What are underground mineral fresh thermal waters. The issues of prospecting, exploration and geological and industrial assessment of thermal water deposits are considered in detail in the manuals (6.8–10)

The national economic use of mineralized (salty) groundwater is becoming increasingly significant. In addition to their wide use for water supply (mainly for industrial and technical, for household and drinking after desalination and water treatment) and irrigation, they are used in balneology, the chemical industry and thermal power engineering. In the last three cases, mineralized The groundwater(usually with a salinity of more than 1 g/l) must meet the requirements for mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters (1, 3-5, 7-12).

Mineral (medicinal) waters include natural waters that have a therapeutic effect on the human body, due either to an increased content of useful, biologically active components of the ion-salt or gas composition, or the general ion-salt composition of water (1, 3, 7). Mineral waters are very diverse in terms of genesis, mineralization (from fresh to highly concentrated brines), chemical composition (microcomponents, gases, ionic composition), temperature (from cold to high-thermal), but their main and common indicator is the ability to have a therapeutic effect on the human body.

Industrial waters include groundwater containing useful components or their compounds in solution ( salt, iodine, bromine, boron, lithium, potassium, strontium, barium, tungsten, etc.) in concentrations of industrial interest. Underground industrial waters can contain physiologically active components, have an elevated temperature (up to high-thermal) and mineralization (usually saline waters and brines), have a different origin (sedimentary, infiltration and other waters), and be characterized by a wide regional distribution.

Underground waters with a temperature exceeding the temperature of the “neutral layer” are classified as thermal. In practice, waters with temperatures above 20-37°C are considered thermal (4, 6-9, 12). Depending on the geothermal and geological-hydrogeological conditions, as well as the geochemical conditions of formation, thermal waters may contain elevated concentrations of industrially valuable elements and their compounds and have an active physiological effect on the human body, i.e. meet the requirements for mineral waters. Often, therefore, it is possible and expedient to use thermal waters for balneology, industrial extraction of useful components, heating and thermal power engineering. Naturally, the assessment of the prospects for the practical use of thermal groundwater requires taking into account not only their temperature (thermal energy potential), but also the chemical and gas composition, the conditions for the industrial extraction of useful microcomponents, the area's needs for groundwater of various types (mineral, industrial, thermal), the sequence and technologies for the use of thermal waters and other factors.

The needs of an intensively developing national economy and the tasks of ensuring the steady growth of the people's well-being determine the need for a broader setting of prospecting and exploration work on mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters.

The methodology of their hydrogeological studies depends on each specific field on the characteristics of the natural conditions for the formation and distribution of the considered types of groundwater, the degree of knowledge and complexity of hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical conditions, the specifics and scale of groundwater use, and other factors. However, even a simple analysis of the above definitions of mineral, industrial and thermal waters indicates a certain generality of the conditions for their formation, occurrence and distribution. This gives grounds to outline a unified scheme for their study and to characterize the general issues of the methodology of their hydrogeological studies.

§ 1. Some general questions of prospecting and exploration of deposits of mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters

Mineral, industrial and thermal waters are widely distributed on the territory of the USSR. Unlike fresh groundwater, they are opened, as a rule, in deeper structural horizons, have increased mineralization, specific microcomponent and gas composition, are characterized by an insignificant dependence of their regime on climatic factors, often complex hydrogeochemical features, manifestations of an elastic regime during operation, and other hallmarks that determine the specifics of their hydrogeological studies. In particular, mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters of significant mineralization have a wide regional distribution within the deep parts of the artesian basins of platforms, foothill troughs and mountain-folded areas. Mineral, thermal, and less commonly industrial waters that are specific in some respects are found in areas of individual crystalline massifs and areas of modern volcanic activity. Within the limits of these territories, according to the commonality of geological-structural, hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical, geothermal and other conditions, characteristic provinces, regions, districts and deposits of mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters are distinguished. In accordance with the previously given definition (see Chapter I, § 1), deposits include spatially contoured accumulations of groundwater, the quality and quantity of which ensure their economically feasible use in national economy(in balneology, for the industrial extraction of useful components, in thermal power engineering, their integrated use), The economic feasibility of using mineral, industrial and thermal groundwater at each specific field must be established and proven by feasibility studies performed in the process of designing exploration work , study of the deposit and assessment of its operational reserves. The indicators that determine the economic feasibility of exploiting a particular groundwater deposit and on the basis of which an assessment of its operational reserves is given are called standard. Conditional indicators are requirements for the quality of groundwater, and the conditions for their operation, under which it is possible to use them economically with a water withdrawal equal in size to the established operational reserves. Usually, the conditions take into account the requirements for the general chemical composition of groundwater, the content of individual components and gases (biologically active, industrially valuable, harmful, etc.), temperature, well operating conditions (minimum flow rate, maximum level decrease, discharge conditions Wastewater, life of wells, etc.), the depth of productive horizons, etc.

The areas of deposits within which it is economically feasible to use groundwater for the purposes of balneology, industry or thermal power engineering are called operational. They are identified and studied in the course of special prospecting and exploration works, which are carried out in full accordance with general principles hydrogeological research (see details in Chapter I, § 3).

Exploration work is one of the most important elements in the rational development of deposits of mineralized groundwater (1, 5, 10). Their main goal is to identify deposits of mineral, industrial or thermal underground waters, study geological and hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and geothermal conditions, assess the quality, quantity and conditions for the rational economic use of their operational reserves.

In accordance with the general principles of prospecting and exploration work and the current regulations, hydrogeological studies of the named types of groundwater are carried out sequentially in compliance with the established staging of work; prospecting, preliminary reconnaissance, detailed reconnaissance and operational reconnaissance (1,2, 5-10). Depending on the specific conditions of the deposits under consideration, the degree of their exploration and complexity, the size of water consumption and other factors, in some cases it is possible to combine individual stages (with good knowledge of the deposit and a small need for water), in others there is a large demand for water, difficult natural conditions, weak exploration of the territory) it may be necessary to identify additional stages (substages) within the individual established stages of hydrogeological research. Thus, when exploring thermal waters and designing their industrial development with a small number of production wells, due to the very significant cost of building exploration wells, it seems justified and expedient to combine preliminary exploration with detailed exploration and drilling exploration and production wells (with their subsequent transfer to the category of production wells). When prospecting for industrial groundwater, research is often carried out in two stages (substages). At the first stage, based on the materials of previous studies, areas of distribution of industrial waters that are promising for prospecting and exploration are identified, and locations for exploratory wells are outlined. At the second stage of the exploratory stage, the identified areas (deposits) are studied by drilling and testing exploratory wells. The purpose of the study is the selection of productive horizons and areas of deposits that are promising for exploration (5.8).

