Official name: Federal Republic of Germany
Territory: 357 thousand sq. km.
Population: As of 1997, 81.8 million people. The vast majority are Germans and Danes. Population density - 230 people per 1 sq. km.
Languages: German, limited English
Religion: Christianity, Protestants (Lutherans over 50%) and Catholics
Capital
Largest cities: Bremen, Hamburg, Leipzig, Dusseldorf, Stuttgart, Cologne, Frankfurt, Munich
Administrative division: Germany consists of 16 states, each of which has its own capital, constitution, parliament and government.
Form of government: democratic-parliamentary federal country, legislative federal body - the Bundestag. .
head of state: federal president.
Head of the government: Federal Chancellor.
Currency: Euro.

Brief history of Germany

Until the end of the 5th century, there was no state on the territory of modern Germany. The first was the Frankish kingdom. Its rulers during the 6th-8th centuries completed the unification of the Germanic tribes, and in 800 Charlemagne proclaimed the creation of an empire. In 843, it broke up into independent states. In the eastern part, the German kingdom proper developed.

His main foreign policy task was the revival of the lost empire of Charles. In 962, German troops managed to take Rome, and the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" appeared on the map of Europe. Its heyday came in the XII-XIII centuries. Under Frederick I Barbarossa in the middle of the 12th century, the borders of the German Empire expanded significantly.

AT early XVI century in Germany there was a split along religious lines. At that time, Martin Luther began his activity. As a result of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), Germany was split into several dozen principalities and kingdoms, the most influential of which was Prussia.

From the middle of the 19th century, Prussia gathered disparate principalities into a single whole, and after victories in the Franco-Prussian War over Austria and France, which were holding back centralization, in 1871 announced the creation of an all-German Reich-Empire with its capital in Berlin. After several successful military campaigns and international treaties, the Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck actually restored the German Empire and declared King Wilhelm of Prussia the first German Emperor (Kaiser).

As long as the leading international positions in the economy were in the hands of England, France, Russia and the United States, Germany could not count on European domination. The German Empire reached its peak by 1914. However, after the defeat in the First World War and the humiliating Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919, the country lost part of its lands and was subject to huge indemnities. In 1919, Germany was proclaimed a republic and, according to the constitution adopted in the city of Weimar, was called the Weimar Republic.

The victory of France and England slowed down the development of Germany, transferred it to a secondary position in world politics and thus gave rise to the growth of the national-revanchist aspirations of the German people. In the wake of such sentiments, in 1933, the Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, came to power in Berlin and announced the formation of the Third Reich.

During the years of Hitler's rule, Germany remilitarized the Rhineland, captured Austria, part of Czechoslovakia. September 1, 1939, attacking Poland, Germany began the second world war in which it failed.

In 1945, Germany was occupied by the Allied forces and divided into four sectors. Three sectors: French, British and American later formed the FRG, and the Soviet sector - the GDR. In 1949, Germany was divided into two states, and Berlin into two sectors.

The two German states existed until October 3, 1990, when East Germany and West Germany merged. On June 20, 1991, Berlin was proclaimed the capital of a united Germany.

After reunification, Germany became even more diverse. Now it is not only located in the heart of Europe, but literally lives there: being open to all corners of the world and ready to establish new relations with old neighbors.

In this, Germany has remained true to its 2,000-year history of change.

Germany lives on this land rich in historical events today. At every step, traces left by successive eras are visible. All these counts, princes, dukes, archbishops, kings and emperors built for themselves throughout the country castles, magnificent residences, palaces with magnificent parks and gardens, proud cities with churches, monasteries and cathedrals. The heritage of the Middle Ages and the burghers still determine the appearance of many cities today, creating an impressive contrast to modern architecture.

Tourism in Germany

Germany is open to the whole world. Germany shares a common border with 9 other states. The main means of communication are designed to move around the country as quickly as possible: motorways, a dense network of railways with high speed trains, airports in every more or less major city.

However, true Germany must be experienced outside of noisy traffic. Smooth and wide rural roads will lead you to regions where you can get in touch with the original hospitality and please your gastronomic taste. Many hotels are located in historical monuments architecture; There is sure to be a hotel to suit every traveler, whether you prefer dreamy coziness or the opulent sheen of luxury furnishings. In family hotels, the whole family goes out of their way to please you; so tune in to the fact that it will be difficult for you to leave such a place.

In big cities, you will be surprised by the internationality of hotels and restaurants and come to the conclusion that the best chefs in Italy, Japan, China, India, Thailand, Greece and Spain have all specially gathered in Germany to compete with the national German cuisine.

In all more or less interesting places there are own tourist service bureaus that provide all the necessary information and invite you on excursions to the surrounding places.

Season continues all year round. Summer in Germany is the time for outdoor parties and beer sipping in beer gardens, at the beginning of the year you can plunge headlong into the unrestrained whirlpool of carnival festivities, and in winter you have every reason to sleepless nights throughout the ball season.

Cities in Germany

The Hanseatic City welcomes visitors in a respectable, majestic and elegant manner.

This is especially true of the Inner Alster region with its shopping palaces and the magnificent Jungfernstieg promenade. However, the vital artery of Hamburg is the Elbe with its large port serving international trade, with a whole city of warehouses, a fish market and the St. Pauli entertainment quarter.

Old Hanseatic city on the Weser. It also has a rich tradition of a commercial seaport, but is more comfortable than the vast Hamburg.

