralization of 1.3 to 3.1 g / l and a temperature at the outflow of 39-46.6 ° C. In Novo- Andreevka debit 5.1 l/s; against Chebotarskaya beam, east of the resort saki, initially up to 29 l/s; in the resort of Saki, on the shore of the lake, initially up to 33 l / s. Since 1956, production rates have been gradually falling due to the technical imperfection of wells and are currently much less than indicated. In Novo-Andreevka, water was revealed at a depth of 745-800 m, against the Chebotarskaya beam at a depth of 754-756 m, in the Saki resort 803-816 m. radioactivity.

As you further dive in a northerly direction from the resort of Saki ( Novoselovskoe 40 km north of the city of Yevpatoriya) the waters of the Neocomian deposits become chloride sodium with a mineralization of 9 to 36 g / l and a temperature at the spout of 50 to 58 ° C. In the southern part of the region, the Neocomian rocks lie at a depth (at different points from the surface) from 816 to 1055 m, in the northern one from 1140 to 1291 m.

The flow rate of water from wells at the spout is from 1.0 to 12.0 l / s. The gas here has a more complex composition. In the southern part of the Novoselovsky district, gas is represented by N2 and CH4, and in the northernmost part by CO2, N2 and CH4. The water of the Neocomian deposits contains iodine, bromine, boron, lithium, arsenic and a number of other microcomponents (iron, titanium, vanadium, zinc, manganese, strontium, zirconium, barium, lanthanum, scandium, beryllium, bismuth).

The temperature of the Neocomian waters is high, not corresponding to the depth of occurrence. The geothermal step is very low. On the Tarkhankut peninsula at the village Chalky in the Upper Cretaceous marls at a depth of 1604-1777 m, methane chloride sodium water was discovered with a flow rate of 29 l/s at the spout and a temperature of 42-43°C; mineralization of water 18.5 g/l. Methane chloride sodium waters were discovered in the Paleocene marls. The most interesting well in the village. Glebovo, the depth of water break here is 1036-1138 m; flow rate and water temperature at the spout are 13.3 l/sec and 62°C. The waters of the Paleocene of the Tarkhankut Peninsula are characterized by the presence of ammonium from 30 to 150 mg/l.

In the Paleocene, 9 km southwest Dzhankoya methane chloride sodium water was also found at a depth of 1145 m; flow rate at the outlet from the well 0.42 l/sec, water temperature 30°C; mineralization 24.0 g/l.

In the deep horizons of the Paleogene, Cretaceous and Paleozoic deposits within the plains of the Crimea, in the Tertiary and underlying deposits on the Kerch Peninsula, high-thermal waters are widespread. On the southern coast, thermal waters have also been discovered in the Taurian shales. The temperatures of deep waters, judging by geothermal measurements, should reach 100°C at depths of 1800-2500 m, and where the geothermal level is lowered, even at shallower depths. It can be assumed that the high-temperature waters of some areas of the Crimea are associated with the influence of young intrusions frozen at depth, or with the inflow of heat from great depths along tectonic faults known in these areas (Tarkhankut uplift and the eastern part of the Kerch Peninsula).

Some of the mineral thermal waters can (very limitedly) be used as a source of heat in the national economy (for domestic purposes, for greenhouses, etc.). However, in Soviet times, only a few collective farms used them for baths and showers.

Source: www.tour.crimea.com

Mineral and thermal waters of Crimea// Geology of the USSR. Volume VIII. Crimea. Minerals. M., "Nedra", 1974. 208 p.