Searches for mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters in each area should be linked to the prospects for economic development, the needs for a certain type of groundwater and the expediency of their use in a given area.

To the number common tasks works of the exploration stage include: identifying the main patterns of the distribution of mineralized waters, identifying certain types of their deposits or areas that are promising for the opening of mineral (industrial, or thermal) groundwater, and, if necessary, studying these deposits and areas by drilling and testing exploratory wells and sometimes carrying out special survey works (hydrogeological, hydrochemical, gas, thermometric and other types of surveys).

One of the main and obligatory types of research at the search stage is the collection, analysis and purposeful thorough generalization of all hydrogeological materials collected in the research area (especially materials of deep reference and oil drilling and materials of the multi-volume edition "Hydrogeology of the USSR"), compiling the necessary maps, diagrams, sections , profiles, etc. Since drilling exploratory wells to deep horizons is expensive (the cost of a well with a depth of 1.5-2.5 km is 100-200 thousand rubles or more), it is advisable to use previously drilled wells for research (exploration wells oil and gas, reference, etc.).

As a result of exploration work, productive horizons and areas that are promising for exploration should be identified, approximate standard indicators should be developed and an approximate assessment of operational reserves within the selected areas should be given (usually in categories C 1 + C 2), the economic feasibility of exploration should be substantiated and priority objects.

In the process of preliminary exploration, the geological and hydrogeological conditions of the sites identified as a result of the search (there may be one or more) are studied to obtain data for their comparative assessment and substantiation of the object for detailed exploration. With the help of drilling and comprehensive testing of exploratory wells located over the area of ​​the study area (areas), the filtration properties of productive horizons, the water-physical characteristics of rocks and water, the chemical, gas and microcomponent composition of groundwater, geothermal conditions and other indicators necessary for compiling preliminary conditions and a preliminary estimate of operating reserves (usually in categories B and Ci).

With insufficient regional knowledge, in order to clarify the hydrogeological conditions in the zone of the alleged influence of the water intake (parameters, boundary conditions, etc.), it is advisable to lay separate exploration wells outside the studied production area (and, if possible, use previously drilled wells for this purpose). Since the cost of deep drilling is high, exploration wells at the preliminary exploration stage should be drilled with a small diameter and used later as observation and monitoring wells. In order to assess the industrial and balneological value and features of the further use of groundwater in the process of preliminary exploration, a special technological (for industrial waters) and laboratory (for all types of waters) study should be carried out.

Based on the results of preliminary exploration, a feasibility report (TED) is compiled, substantiating the expediency of setting up detailed exploration work at a particular site. TED is not obligatory only when studying mineral waters.

The report highlights the geological structure, hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and geothermal conditions of the explored areas, the results of the assessment of operational groundwater reserves and the main technical and economic indicators that substantiate the feasibility and effectiveness of their national economic use.

A detailed exploration of a production site is carried out in order to study its geological-hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and geothermal conditions in more detail and to reasonably calculate the exploitable groundwater reserves of productive horizons by categories that allow allocation of capital investments for the design of their exploitation (usually by categories A + B + Ci). Operating reserves are estimated conventional methods(hydrodynamic, hydraulic, modeling and combined based on the conditional requirements approved by the GKZ) (1, 2, 5, 6, 8-10).

Detailed exploration and evaluation of operational reserves are carried out in relation to the most rational scheme for the location of production wells in the conditions of the field under study. Taking into account this provision, as well as for economic reasons, exploration and production wells are laid in the process of detailed exploration, the design of which must satisfy the conditions for their subsequent operation. At the detailed stage, cluster pumping is mandatory (and in difficult natural conditions, long-term pilot pumping). Special observation wells are constructed only when productive horizons occur at a depth of no more than 500 m; in other conditions, exploratory and exploration wells are used as observation points. If necessary, they are concentrated in the areas of experimental bushes due to their partial discharge in areas with simpler natural conditions.

In accordance with the intended purpose, in the process of prospecting and exploration, wells of the following categories are usually laid on deep mineral (mineralized) waters: exploration, exploration (experimental and observational), exploration and production and production. Since, in deep drilling, wells are the most reliable and often the only source of information about the target being explored, each of them must be carefully documented and examined during its drilling (selection and study of core, cuttings, mud, the use of formation testers) and appropriately tested after structures (special geophysical, hydrogeological, thermometric and other studies).

During hydrogeological and other types of sampling deep wells mineral, industrial and thermal groundwater should be taken into account specific features, due to the chemical composition and physical properties of groundwater (the effect of dissolved gas, the density and viscosity of the liquid, changes in temperature), design features wells (pressure loss to overcome resistance when water moves along the wellbore) and other factors.

Hydrogeological testing of wells is carried out by releases (with groundwater self-draining) or pumping (usually by airlift, less often by artesian or rod pumps). The scheme of equipment and testing of wells that provide water by self-spill is shown in fig. 57. In this test, tubing is used to run downhole tools and is used as a piezometer for level observations. Their shoe is usually installed at a depth that excludes the release of free gas. The scheme of equipment and testing of wells with a water level below the mouth with an airlift is shown in fig. 58.

In practice, single-row and double-row airlift schemes are used. According to the conditions for measuring the dynamic level, a two-row scheme is more appropriate. Before testing, reservoir pressure (static level), water temperature in the reservoir and at the wellhead are measured, during testing - flow rate, dynamic level (bottomhole pressure), wellhead temperature, gas factor. Water and gas samples are taken and analyzed.