The city is distinguished by many richly decorated bourgeois houses, a magnificent facade of the town hall in the Renaissance style, the old building of the Bremen merchants' guild near the market square with "Roland" and "The Bremen Town Musicians".

In the capital of Germany, like in no other city, the past, present and future collide with each other with such force: in architecture, in worldview and in the way of thinking.

Berlin is once again experiencing a breakthrough, and in this it is again in its element. There is an fusion of the eastern and western parts of the city.

The attractive force of Berlin for young people is incomparable. This urbanized "melting pot" lit up with a new light against the backdrop of its centuries-old history.

The complete opposite of Berlin - - the center of a very friendly region with a rich past.

It makes sense to explore the richly restored city center with the famous Medler and Speckx Hof shopping arcade, the old town hall and the Church of St. Nicholas.

One of the most stylish cities where it is especially pleasant to shop is Dusseldorf with its famous Koenigs-allee. You can see from the strollers here the elegance and pleasure with which money can be spent.

The World City of Commerce and Banking is not only synonymous with state-of-the-art high-rise architecture. The city exudes an original charm, it has a lot of greenery, original bars and taverns, extraordinary shops and a rich cultural life.

It is rightfully famous for its special sincerity. Traditional October festivities, the palace brewery, the English garden - this city is a solid attraction, friendly and with style.

Charm Stuttgart lies in its sometimes almost rustic appearance. Nestled among vineyards and meadows, this large city resembles more a huge viticultural village than a respectable automotive center.

This impression is changed only by the sight of an unparalleled shopping center with its huge structures of glass, forming high halls with terraced shops full of everything your heart desires.

Neighboring with it - the Rhine metropolis and the center of carnival festivities - radiates the joy of life in its purest form.

Contrasts make this city unique. Here and there traces of an old Roman settlement are visible, the extravagant background of which is created by modern buildings.

Museums in Germany

Art collections in Germany are among the largest in the world.

• The State Museum of Cultural Treasures of Prussia, in the Dahlem complex of which a collection of ancient Egyptian art objects and paintings by old masters is stored, and in the National Gallery - a collection of paintings of the 19th - 20th centuries;
• Museum of Applied Arts;
• Museum of Musical Instruments;
• the Pergamon Museum with a magnificent collection of ancient Roman, Greek and Asian art, including entire walls of ancient temples;
• the Bode Museum with a collection of ancient Egyptian and Byzantine art;
• Museum of Decorative Arts in Charlottenburg Palace, it also has an art gallery with a collection of paintings from the 13th-16th centuries, a sculpture gallery,
• Museums of Indian, Islamic art;
• Museum of German Folklore.

• State National Galleries Alte Pinakothek (old masters) and Neue Pinakothek (modern art);
• Bavarian National Museum with a collection of sculpture, decorative art, folk art; state collection of exhibits of natural history;
• Museum of Germany.

• Romano-Germanic Museum with a collection of art objects from the ancient Roman period;
• the Vayraf-Richarts Museum with a collection of ivory items;
• Museum of East Asian Art.

Dresden

• the State Art Collection, which includes the Zwinger Palace, where the Old Masters Gallery and Porcelain Collection are located;
• Technical Museum;
• History Museum.

Bonn

• Beethoven Museum.

Monuments of history and architecture

• Brandenburg Gate (1788-1791); arsenal building (1695-1706);
• Cathedral of St. Hedwig (1747-1773),
• cathedral of st. Nicholas in the Gothic style (XIV century);
• Reichstag building (1884-1894);
• The world's largest zoo;
• Berlin TV tower 365 m high;
• Botanical Garden;
• Treptow Park, which houses a complex of monuments to Soviet soldiers who died in Germany.

Dresden

• Several churches, including the Rococo Hofkirche (1739-1751), the Gothic Kreuzkirche (15th century).

• 13th century citadel;
• Tower of the Battle of Nations (XIX century), erected in honor of the soldiers who fell in the battle of Leipzig with Napoleon's army in 1813;
• Orthodox Church, erected in memory of the dead Russian soldiers (XIX century).

Bonn

• Cathedral in the Romanesque style (XI-XIII century);
• City Hall in 1782;
• The house where Ludwig van Beethoven was born in 1770; Parliament building (1950);
• Villa Hammerschmidt (residence of the President of the country);
• Schaumburg Palace (residence of the Federal Chancellor).

• Cologne Cathedral in the Gothic style with two spiers 157 m high (construction began in 1248, completed in 1880), the cathedral contains the remains of three wise men who, according to the New Testament, brought gifts to the baby Jesus;
• Church of St. Maurice im Capital (1049);
• Church of St. Gereon (XII century);
• Church of St. Clibert (XIII century);
• Zoo;
• Aquarium;
• Botanical Garden.

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The London conference of the Western powers on Germany in 1948 gave impetus to the acceleration of measures to create a constitution for the future independent state of West Germany. On September 1, 1948, after the official merger of the three western occupation zones into one, a Parliamentary Council was created in Bonn from representatives of the West German elite with the rights of a temporary legislative body of the West German lands. A well-known politician, a lawyer by education, 73-year-old Konrad Adenauer became its leader. He had a reputation as a moderate Francophile and a patriot of "European Germany". K. Adenauer did not like the militant and revanchist Prussian spirit, considering it the cause of Germany's troubles. In 1945, after the occupation of the country by the allied forces, K. Adenauer headed the Christian Democratic Union, which became the most influential political party in the country. On May 1, 1949, the Parliamentary Council approved a new constitution, on the basis of which, on August 14, 1949, elections were held to the new West German parliament - the Bundestag, on behalf of which the creation of a separate state - the Federal Republic of Germany - was proclaimed on September 20.

K. Adenauer became the first head of its government (chancellor). The Bundestag adopted a statement on the extension of the new constitution of the FRG to the territory of the lands that were part of Germany within the borders of 1937. This step, together with the very fact of the proclamation of the FRG, was negatively perceived in the USSR, which refused to recognize the West German state. GDR

After the proclamation of the FRG, Moscow's hands in the German question were untied. Now she could not be blamed for initiating the split in Germany, the responsibility for which fell on the United States. During 1945-1949. in the eastern sector there were processes of denazification and consolidation of leftist forces around the communists. The Communist Party of Germany itself in the Soviet zone in 1946 was merged with the Social Democratic Party into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). The activities of the old anti-fascist non-communist parties - the Christian Democratic Union, the Liberal Democratic Party - were not prohibited. They were subsequently preserved in the GDR as parties allied to the communists. The administrative structure in the eastern sector of Germany was ready to be transformed into a public administration system. On October 7, 1949, the People's Congress, which gathered in East Berlin from among the representatives of the public of East Germany, proclaimed the creation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR).

The Soviet Union recognized the GDR and established diplomatic relations with it. His example was followed by other states of people's democracy. SED leader Wilhelm Pick became president of the GDR. In 1950, the GDR signed an agreement with Poland on the recognition of the existing border between the two states, and with Czechoslovakia, a declaration on the absence of mutual territorial claims and on the recognition of the resettlement of the German population from the territory of Czechoslovakia as irreversible. Very briefly: 1. The willingness of France to cooperate with the United States and Great Britain in the management of Germany made it possible to speed up the process of creating a West German state. In 1949, the Parliamentary Council of Germany, convened by the Western allies, approved the country's new Basic Law, parliamentary elections were held, which were won by the Christian Democrats. The creation of the Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed. The USSR and its allies did not recognize the new state. 2. Taking advantage of the actions of Western countries to split Germany, the USSR was not slow to proclaim the creation of the GDR, which was controlled by the united party of socialists and communists according to the parameters set from Moscow. The division of Germany was consolidated.

Heraldry

Coat of arms of Germany

The State Emblem of the Federal Republic of Germany, officially the Federal Emblem (German Bundeswappen), is a black single-headed eagle looking heraldically to the right, with a red beak, tongue and paws in a golden field.
The modern standard of the Federal Coat of Arms was approved on July 4, 1952 and generally follows the outlines of the Imperial Coat of Arms, approved on November 11, 1919.
The eagle can also be depicted outside the colored field (without a coat of arms), then it is called the Federal Eagle (German: Bundesadler) and has slightly different outlines.

Flag of Germany

The history of the national black-red-gold colors of Germany began in the 19th century.
During the fight against Napoleon, German student volunteers formed the so-called. "Freedom Corps" (1813) under the command of von Lutzow (Lutzow). The uniform of the corps was student black frock coats with sewn red shoulder straps and brass buttons. Then the student associations of Germany adopted the same colors. In 1815, the Burschenschaft union was founded by students, which aims at the unification of Germany. In 1816, the women of the city of Jena presented the union with a banner: a red flag with a horizontal black stripe in the middle and the image of a golden oak branch. By 1816, the All-German Student Association was already using a black-red-gold flag.
The festival in May 1832 (Hambach festival) used a three-striped national flag with the inscription: "Deutschlands Wiedergeburt" ("German Renaissance"; German) on the middle red stripe.
The black-red-gold flag was a symbol of the revolution of 1848-1849, during the opening hours of the National Assembly (Bundestag) in Frankfurt am Main on July 31, 1848, the flag was raised for the first time as a symbol of a united Germany. It soon became the naval (from 31 June) and commercial flag of the German Union (1848-1852).
The German Union was not a full-fledged state, and did not last long. The unification of Germany took place under the black-white-red colors of Otto von Bismarck. But the black-red-gold flag has already begun to be associated with the concept of German nationality. For example, in 1863 this flag was used during the Conference of the German Princes in Frankfurt.
The black-red-gold (precisely "gold" and not "yellow"; this is how the Germans call this color on the flag) the flag was canceled first by the supporters of the empire, and then by the Nazis; but resurrected again. The last time the German flag was officially revived was after World War II. And even in the socialist GDR, they did not consider it possible to deviate from the historical colors, but only added a coat of arms to the center. The flag of Germany did not have any images. After the unification of the FRG and the GDR, it was the three-panel cloth without emblems that became the state flag of the united Germany.

Germany

Germany is a country with a very large tourism potential. The Germans are very careful about historical monuments. In Germany, almost everything interesting is made into tourist sites, whether it be a palace or an abandoned quarry. Almost all cities in Germany are one big attraction. Ancient buildings stand next to modern houses. The cities have well-groomed and beautiful streets and old quarters. When traveling by car, it would be nice if you had a map of Germany with the designations of the exits from the autobahns. This can save a lot of time and fuel in your car. And it is worth considering their attitude to the law. The police are practically invisible, but they appear at any, even seemingly insignificant violation.

The Federal Republic of Germany is located in the very center of Europe. After the unification of the two German states in 1990, this most populous country in Europe borders on nine states: France, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg.

Its territory is 357.022 sq km. The length from north to south is 876 km, from west to east - 640 km. It is washed by the North and Baltic seas. it borders with Austria, Luxembourg and Switzerland in the south, with Belgium, Denmark, France and Holland in the west and northwest, with the Czech Republic in the southeast and with Poland in the east.