The accuracy of measurements of static and dynamic water levels is affected by dissolved gas, changes in water temperature, resistance to the movement of water in pipes. The influence of the GOR can be eliminated by measuring levels in piezometers lowered below the zone of free gas release, or by depth gauges. Otherwise, the measured water level in the well will differ from the true one by the value ΔS r determined by the formula of E. E. Kerkis:

v 0 - gas factor, m 3 /m 3; R o, P 1 and R r - the value of atmospheric pressure, wellhead and saturation, Pa; - temperature coefficient, equal to τ= 1+t/273 (where t is the temperature of the gas mixture, 0 С); ρ is the density of water, kg / m 3; g- acceleration free fall, m/s 2 .

Figure 57. Scheme of equipment and testing of wells that provide water

self-draining: 1 - lubricator; 2 - manometers; 3 - X-mas tree; 4 - ladder-gas separator; 5 - gas flow rate meter; 6-dimensional capacity; 7 - valve; 8 - tubing; 9 - aquifer

Rice. 58. Scheme of equipment and testing of wells with a water level below the mouth

When pumping thermal waters from a well, an elongation of the water column in it is observed due to an increase in temperature; when idle, the “shrinkage” of the column due to its cooling is observed. Temperature correction value Δ St ° at known values water temperature at the mouth before pumping out t p ° and at the outflow t p ° Can be determined by formula (5):

, (XI.1)

where H 0 - column of water in the well, m; ρ(t 0 °) and ρ(t π °) are the density of water at temperatures t 0 ° and t π °. At large well depths (≈2000 m and more), the temperature correction can reach 10–20 m.

When determining the level drop during pumping from deep wells, it is also necessary to take into account the pressure loss ΔS n to overcome the resistance to the movement of water in the wellbore, determined by the formula (IV.35).

Taking into account the nature of the influence of the considered factors, the permissible value of the decrease in the level S d taken into account when assessing the operational reserves of mineral, industrial and thermal groundwater is determined by the formula

(XI.3)

where h d is the allowable depth of the dynamic level from the wellhead (determined by the capabilities of the water-lifting equipment); P and - excess groundwater pressure above the wellhead; ΔS r , ΔS t ° and ΔS n are corrections that take into account the influence of the gas factor, temperature and hydraulic pressure losses and are determined respectively by formulas (XI.1), (XI.2) and (IV.35).

Exploitation exploration is carried out on exploited or prepared for exploitation sites and deposits. It aims at hydrogeological substantiation of the increase in operational reserves and their transfer to higher categories in terms of the degree of knowledge, adjustment of the conditions and mode of operation of water intake facilities, implementation of forecasts when the mode of their operation changes, etc. In the process of operational exploration, systematic observations are made of the regime of underground waters under their operating conditions. If it is necessary to ensure the growth of operational reserves, exploration work is possible in areas adjacent to the operational area (if this is necessary according to geological and hydrogeological indicators).

These are general provisions and principles of hydrogeological studies of deposits of mineral, industrial and thermal underground waters. The features of their implementation at each specific site are determined depending on the geological-structural, hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical conditions of the studied deposits, the degree of their knowledge, the given water demand and other factors, the consideration of which ensures targeted, scientifically based and effective prospecting and exploration and rational economic development of groundwater deposits (1, 2, 5-10).

§ 2. Some features of hydrogeological studies of mineral, industrial and thermal groundwater

Mineral water. For attribution natural waters the mineral category currently uses the standards established by the Central Institute of Balneology and Physiotherapy and defining the lower limits for the content of individual components of water (in mg / l): mineralization - 2000, free carbon dioxide - 500, total hydrogen sulfide -10, iron - 20, elemental arsenic - 0.7, bromine - 25, iodine - 5, lithium - 5, silicic acid - 50, boric acid - 50, fluorine - 2, strontium-10, barium - 5, radium - 10 -8, radon (in units Mahe; 1 Mahe ≈13.5 10 3 m -3 -s -1 \u003d 13.5 l -1 s -1) - 14.

To assign mineral waters to one or another type of mineralization, the content of biologically active components, gases and other indicators, the evaluation criteria regulated by GOST 13273-73 (1, 3, 8) are used. Below are the maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of some components established for mineral waters (in mg / l): ammonium (NH 4) + - 2.0, nitrites (NO 2) - -2.0, nitrates (NO 3) - -50.0, vanadium -0.4, arsenic - 3.0, mercury - 0.02, lead - 0.3, selenium - 0.05, fluorine - 8, chromium -0.5, phenols - 0.001, radium -5 10 -7, uranium - 0.5. The number of colonies of microorganisms in 1 ml of water should not exceed 100, if the index is 3. The specified norms and values ​​​​of MPC. should be taken into account when characterizing the quality of mineral waters and geological and industrial assessment of their deposits.

The mineral waters of the USSR are represented by all their main types: carbonic, hydrogen sulfide, carbonic-hydrogen sulfide, radon, iodine, bromine, ferruginous, arsenic, acidic, slightly mineralized, thermal, as well as non-specific and brine mineral waters. They are widely distributed within artesian basins. different order, fissure water systems, tectonic zones and disturbances, massifs of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Mineral water deposits are classified according to various criteria (by type of mineral water, by the conditions of their formation and other indicators) (1, 3, 7, 8).

For exploration, the typification of deposits according to their geological-structural and hydrogeological conditions is of particular interest. According to these features, 6 characteristic types of mineral water deposits are distinguished: 1) reservoir deposits of platform artesian basins, 2) reservoir deposits of foothill and intermountain artesian basins and artesian slopes, 3) deposits of artesian basins and slopes associated with zones of discharge of deep mineral waters into overlying pressure aquifers (“hydro-injection” type), 4) deposits of fissure-vein water-pressure systems, 5) deposits confined to zones of discharge of pressure flows in the groundwater basin (“hydro-injection” type), 6) deposits of ground mineral waters (1,2) .

The deposits of the first two types are characterized by relatively simple hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical conditions, significant excess head and natural reserves. Identification of prospective areas for exploration is possible based on the analysis of regional hydrogeological materials; exploration by drilling and testing of single wells (rarely clusters) is recommended. Estimation of operational reserves is expedient by hydrodynamic and hydraulic (with significant tectonic disturbance of rocks and gas saturation of water) methods.