Germany is one of the EU countries.

The capital is Berlin (3 million 500 thousand). The largest cities in Germany are Hamburg (1 million 700 thousand), Munich (1 million 250 thousand), Cologne (966 thousand), Frankfurt am Main (655 thousand)

The official language is German.

Administrative division: Germany consists of 16 states with their own constitutions, parliaments and governments.

State structure: The official name is the Federal Republic of Germany. In early October 1990, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, created in 1949 by decision of the 4 victorious countries in World War II, united. The head of state is the federal president, who is elected by a specially convened federal assembly (Bundesversammlung) for a term of 5 years and can be re-elected only once. The head of government is the Federal Chancellor. Legislative power is exercised by the parliament, which consists of two chambers: the Bundestag and the Bundesrat.

Currency: Euro equal to 100 cents. There are banknotes in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 euros, as well as coins in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 cents.

Transport: Urban transport in most cities in Germany is represented by buses, trams, metro or high-speed trams(U-Bahn) and suburban trains (S-Bahn). Tariffs are the same for all types of transport, the ticket is valid with transfers. There are many travel and tourist tickets that allow you to save money.

The cost of a single trip in Berlin transport is 2 euros (for a short distance 1.2 euros), a ticket for the whole day costs 5.6 euros (with the surrounding area - 6 euros). A week pass costs 24.3 euros (with surroundings - 30 euros). The metro starts running at 4 am and ends between midnight and 1 am. The interval of train traffic is longer than in Moscow, approximately 5 - 8 minutes.

Population- 82.5 million people. National composition: Germans (91.5%), Turks (2.4%), Italians (0.7%) and others (mostly people from the former Yugoslavia).

About 60 thousand Lusatian Serbs (Brandenburg and Saxony), 50 thousand Danes (northern regions of Schleswig-Holstein), 12 thousand Frisians (Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein) and 70 thousand Gypsies live in Germany. These groups are officially recognized by the state national minorities. In addition, more than 7 million foreigners live permanently in Germany, most of whom are foreign workers.

The northern part of the country is characterized by a high proportion of the population of representatives of the Nordic anthropological types, which are characterized by high growth, blond hair. In southern Germany, less tall, dark-haired people predominate. During the expansion of the Germanic tribes in the 4th-9th centuries. AD from the more northern regions to the former Celtic south of the country, as well as the German colonization of the Slavic lands east of the Elbe and the Hall, there was a mixture of peoples and assimilation.

Traditional religions Germany is Christianity and Judaism. Most of the German population officially belongs to the Christian denomination: Evangelical Lutheran 32% (mainly northern, eastern and central Germany), Roman Catholic Church 31.7% (western and southern Germany), Orthodox Church 1.14% and a small proportion of believers from Christian sects.

Germany was Christianized in the era of the Franks, the "holy policy" was carried out by the founder of the empire - Charlemagne.

The Reformation was carried out from the beginning of the 16th century in Germany and Switzerland, its initiators were Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwinglis and Johannes Calvin. It has shaped the religious landscape throughout the German-speaking space.

The law of Germany enshrined freedom of thought, conscience and religion.

Climate Germany - moderate, in the north of the country - maritime, in the rest of the territory - transitional from maritime to continental. Most of the year, westerly winds prevail, and the circulation type is cyclonic. In summer and early autumn, the weather is often determined by the spur of the Azores anticyclone. The average temperature of the coldest month (January) is from -3°С to +2°С. The average July temperature is from +16°С to +20°С. Precipitation falls in the south up to 2000 mm per year, in the north - up to 710 mm per year, mainly in the autumn-winter period.

For business man Germany opens up a lot of opportunities.

Frankfurt and Düsseldorf, Berlin and Munich - in the world modern business these cities mean as much as New York, London or Amsterdam.

Cycling is a very popular recreational activity; many German cities and suburbs have excellent bike paths. The secondary roads of East Germany are also great for cycling; they are more interesting and less crowded with tourists than the main roads; and here you can spend weeks traveling from city to city. For hikers, there are excellent hiking trails in the Black Forest, the Harz Mountains, the Bavarian Alps and more. The Alps are the most popular area, but there are a lot of tourists here, especially during the holidays. In winter, skiing is popular throughout the country.

Sailing and windsurfing are widely practiced, but the best place for these sports is Lake Sonstans in the south.

And magnificent cruises on the Rhine, during which you can see medieval Germany and beautiful landscapes!

The most popular souvenir in Germany is the Nutcracker. However, they can only be purchased in workshops, the number of which in German cities decreases annually.

Short story

Germany is a country with an interesting centuries-old history.

History of Germany - Middle Ages

It is believed that the transition from the East Frankish to the German Empire took place when King Conrad I came to the throne (911). However, due to his origin, he initially bore the title of "King of the Franks", and later "King of the Romans". The empire itself, starting from the 11th century, was called the "Roman Empire", from the 13th century - the "Holy Roman Empire", and in the 15th century the "German nation" was added to this name. In this empire, the king was elected by the highest nobility. With few exceptions, he was related to his predecessor. The medieval empire did not have a capital. The king ruled by raids. There were no imperial taxes. The king received his maintenance, first of all, from the "imperial possessions", which he ruled as a guardian. He was perceived as a ruler who had to adhere to the traditional folk rules that existed at that time and enjoy the favor of the higher nobility. The king had the right to make laws, establish taxes, deal with legal proceedings, command troops and was the head of the church. At the same time, he was the highest authority in maintaining peace. In 962 King Otto I was crowned emperor in Rome.

According to the then ideas, which were shared by the successors of Otto I, the title of emperor gave the right to rule over the entire West. However, these ideas were very different from reality. Since kings had to go to Rome to the Pope in order to be crowned emperor, they began to actively seek their dominance in Italy as well. Henry IV was unable to maintain the clear superiority of the emperor over the papacy. The dispute with Pope Gregory VII over the right to appoint bishops (dispute over investiture) ended in 1077 with repentance at Canossa. Since then, the pope and the emperor have confronted each other as equal rulers. Despite the outwardly enormous power of the emperors during the reign of the Staufen dynasty, territorial fragmentation began. Spiritual and secular princes became semi-sovereign "land owners". While nation-states began to emerge in other parts of Western Europe, centrifugal tendencies dominated in Germany. This was the precondition for the Germans - centuries later - to become a "belated nation".

German History - Late Middle Ages and Early Modern Times

Thanks to the Golden Bull, Charles IV developed in 1356 a kind of Basic Law of the Empire. According to him, seven elected princes, electors, received, in particular, the right to elect a king. While the importance of petty counts, sovereign princes and knights gradually fell, the economic power of cities grew. The association of German cities into unions further strengthened their position. In the 14th century, the Hansa became the leading force in the Baltic region. As part of the imperial reform, Maximilian I, who was the first to assume the title of emperor without being crowned by the pope, formally created a new state structure with the Reichstag, the imperial districts and the Imperial Supreme Court. However, it was not possible to fill it with life. Instead, a dualism of "emperor and empire" developed, the head of the empire was opposed by the imperial estates: electors, princes and cities. The power of the emperors was increasingly emasculated by the "capitulations" that they entered into with electors during elections. On the other hand, the influence of the big princes grew.

Yet the imperial alliance did not disintegrate. Within its framework, cities became important economic centers. In the textile industry and mining, forms of management appeared that went beyond the guild organization of the work of artisans and, along with the expansion of the geography of trade, bore the features of early capitalism. The awakening of a critical worldview, marked by the stamp of the Renaissance and humanism, was directed primarily against the dominance of the church. Dissatisfaction with the church resulted - after the speech of Martin Luther - in the Reformation movement. It began after the publication by Luther on October 31, 1517, of 95 theses criticizing the old Catholic Church. The purpose of their publication is to return church doctrine in line with the religious truths preached in the gospel. This had consequences that went far beyond religious requirements. All public structures were set in motion. The Imperial Knights have started an uprising.

Political and social aspirations resulted in the Peasant War in 1525. These were the first major revolutionary movements in German history. They were brutally suppressed.

History of Germany - The era of religious schism

In political terms, the Reformation led to a further strengthening of the positions of the ruling princes. After a struggle, which was fought with varying success, according to the Augsburg Religious Peace of 1555, they received the right to determine the religion of their subjects (cuius regio eius religio). The Protestant religion acquired equal rights with the Catholic. Germany became four-fifths Protestant. Shortly thereafter, the reign of Charles V ended. He was too involved in world politics and did not pay enough attention to the position of the emperor in Germany. The world empire collapsed. On the one hand, there were German territorial states, still within the framework of the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation", on the other, Western European nation-states. Looked like this new system European states in the second half of the 16th century. However, the religious struggle continued. During the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church managed to conquer many areas. The irreconcilability of beliefs escalated, this led to the creation of religious parties (the Protestant Union and the Catholic League), which eventually resulted in the Thirty Years' War. In 1618-1648. this pan-European conflict left a bloody trail in many regions of Germany, which were devastated and depopulated.

History of Germany - The era of absolutism

French absolutism had a strong influence on court life in the isolated German states. Along with the provision of almost unlimited power to the local ruler, a rigid system was created administration, an orderly financial economy and regular army. The princes competed with each other in turning their residences into centers of culture and, within the framework of enlightened absolutism, encouraged the development of science and - to a certain extent - critical thinking. Austria repelled the invasion of the Turks, conquered Hungary and parts of the Balkans and became a great power as a result. Under Frederick William I and Frederick the Great, Prussia also built a militarily strong state, resulting in the emergence of two powerful powers in Germany in the 18th century with territories outside the empire and growing, rival interests in Europe.

History of Germany - The Great French Revolution

Prussia and Austria worked together when they intervened militarily in neighboring revolutionary France to save the crumbling feudal system there. However, the pursuit of freedom and equality, human rights and the separation of powers has taken on a dynamic of its own. Instead of simply repulsing attempts of aggression from the East, the French revolutionary army, convinced of the rightness of its cause, launched a counteroffensive. The empire finally collapsed. The left bank of the Rhine remained occupied by the French, the rest of the territories were redrawn in a new way, which led to the strengthening of middle states. Under the French protectorate, the "Confederation of the Rhine" arose, and after the abdication of Emperor Franz II in 1806, the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation officially ceased to exist.

However, the revolutionary spark did not spread to Germany. Rather, they realized the need to reform the state. Feudal restrictions were relaxed but not eliminated. And other goals of the reforms - freedom of crafts, urban self-government, equality of all citizens before the law, universal military duty - were implemented in different ways in various German principalities. Some were half done. And some even acquired a constitutional character.