Deposits of other types, and especially those of the third, fifth, and sixth, are distinguished by much more complex hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical conditions. They are characterized by limited areas of development of mineral waters (like domes), variability of boundaries, reserves and chemical composition in time and during pumping, limited operational reserves. To allocate areas for exploration, in addition to a comprehensive analysis of regional materials, it is often necessary to conduct exploratory geophysical, thermometric and other types of research, drilling exploratory and exploratory-probing wells and their mass deep testing, and special survey work. Such deposits are explored by drilling wells along exploration sites and special areal surveys. Due to the significant instability of the chemical composition and the dependence of operational reserves on the geological, tectonic and geothermal conditions for the inflow of the mineral component and the formation of the dome of mineral waters, their assessment is carried out mainly by the hydraulic method, the use of the modeling method is promising.

The issues of methodology for hydrogeological studies of the identified types of mineral water deposits are considered in detail in special methodological literature (1, 2, 8). The work of G. S. Vartanyan (2) especially highlights the methodology for prospecting and exploration of mineral water deposits in fissure massifs with their detailed typification and analysis of the features of studying each of the identified types of deposits.

industrial water. As criteria for classifying mineralized natural waters as industrial, some conditional standard indicators are used that determine the minimum concentrations of useful microcomponents and the maximum permissible harmful components that complicate the technology of industrial development of underground mineralized waters.

Currently, such indicators are established only for some types of industrial waters: iodine (iodine at least 18 mg / l), bromine (bromine at least 250 mg / l), iodine-bromine (iodine at least 10, bromine at least 200 mg / l). l), iodo-boron (iodine not less than 10, boron not less than 500 mg/l). The content of naphthenic acids in water should not exceed 600 mg / l, oil - 40 mg / l, halogen absorption should not exceed 80 mg / l, alkalinity of water - no more than 10-90 mol / l.

Relevant research is being carried out to study the conditions for extracting some other industrially valuable components from groundwater: boron, lithium, strontium, potassium, magnesium, cesium, rubidium, germanium, etc.

The above indicators do not take into account the operating conditions of industrial waters, the method of extracting microcomponents, the conditions for the discharge of waste water and other factors that determine the economic feasibility of the industrial extraction of microcomponents. Their use is advisable only for general tentative estimates of the possibility of industrial development of groundwater. At the same time, it is conditionally assumed that at a well depth of 1-2 km and the limiting position of the dynamic level at a depth of 300-800 m, the flow rate of individual wells should be at least 300-1000 m 3 /day. Actual indicators that determine the conditions for the appropriate use of industrial waters of a particular deposit for the extraction of industrial components are established in the process of prospecting and exploration work on the basis of variant technical and economic calculations. These are the so-called standard indicators, which are the basis of the geological and industrial assessment of industrial water deposits.

Underground industrial waters are increasingly attracting close attention scientists as a source of mineral resources and energy resources. It is known that in addition to the main salts - sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium chlorides - mineralized underground waters and brines contain a huge complex of metallic and non-metallic microcomponents (including rare and trace chemical elements), the complex extraction of which can make these waters exclusively valuable raw materials for the chemical and energy industries and significantly increase the economic efficiency of their industrial use.

In the Soviet Union, industrial waters are mainly used for the extraction of iodine and bromine. A technology is being developed for the industrial extraction from groundwater and some other microcomponents (lithium, strontium, potassium, magnesium, cesium, rubidium, etc.). In the USA, apart from iodine and bromine, lithium, tungsten and salts (CaCl 2 , MgSO 4 , Mg (OH) 2 , KCl and MgCl 2) are mined from groundwater. Underground mineralized waters and brines of industrial importance are widely developed on the territory of the USSR. They are usually located in deep parts artesian basins of ancient and epihercynian platforms, foothill and intermountain depressions of the alpine geosynclinal zone in the south of the USSR. Generalization a large number regional materials allowed a team of Soviet hydrogeologists to compile a map of the industrial waters of the territory of the USSR, on the basis of which a schematic map of promising regions of the USSR was drawn up. Various types industrial waters (5, 6). At present, under the guidance of the staff of the VSEGINGEO institute, maps of the regional assessment of the operational and forecast reserves of industrial waters are being compiled for individual regions and the territory of the USSR as a whole.

An analysis of regional materials and experience in the exploration of industrial waters indicates that, for exploration and geological and industrial assessment, according to the peculiarities of the nature of occurrence, distribution and hydrodynamic conditions, industrial water deposits can be divided into two main types:

1) deposits located in large and medium artesian basins of platform areas, marginal and foothill troughs, characterized by a relatively calm regional distribution of sustained productive horizons, and

2) deposits confined to the water-driven systems of mountain-folded areas, characterized by the presence of complexly dislocated structures with tectonic faults of a discontinuous nature, separating the productive aquifers of the stratigraphic complexes of the same name.

The belonging of industrial water deposits to one or another type determines the features of conducting hydrogeological studies during their exploration and geological and industrial assessment.

When studying deposits of industrial waters and preparing them for industrial development, it is necessary, first of all, to identify: 1) the size of the deposit; 2) its position within the water pressure system; 3) the depth and thickness of the industrial aquifer; 4) hydrogeological and hydrodynamic features, etc. Taken together, these factors make it possible to assess the hydrogeological conditions of the deposit, substantiate the basic design scheme, assess the quantity, quality and conditions of occurrence of industrial waters, conduct a geological and industrial assessment of the deposit and outline rational ways its development.

Despite the variety of conditions for the occurrence and distribution of industrial waters, their deposits are characterized by the following common features that determine the features of their prospecting and exploration: 1) the location of productive horizons in the deep parts of artesian basins (their occurrence depth reaches 2000-3000 m or more); 2) wide distribution of productive deposits, their relative persistence and high water abundance; 3) significant size of deposits and their operational reserves; 4) manifestation of the elastic water-pressure regime during operation; 5) the presence of several productive horizons in the context of deposits; 6) limited areas within which the exploitation of the deposit is rational, etc.

Each of the above features characterizing underground industrial waters determines special approach in the search and exploration of their deposits. Thus, the deep occurrence of the productive formation and the presence of several industrial horizons in the section of the field necessitates the drilling of deep expensive wells and complex geological and hydrogeological testing of them, ensuring the possibility of using exploratory wells for exploration, and exploratory wells for operation, wide involvement of materials from regional studies and the use of oil and gas wells for exploration purposes. The wide regional distribution of productive deposits, the great depth of their occurrence and the peculiarities of the formation of operational reserves in the elastic water-driven mode of operation lead to the need to study the hydrogeological parameters of aquifers over a large area of ​​their distribution and to identify geological and structural features to establish the boundaries of operational areas, etc.