History of Germany - German Confederation and Revolution of 1848

The joint rebuff to the French invasion and the victory over Napoleon spurred the desire of many Germans to create their own nation state. But as a result of the redistribution of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, only the German Confederation appeared as a free association of individual sovereign states. Its joint body was the Bundestag in Frankfurt am Main, which was not an elected parliament, but only a congress of ambassadors. The union was viable only in the case of unanimity of the two great powers: Prussia and Austria. The main task of the German Confederation remained the suppression of all aspirations for unity and freedom.

While the press was censored, universities were controlled, and most political aspirations were suppressed, the development of modern economy. The appearance of a mass of factory workers with the simultaneous absence of any measures social protection increased the desire for social change. However, the uprising of the Silesian weavers in 1844 was brutally suppressed. The revolution of 1848 in France, in contrast to the revolution of 1789, found a lively response in Germany. In March, popular uprisings began everywhere against the princes. The latter were forced to make concessions. The first real parliaments appeared.

Of greatest importance was the freely elected National Assembly, which met in Frankfurt's Paulskirche. It united the free-democratic and national aspirations of the overwhelming majority of Germans. An exemplary constitution emerged on paper. However, the imperial ministry established by the National Assembly did not acquire real authority. After disputes around the "Little German" (without Austria) and "Great German" (with Austria) options for creating the German Empire, the transfer of executive power to Vienna failed due to Austria's demand to include in the new empire all the nationalities that lived on its state territory, and not only German. However, as a result of the refusal of the Prussian king Frederick William IV to become emperor in the framework of the "Little German" option, the activities of the National Assembly and constitutional liberal principles largely collapsed. Prussia was forced into a constitution providing for suffrage for three classes. In 1850 the old order was restored in many respects.

History of Germany - Bismarck Empire

Stages on the way to German unity:

The Danish War of 1864, in which Prussia and Austria won a joint victory.

Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, as a result of which Austria was deprived of the opportunity to participate in the further development of events in Germany. Establishment of the North German Confederation in 1867 with Bismarck as Reich Chancellor.

History of Germany - Franco-Prussian War 1870/71

As Reich Chancellor, Bismarck continued to seek German unity within the framework of the Lesser German option. He broke French resistance in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71, which broke out over a diplomatic conflict over the succession to the throne in Spain. Joint hostilities intensified patriotic impulses in the South German states, which immediately united with the North German Confederation, forming the German Empire. On January 18, 1871, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor in Versailles.

So, the German Empire arose not as a result of a popular movement "from below", but on the basis of an agreement between princes "from above". The new Reichstag was elected on the basis of universal and equal suffrage. At the same time, class suffrage, dependent on the level of income, was preserved in Prussia and other allied lands. Successful economic development made the bourgeoisie more and more influential, but in politics the nobility and the officer corps, which also consisted mainly of nobles, continued to set the tone. For all his foreign policy foresight, Bismarck, who had been in power for 19 years, did not understand the democratic tendencies within the country. He waged a bitter struggle against the left wing of the liberal bourgeoisie, political Catholicism, and especially against the labor movement, which was banned from 1878 to 1890 by the "exclusive law against the socialists". alienated from the state.

History of Germany - World War I

Under the young, inexperienced Emperor Wilhelm II, the country of Germany found itself in a difficult situation in the international arena. Wilhelm II sought to catch up with the big powers that had long since taken the path of imperialism, but he found himself increasingly isolated. In the country itself, the Social Democrats, who had the largest number of supporters among the electorate, were still largely excluded from the development of state policy. They got their chance only after the collapse of the old regime during the First World War.

As a matter of fact, none of the participating powers sought this war, even though the tension in the early summer of 1914 increased so much that the forcible achievement of the various foreign policy goals of the European powers was consciously perceived as a more or less desirable option. The German strategic plan failed at the very beginning. He envisioned a quick defeat for France. However, after the Battle of the Marne, both sides got bogged down in a brutal positional war, which, without bringing any military benefit, required gigantic human casualties and meant a senseless war of technology. The US entry into the war in 1917 predetermined the long-planned outcome, which could no longer be influenced by either the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia or the conclusion of peace in the East. Following the military collapse, political changes followed: as a result of the November Revolution of 1918 in Germany, the emperor and princes left their thrones. Under the influence of a foreign policy catastrophe, the obsolete monarchy gave way to its alternative - the republic, against which it had been fighting for decades in the domestic political arena.

History of Germany - Weimar Republic

In the early years of the Weimar Republic, named after the constitutional National Assembly that met in Weimar, its political life was determined by a parliamentary majority consisting of the Social Democrats, the German Democratic Party and the Center Party. Democracy worked. The SPD has already departed from its former revolutionary ideas. Attempts to radically overthrow the state system in order to establish socialist domination were suppressed. Private property in industry and agriculture remained untouched, and most of the anti-republican officials and judges retained their posts.

However, already in the twenties it became clear how fragile the republican base among citizens was. The economic crisis, inflation, the occupation of the Ruhr and the attempted communist takeover in the face of general disarray made it clear in 1923 that the democrats were in the minority in the Weimar Republic. Then, after some economic recovery, a political lull was established. Having concluded the Locarno Accords in 1925 and joined the League of Nations in 1926, defeated country Germany regained its political equality in the international arena. For some time, some part of the population perceived even the state of affairs in the field of science, art and culture as the "golden twenties". The heyday was intense, but short. Already during the new economic crisis In 1929, the fall of the republic began to take shape.

History of Germany - Dictatorship of the National Socialists

In the late 1920s, left and right radicals found fertile breeding ground in conditions of severe unemployment and massive economic need. In the Reichstag, it was no longer possible to create a majority capable of forming a government. Government offices depended on extra-parliamentary emergency decrees of the Reichs-President, which allowed them to govern the country without the consent of the Reichstag. Already in 1925, the candidate of the right, the former Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, became the successor of the Social Democrat Friedrich Ebert as Reich President. He strictly observed the constitution, but internally he was not really connected with the republic. In early 1933, when the hardest times of crisis were already behind, the members of the right camp considered that by transferring the powers of the chancellor to the ardent opponent of democracy, Adolf Hitler, they could use it to achieve their goals. As a result of the economic crisis, the National Socialist movement led by him became the largest force in Germany, but it was not able to win over the majority of the population and the majority in parliament. Despite his strong doubts, Hindenburg nevertheless appointed Hitler head of government and also granted his demand for the dissolution of the Reichstag. The power grab has begun.

With the help of mass violence and persecution, Hitler intimidated his opponents during the election campaign. Under strong pressure, despite the resistance of the Social Democrats, he forced parliamentarians who had not yet been arrested or went into hiding to pass a law granting emergency powers to the government, giving it almost unlimited powers in the field of legislation. In a few weeks, the National Socialists defeated all democratic structures and replaced them with others, allegedly legal. Hitler practically eliminated fundamental rights, banned trade unions and parties (except his own), abolished the freedom of the press and subjected persons objectionable to reckless terror. Thousands of people ended up in concentration camps without any trial.

The German public reacted to these processes in two ways. On the one hand, she saw unbridled violence, on the other, tangible successes. The economic recovery, which began before Hitler came to power and would have benefited any government, the dictator accelerated - in the eyes of the unemployed - through widely publicized employment programs and an unparalleled program of armaments, which should sooner or later lead the state to bankruptcy, if the treasury would not receive money (for example, as a result of the exploitation of the occupied territories). Foreign policy successes - for example, Germany's return of the Saar - further strengthened Hitler's position. The following stages: in 1936, German troops entered the Rhine zone, demilitarized since 1919, in 1938 Austria was absorbed, and in the same year, the Western powers allowed Hitler to annex the Sudetenland.

History of Germany - World War II:

But it was not enough for Hitler to increase the territory of the German Reich. He wanted more. In March 1939, he ordered German troops to enter Prague, and on September 1, 1939, he unleashed the Second World War by attacking Poland. In five and a half years, it claimed 55 million lives, devastated a significant part of Europe. For many countries, the Germans became brutal occupiers. The occupied territory stretched from the Atlantic coast of France to the gates of Moscow, from northern Norway to North Africa. With the attack on the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, a merciless, destructive military campaign began in the East.

After the US entered the war in 1941 and the defeat at Stalingrad in 1943, a radical change occurred. During the liberation of the occupied territories, the allied troops discovered more or less organized resistance groups. But in Germany, too, there have been desperate attempts at resistance over the years, undertaken by individuals or various groups. They came from all walks of life. The attempt on Hitler, undertaken by Count Stauffenberg and other resistance fighters on July 20, 1944, failed: Hitler survived and executed over 4 thousand people. The war continued, both sides suffered huge losses until the entire territory of the Reich was occupied by the Allied forces. April 30, 1945 Hitler committed suicide, a week later the darkest chapter in German history ended with the unconditional surrender of the Reich

The emergence of the German state - the territory of Germany in the YI - YIII centuries. was part of the Frankish state. With the collapse of the Carolingian empire (843), the territory of Germany became part of the East Frankish kingdom, which marked the beginning of the state isolation of the German regions;

Completion of the formation of an independent German early feudal state occurred after the election in 919 of the German king of the Saxon duke Henry I, the founder Saxon dynasty;

Initially, Germany included four tribal duchies (Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Allemania) and Bavaria; later Lorraine and Frisia (Friesland - French, Italian and Slavic lands) were annexed.

The periodization of the history of the German feudal state is a period of a relatively unified early feudal state (X - XII centuries) and a period of feudal fragmentation (XIII - early XIX cc.) .

During the period of the early feudal state in Germany, there was an increase in feudal agriculture, the mass of peasants was involved in personal and land dependence on feudal lords - owners. However, this process proceeded in comparison with other European countries slowly and unevenly;

Until the end of the XI century. Germany was a relatively unified state entity, and the royal power had considerable power. The king also relied on the support of the church, and the episcopate became his main support;

The early feudal system of the judicial and administrative structure was preserved in one form or another, divided into counties and hundreds;

There was a nationwide military organization with compulsory military service for all free people and military service for all vassals in favor of the king;

By the end of the XI century. the entire population of Germany was drawn into feudal relations, an intensive growth of cities began - both from old Roman fortifications and from new craft and trading settlements;

From the middle of the XI century. In Germany, political decentralization has intensified. Large feudal lords, acquiring the entirety of judicial and administrative power, began to create closed possessions. Cities, initially dependent on their lords (bishops, secular feudal lords, the king), achieved liberation from their power, self-government, and personal freedom of citizens.

By the XIII century. Germany's territory has grown significantly. Large independent principalities arose in the east. Commodity-money relations spread in all areas of the economy, guild handicraft production grew. The North German cities, led by Lübeck, united into a large trade union - the Hansa;

From the 13th century territorial fragmentation of the country is growing. The princes are turning into virtually independent sovereigns. Electors (princes - electors), secular and spiritual aristocrats, who had a decisive influence on the election of kings, enjoyed the greatest power;

In the XIII - XIY centuries. Germany finally breaks up into many principalities, counties, baronies and knightly possessions. At the same time, the design of the system of estates and estate representation is being completed.