The functions of prospecting, exploratory, exploration and development and production wells in the study of industrial waters are especially significant and diverse. Based on the results of the study of well sections during drilling (study of core, cuttings, mud, mechanical logging, geophysical surveys, special methods) and their subsequent testing, the tasks of stratigraphic, lithological and hydrogeological subdivision of the productive part of the section, assessment physical properties, chemical and gas composition of groundwater, identification of the geochemical situation of the site, reservoir properties of productive horizons, well operating conditions, determination of technological indicators of industrial waters, etc.

The most appropriate methods for estimating operating margins are hydrodynamic, modeling, and less often hydraulic. For deposits of industrial waters in large artesian basins of platform areas and medium artesian basins of marginal and foothill troughs, characterized by a wide regional distribution of productive horizons and relatively simple hydrogeological conditions, the most appropriate is the use of hydrodynamic methods. The legitimacy of schematization of individual elements of hydrogeological conditions can be substantiated by the results of modeling, experimental data, etc. With a significant degree of knowledge of the field, it is possible to estimate operational reserves using modeling methods.

For deposits of industrial waters in geosynclinal areas, characterized by uneven productive horizons and complex hydrogeological conditions (heterogeneity, the presence of supply contours, wedging out, displacements, etc.), it is advisable to use complex hydrodynamic and hydraulic methods for assessing operational reserves. With a significant degree of knowledge, it is possible to use hydrodynamic methods and modeling, and in some fields, the modeling method can be recommended as an independent method for assessing production reserves.

Feasibility calculations and justifications are essential in the geological and industrial assessment of industrial and thermal water deposits and the choice of ways for their rational national economic use. The principles of such calculations and justifications were set forth earlier (see Chapter IX, §2 and 3) and discussed in detail in the methodological manual (5).

When exploring, geological and industrial assessment and justification of projects for the development of industrial water deposits, one should keep in mind the possibility of exploiting industrial waters under conditions of reservoir pressure maintenance (RPM). The possibility and expediency of using this method are determined by the current lack of water-lifting equipment that ensures the operation of wells at level drops of more than 300 m from the earth's surface and well flow rates of 500-1000 m 3 /day or more, as well as great difficulties in organizing the discharge of waste water by surface (high cost of wastewater treatment, lack of facilities for water discharge or their great remoteness, etc.). Under such conditions, the method of exploiting industrial waters with the re-injection of waste waters into productive formations and maintaining the necessary formation pressure in them seems to be the most advantageous. At the same time, along with maintaining favorable operating conditions for wells (high dynamic level, the possibility of using various kinds high-capacity water-lifting equipment, constancy of operation mode, etc.) ensures the utilization of waste water by the enterprise, creates opportunities for a significant increase in operating reserves and a more complete drawdown of natural reserves of industrial water, pollution of surface watercourses is excluded, etc.

Evaluation of the operational reserves of industrial waters and designing their development are possible only on the basis of taking into account and an appropriate forecast of the operating conditions of production and injection wells, the nature and pace of progress of substandard waters injected into productive formations (with the obligatory consideration of the effect of heterogeneity of reservoir properties), assessment of the scale of dilution of industrial waters, substantiation of the most rational layout of water intake and injection wells. To solve these problems, it may be necessary to set up special experimental work and test wells, use modeling to implement hydrodynamic and hydrogeochemical forecasts of the field development process, development effective means control and management of the operation of water intake and injection wells.

Thermal waters. Thermal waters include waters with a temperature above 37 ° C (in practice, waters with a temperature of more than 20 ° C are often taken into account). Groundwater with a temperature above 100°C is classified as a steam hydrotherm (8-10).

Thermal waters are widespread on the territory of the USSR. They usually occur at considerable depths within platform and mountain-folded areas, as well as in areas of young and modern volcanism. In many areas, thermal waters are both mineral (that is, they have balneological value), and often industrial (or rather, all industrial underground waters are thermal). This circumstance predetermines great prospects for their integrated national economic use.

The beautiful fairy-tale city of Teplogorsk with clean air and streets, with thermal swimming pools, a geothermal power plant, heated streets, an evergreen park, subtropical vegetation and healing baths in houses, described in I. M. Dvorov's book "Deep Heat of the Earth", is not a fairy tale , but a reality of tomorrow, which will come true through the use of thermal groundwater. Teplogorsk is a prototype of the cities of the near future in Kamchatka, Chukotka and the Kuril Islands, in Western Siberia and many other regions of the USSR.

Thermal waters are used in thermal power engineering, heating, for hot water supply, cold supply (creation of highly efficient refrigeration plants), in greenhouse and greenhouse facilities, in balneology, etc. (4, 6, 9). The prospects for the use of thermal waters on the territory of the USSR are reflected in the schematic map shown in fig. 7 (see Ch. II).

According to preliminary calculations (4), the predicted reserves of thermal waters (up to a depth of 3500 m) in the territory of the USSR are 19,750 thousand m 3 /day, and operational - 7900 thousand m 3 /day. With an increase in the depth of well drilling for thermal waters, their thermal energy potential can increase significantly.

For exploration and evaluation of exploitable reserves, thermal water deposits can be typified as follows:

1) deposits of artesian basins of platform type,

2) deposits of artesian basins of piedmont troughs and intermontane depressions, 3) deposits of fissure systems of igneous and metamorphic rocks, 4) deposits of fissure systems of volcanic and volcanic-sedimentary rocks.

The deposits of thermal waters of the first two types are similar to the corresponding types of deposits of industrial waters, the features of prospecting and exploration of which were considered earlier. The hydrodynamic method is the most effective for estimating the operational reserves of thermal waters of such deposits.

Deposits of fissure systems of igneous and metamorphic rocks, rejuvenated mountain-folded systems are characterized by thermal water outlets along the lines of tectonic faults, insignificant natural reserves of thermal waters, influence on their regime and conditions of movement of overlying groundwater. Therefore, at the stage of exploration, large-scale structural-hydrogeological and thermometric surveys (detection of tectonic faults, fracture zones, zones of thermal water movement, etc.) are expedient here. In wells, it is advisable to carry out a complex of thermometric and geophysical studies and their zonal hydrogeological testing. At the stage of preliminary exploration, exploration and production wells (with systematic observations for the mode of flow, levels, temperature, chemical composition of groundwater). Exploitation reserves are best assessed by the hydraulic method, combining preliminary exploration with detailed exploration. If it is possible to pull up waters that are substandard in temperature during operation, it is advisable to preliminarily lay observation wells along the alignment passing through the zone of thermal water discharge.

The deposits of fissure systems in areas of modern and recent volcanism are distinguished by a small depth of occurrence, high temperature and low mineralization of thermal waters, the presence of numerous thermal anomalies, fracturing of reservoirs, the manifestation of parahydrotherms (characterized by temperature, flow rate, steam pressure and water level, which determine the height of the release of water and steam). At the search stage, aerial photography, surface thermometric surveys (measurement of temperature in springs, surface water bodies, mud pots, etc.), hydrogeological surveys, and geophysical surveys are effective. Deposits and areas are delineated using geothermal maps and profiles. Exploratory wells are placed along the established tectonic faults, to which the centers of unloading of steam hydrotherms are confined.

Operating reserves are usually estimated by the hydraulic method. To evaluate steam hydrotherms, it is necessary to predict all the components characterizing them (temperature, steam consumption and pressure, water level).

Specific issues that need to be addressed when assessing the operational reserves of thermal waters include the following: 1) forecasting the water temperature at the wellhead of a production well (according to thermometric observations along the wellbore and using analytical solutions), 2) assessing and accounting for the influence of the gas factor (measurement gas factor and the introduction of amendments in determining and forecasting the position of water levels), 3) calculations and forecasts for pulling cold water contours from the areas of recharge and discharge of groundwater.

The issues of prospecting, exploration and geological and industrial assessment of thermal water deposits are considered in detail in the manuals (6,8-10).

LITERATURE

1. Vartanyan G. S., Yarotsky L. A. Search, exploration and evaluation of operational reserves of mineral water deposits (methodological guide). M., "Nedra", 1972, 127 p.

2. Vartanyan G. S. Search and exploration of mineral water deposits in fractured massifs. M., "Nedra", 1973, 96 p.

3. Mineral drinking, medicinal and medicinal table waters. GOST 13273-73. M., Standartgiz, 1975, 33 p.

4. Dvorov I. M. Deep heat of the Earth. M., "Nauka", 1972, 206 p.

5. Surveys and assessment of industrial groundwater reserves (methodological guide). M, "Nedra", 1971, 244 p.

6. Mavritsky B. F., Antonenko G. K. Experience in research, exploration and use in practical purposes thermal waters in the USSR and abroad. M., "Nedra", 1967, 178 p.

7. Ovchinnikov A. M. Mineralnye vody. Ed. 2nd. M., Goeoltekhizdat. 1963, 375 p.

8. Reference manual of a hydrogeologist. Ed. 2nd, vol. 1. L., "Nedra", 1967, 592 p.

9. Frolov N. M., Hydrogeothermy. M., "Nedra", 1968, 316 p.

10. Frolov N. M., Yazvin L. S. Search, exploration and assessment of operational reserves of thermal waters. M., 1969, 176 p.

11. Shvets V. M. organic matter groundwater. M., "Nedra", 1973, 192 p.

12. Shcherbakov A. V. Geochemistry of thermal waters. M., "Nauka", 1968, 234 p.

thermal springs or hot waters of the Earth- this is another amazing gift of nature to man. thermal springs are an indispensable element global ecosystem our planet.

Briefly define what is thermal springs.

thermal springs

Thermal springs are underground water temperatures above 20°C. Note that it is more "scientific" to say geothermal springs, since in this version the prefix "geo" indicates the source of water heating.

Ecological Encyclopedic Dictionary

Hot springs - sources of thermal waters with a temperature of up to 95-98 ° C. Distributed mainly in mountainous areas; are extreme natural conditions for the spread of life on Earth; they are inhabited by a specific group of thermophilic bacteria.

Ecological encyclopedic Dictionary. - Chisinau: Main edition of the Moldavian Soviet Encyclopedia. I.I. Grandpa. 1989

Technical Translator's Handbook

thermal springs
Sources with a temperature significantly higher than the average annual air temperature near the source.

Handbook of the technical translator. - Intent. 2009 - 2013

Classification of thermal springs

Classification thermal springs depending on the temperature of their waters:

• thermal springs with warm waters - springs whose water temperature is above 20 ° C;
• Thermal springs with hot water— springs with a water temperature of 37-50°С;
• Thermal springs, which chen hot water- springs with water temperature above 50-100°C.

Classification thermal springs depending on the mineral composition of the waters:

Mineral composition thermal waters different from the composition of minerals. This is due to their deeper penetration, compared with mineral waters, into the thickness earth's crust. Based on the medicinal properties, thermal springs are classified as follows:

• thermal springs with hypertonic waters - these waters are rich in salts and have a tonic effect;
• thermal springs with hypotonic waters - stand out due to the low salt content;
• thermal springs with isotonic waters - soothing waters.

What heats the water thermal springs to these temperatures? The answer, for most it will be obvious - it is geothermal heat our planet, namely its earthly mantle.

Thermal water heating mechanism

heating mechanism thermal waters occurs according to two algorithms:

1. Heating occurs in places volcanic activity, due to the "contact" of water with igneous rocks formed as a result of the crystallization of volcanic magma;
2. Heating occurs due to the circulation of water, which, sinking into the thickness of the earth's crust for more than a kilometer, "absorb the geothermal heat of the earth's mantle", and then, in accordance with the laws of convection, rise upward.

As the results of studies have shown, when immersed in the depths of the earth's crust, the temperature rises at a speed of 30 deg / km (excluding areas of volcanic activity and the ocean floor).

Types of thermal springs

In the case of water heating according to the first of the above principles, water can escape from the bowels of the Earth under pressure, thereby forming one of the types of fountains:

• Geysers - fountain hot water;
• Fumaroles - a fountain of steam;
• Mud fountain - water with clay and mud.

These fountains attract many tourists and other lovers of the natural beauties of nature.

Use of thermal waters

long time ago hot water were used by man in two directions - as a source of heat and for medicinal purposes:

• Heating houses - for example, even today, the capital of Iceland, Reykjavik, is heated thanks to the energy of underground hot water;
• In balneology - Roman baths are well known to everyone ...;
• To generate electricity;
• One of the most famous and popular qualities thermal waters are their medicinal properties. Water circulating through the earth's crust geothermal sources, dissolve in great amount minerals, thanks to which they have amazing healing healing qualities.

Pro healing properties Thermal waters have been known to man for a long time. There are many world-famous thermal resorts open on the basis of thermal springs. If we talk about Europe, the most popular resorts are in France, Italy, Austria, the Czech Republic and Hungary.

At the same time, one should not forget about one important point. Despite the fact that the waters of thermal springs can be very hot, bacteria dangerous to human health live in some of them. Therefore, it is imperative that each geothermal source check for purity.

And in conclusion, we note that thermal springs, or hot waters of the Earth, are a vital and necessary resource for entire regions of our planet and many types of living beings.

PUBLISHING DATE: Aug 24, 2014 13:05

Wells where they are mined mineral water, make up separate group groundwater sources. Mineral water is characterized by a high content of active elements of mineral origin and special properties that determine their therapeutic effect on human body. The mineral waters of the Crimea are different in terms of salt (ionic) level. gas composition: some of them are thermal - warm and hot (terms). They are of considerable interest both scientifically and practically. The waters can be used as drinking medicinal waters and for balneological purposes. However, they are still used to a small extent. According to the geological and structural conditions and the composition of the mineral and thermal waters present in the bowels of the Crimean Peninsula, three large hydrogeological areas have been identified:

A. Hydromineral folded region of the Crimean mountains with predominant development of sulfate and chloride, partly thermal (in depth) mineral waters, gassed with nitrogen, in a subordinate sense with methane, hydrogen sulfide and rarely carbon dioxide.

B. Kerch hydromineral area of ​​distribution of hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen and methane cold waters in tertiary and underlying sediments (some sources contain carbon dioxide).

B. Hydromineral area of ​​the Crimean plains of hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, methane and mixed gas composition of brackish and salty waters, cold in the upper and thermal in the deep parts of artesian basins.

Thermal and hyperthermal (with temperatures above 400 C) occur in regions with active underground volcanic activity. Thermal waters are used as a heat carrier for heating systems in residential and industrial buildings and in geothermal power plants. A distinctive feature of thermal waters is considered to be an increased content of minerals and saturation with gases.

Thermal waters come to the surface in the form of numerous hot springs (temperature up to 50-90 ° C), and in areas of modern volcanism they manifest themselves in the form of geysers and steam jets (here, wells at a depth of 500-1000 m reveal waters with a temperature of 150-250 ° C), which give steam-water mixtures and vapors when they come to the surface (Pauzhetka in Kamchatka, Big Geysers in the USA, Wairakei in New Zealand, Larderello in Italy, geysers in Iceland, etc.).

Chemical, gas composition and mineralization Thermal waters are diverse: from fresh and brackish hydrocarbonate and hydrocarbonate-sulphate, calcium, sodium, nitrogen, carbonic and hydrogen sulfide to saline and brine chloride, sodium and calcium-sodium, nitrogen-methane and methane, sometimes hydrogen sulfide.

Since ancient times, Thermal waters have been used for medicinal purposes (Roman, Tbilisi baths). In the USSR, fresh nitrogen baths rich in silicic acid are used by well-known resorts - Belokurikha in Altai, Kuldur in the Khabarovsk Territory, etc.; carbonic thermal waters - resorts of the Caucasian Mineral Waters (Pyatigorsk, Zheleznovodsk, Essentuki), hydrogen sulfide - the resort of Sochi-Matsesta. In balneology, thermal waters are divided into warm (subthermal) 20-37 ° C, thermal 37-42 ° C and hyperthermal St. 42 °C.

In areas of modern and recent volcanism in Italy, Iceland, Mexico, the USSR, the USA, and Japan, a number of power plants operate using superheated thermal waters with temperatures above 100 ° C. In the USSR and other countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, Iceland, New Zealand, and the USA), thermal waters are also used for heating residential and industrial facilities. buildings, heating greenhouse plants, swimming pools and for technological purposes (Reykjavik is fully heated with thermal waters). In the USSR, heat supply to microdistricts was organized. Kizlyar, Makhachkala, Zugdidi, Tbilisi, Cherkessk; hothouse-greenhouse plants are heated in Kamchatka and the Caucasus. In heat supply, thermal waters are divided into low-thermal 20-50 °C, thermal 50-75 °C. high-thermal 75-100 °С.

industrial water- natural highly concentrated water solution various elements. For example: solutions of nitrates, sulfates, carbonates, alkali halide brines. Industrial water contains components whose composition and resources are sufficient to extract these components on an industrial scale. From industrial waters, it is possible to obtain metals, corresponding salts, as well as trace elements.

The groundwater having a temperature of 20 ° C and above due to the inflow of heat from the deep zones of the earth's crust. Thermal waters come to the surface in the form of numerous hot springs, geysers and steam jets. Due to the increased chemical and biological activity, the underground thermal waters circulating in the rocks are predominantly mineral. In many cases, it is advisable to use groundwater simultaneously for energy, heating, balneology, and sometimes even for the extraction of chemical elements and their compounds.

Wells where they are mined mineral water, constitute a separate group of groundwater sources. Mineral water is characterized by a high content of active elements of mineral origin and special properties that determine their therapeutic effect on the human body.

Thermal and hyperthermal(with temperatures above 400 C) waters occur in regions with active underground volcanic activity. Thermal waters are used as a heat carrier for heating systems in residential and industrial buildings and in geothermal power plants. A distinctive feature of thermal waters is considered to be an increased content of minerals and saturation with gases.

Classification of structures of the first, second and third order in geosynclinal areas, their main elements.

Classification of structures of the first, second and third order in platform areas, their main elements.

Distinctive features oil and gas provinces, the largest oil and gas provinces of Russia.

Russia occupies an intermediate position between the poles of "above consumer" - the United States and "above the producer" - Saudi Arabia. At present, the oil industry Russian Federation ranks 2nd in the world. In terms of production, we are second only to Saudi Arabia. In 2002, hydrocarbons were produced: oil - 379.6 million tons, natural gas - 594 billion m 3 .

On the territory of the Russian Federation there are three large oil and gas provinces: West Siberian, Volga-Ural and Timan-Pechersk.

West Siberian province.

West Siberian is the main province of the Russian Federation. The largest oil and gas basin in the world. It is located within the West Siberian Plain on the territory of the Tyumen, Omsk, Kurgan, Tomsk and partially Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk, Novosibirsk regions, Krasnoyarsk and Altai Territories, with an area of ​​about 3.5 million km 2 The oil and gas potential of the basin is associated with deposits of the Jurassic and Cretaceous age. Most of oil deposits are located at a depth of 2000-3000 meters. The oil of the West Siberian oil and gas basin is characterized by a low content of sulfur (up to 1.1%) and paraffin (less than 0.5%), the content of gasoline fractions is high (40-60%), and an increased amount of volatile substances.

Now 70% of Russian oil is produced in Western Siberia. Its main volume is extracted by pumping, the share of fountain production accounts for no more than 10%. It follows from this that the main deposits are at a late stage of development, which makes one think about important issue fuel industry - aging deposits. This conclusion is confirmed by the data for the country as a whole.

There are several dozen large deposits in Western Siberia. Among them are such well-known ones as Samotlorskoye, Mamontovskoye, Fedorovskoye, Ust-Balykskoye, Ubinskoye, Tolumskoye, Muravlenkovskoye, Sutorminskoye, Kholmogorskoye, Talinskoye, Mortymya-Teterevskoye and others. Most of them are located in the Tyumen region - a kind of core of the region. In the republican division of labor, it stands out as Russia's main base for supplying its national economic complex with oil and natural gas. More than 220 million tons of oil are produced in the Tyumen region, which is more than 90% of the total production in Western Siberia and more than 55% of the total production in Russia. Analyzing this information, one cannot help but draw the following conclusion: the oil industry of the Russian Federation is characterized by extremely high concentration in the leading area.

For oil industry The Tyumen region is characterized by a decrease in production volumes. Having reached a maximum in 1988 of 415.1 million tons, by 1990 oil production decreased to 358.4 million tons, that is, by 13.7%, and the downward trend in production continues to this day.

The main oil companies operating in Western Siberia are LUKOIL, YUKOS, Surgutneftegaz, Sibneft, SIDANKO, and TNK.

Volga-Ural province.

The second most important oil province is the Volga-Urals. It is located in the eastern part European territory Russian Federation, within the Republics of Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Udmurtia, as well as Perm, Orenburg, Kuibyshev, Saratov, Volgograd Kirov and Ulyanovsk regions. Oil deposits are located at a depth of 1600 to 3000 m, i.е. closer to the surface compared to Western Siberia, which somewhat reduces drilling costs. The Volga-Ural region provides 24% of the country's oil production.

The vast majority of oil and associated gas (more than 4/5) of the region comes from Tataria, Bashkiria, and the Kuibyshev region. Oil is produced at the Romashkinskoye, Novo-Elkhovskoye, Chekmagushskoye, Arlanskoye, Krasnokholmskoye, Orenburgskoye and other fields. A significant part of the oil produced in the fields of the Volga-Ural oil and gas region is supplied through oil pipelines to local oil refineries located mainly in Bashkiria and the Kuibyshev region, as well as in other regions (Perm, Saratov, Volgograd, Orenburg).

The main oil companies operating in the territory of the Volga-Ural province: LUKOIL, Tatneft, Bashneft, Yukos, TNK.

Timano-Pechersk province.

The third most important oil province is Timano-Pechersk. It is located within Komi, the Nenets Autonomous Okrug of the Arkhangelsk region and partly in the adjacent territories, it borders on the northern part of the Volga-Ural oil and gas region. Together with the rest, the Timan-Pechersk oil region provides only 6% of oil in the Russian Federation (Western Siberia and the Ural-Volga region - 94%). Oil production is carried out at the Usinskoye, Kharyaginskoye, Voyvozhskoye, Verkhne-Grubeshorskoye, Yaregskoye, Nizhne-Omrinskoye, Vozeyskoye and other fields. The Timan-Pechora region, like the Volgograd and Saratov regions, is considered quite promising. Oil production in Western Siberia is declining, and in the Nenets autonomous region already explored reserves of hydrocarbons, commensurate with the West Siberian. According to American experts, the bowels of the Arctic tundra store 2.5 billion tons of oil.

Almost every field, and even more so each of the oil and gas regions, differ in their characteristics in terms of oil composition, and therefore it is not advisable to process using any “standard” technology. It is necessary to take into account the unique composition of oil in order to achieve maximum processing efficiency, for this reason it is necessary to build plants for specific oil and gas fields. Exist strong relationship between the oil and petroleum industries. However, the collapse Soviet Union led to the emergence new problem– rupture of external economic relations of the oil industry. Russia found itself in an extremely disadvantageous position, tk. forced to export crude oil due to the imbalance of the oil and oil refining industries (the volume of refining in 2002 amounted to 184 million tons), while the price of crude oil is much lower than that of oil products. In addition, the low adaptability of Russian factories, when switching to oil, which was previously transported to factories in neighboring republics, causes poor-quality processing and large product losses.

25. Methods for determining the age of geological bodies and reconstructing past geological events.

Geochronology (from other Greek γῆ - earth + χρόνος - time + λόγος - word, doctrine) - a set of methods for determining the absolute and relative age of rocks or minerals. Among the tasks of this science is the determination of the age of the Earth as a whole. From these positions, geochronology can be considered as part of general planetology.

The paleontological method The scientific geochronological method, which determines the sequence and date of the stages in the development of the earth's crust and the organic world, arose at the end of the 18th century, when the English geologist Smith in 1799 discovered that fossils of the same species are always contained in layers of the same age. He also showed that the remains of ancient animals and plants are placed (with increasing depth) in the same order, although the distances between the places where they are found are very large.

Stratigraphic method The stratigraphic method is based on a comprehensive study of the location of geological (cultural) layers relative to each other. According to whether the investigated rock area is located above or below certain layers, it is possible to determine its geological age.