The peculiarities of the estate structure of Germany were fragmentation and lack of unity throughout the country. Imperial estates (in the empire) - imperial princes, imperial knights and representatives of imperial cities;

Zemsky estates (in the principalities) - the nobles and clergy of the principalities and the townspeople of the princely cities.

The clergy was divided - into higher - bishops, abbots; on the lowest - rural and city priests.

In German cities, property differentiation led to the formation of three various groups:

Ø patriciate - the urban elite, which held in its hands all city posts;

Ø the burghers, which consisted of the middle part of the urban population, full-fledged masters and was in opposition to the patriciate;

Ø the urban plebs, who also occupied the opposition in relation to the patriciate; apprentices, day laborers, poor townspeople belonged to him.

The situation of the peasant population in Germany in the XIY century. on the whole, it improved somewhat, since instead of the previous corvée system, the feudal lords introduced new forms of economic organization, which implied the weakening and elimination of personal dependence, but in different regions of the country it was different.

In Saxony, the practice of letting peasants go free without land and giving them allotments for rent spread;

In the south and southwest of Germany, the peasants owned small plots of land, corvée was replaced by cash rent here;

On the colonized eastern lands the peasants were in the most favorable conditions - they received land allotments, economic independence and personal freedom, paid moderate fixed payments to the feudal lords.

The highest state power in Germany was recognized by the college of electors, who elected the emperor and decided the most important national affairs;

The emperor did not have effective all-imperial executive bodies and all-imperial finances, he did not have a permanent all-imperial army, there was no all-imperial court.

The Reichstag, consisting of three curiae, was the all-German legislative body; the curia of the electors, the curia of the princes and the curia of the imperial cities; the petty nobility and peasantry had no representation in the Reichstag;

The Reichstag was convened by the emperor twice a year. Cases were subject to discussion by curiae and were finally agreed upon at general meetings of all curiae;

The competence of the Reichstag was not precisely defined, it included the following: the establishment of peace between the principalities, the organization of all-imperial military enterprises, questions of war and peace, relations with other states, the imposition of imperial duties, changes in imperial law, territorial changes in the composition of the empire and principalities and etc.

The principalities developed their own local class-representative institutions - Landtags, meetings of local officials, consisting of three chambers and representing the clergy, nobility and townspeople; in some lands these assemblies also included representatives of the free peasantry;

The representatives who sat in the Landtags received instructions from their electors that were of a mandatory nature; if the instructions did not contain instructions on how to resolve a particular issue, the commissioners turned to their voters for them;

The competence of the Landtags included the election of the sovereign in the event of suppression ruling dynasty, sending some functions to the area foreign policy, some church, police and military affairs. The Landtag was considered the supreme court of the principality until the formation of special courts;

By influencing the formation of princely councils or the appointment of senior officials, the Landtags could interfere in the administration of the state.

Cities played a significant role in the life of Germany. The legal status of the city determined the extent of its independence. German cities were of three types:

Ø imperial - direct vassals of the king;

Ø free - enjoying full self-government;

Ø princely - subordinate to the prince in whose principality they were.

By the end of the 10th century more than 80 cities (imperial and some episcopal) received political liberties and were self-governing units;

Legislative power in the cities was exercised by the council, which consisted of commissions for the branches of the urban economy. The executive branch is a magistrate headed by one or more burgomasters. The positions of council members and burgomasters were not paid;

In most cases, city patriciate seized power in cities, arrogated to themselves the right to elect city councils and replace city magistracies, and used this power in their own interests. This caused dissatisfaction with the rest of the urban population, which led in the XIY century. to the uprisings of artisans in a number of cities, in which guilds usually played a leading role and which most often ended in a compromise between the patriciate and the guild elite - artisans were members of the councils or formed a special collegium as part of the former council.

The German judicial system is characterized by the presence of several types of courts:

Ø senior, feudal courts, created in the estates of landowners. Initially, the landowner had the right to judge only his serfs, then his jurisdiction extended to the entire population living in his seigniory;

Ø church courts, the jurisdiction of which extended, on the one hand, to certain categories of people (clergy and some categories of secular persons), on the other hand, to a certain range of cases (cases of marriages, spiritual testaments, etc.);

o city courts. The structure of city courts was different in individual cities. In some cities, the court was conducted by judges and assessors, in others - by the city council. In most cities the judges were chosen by the community;

Ø with the strengthening of princely power, the highest court of the principalities was formed;

England

Period of early feudal monarchy

In the 1st century AD Britain was one of the outlying provinces of the Roman Empire. At the beginning of the 5th century AD Roman rule ended here. The conquest of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons began - the North Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who pushed back the Celtic population (Britons) on the outskirts of the island.

By the end of the VI century. on the territory of Britain, seven early feudal kingdoms were formed (Wessex, Sussex, Kent, Mercia, etc.), which in the 9th century. under the leadership of Wessex united in the Anglo-Saxon state - England.

The main stages in the development of the English feudal state:

Ø the period of the English early feudal monarchy (IX - XI centuries);

Ø the period of centralized seigneurial monarchy (XI - XII centuries);

Ø the period of a class-representative monarchy (the second half of the 13th century - the 15th century);

Ø period absolute monarchy(the end of the 15th century - the middle of the 17th century);

The main feature of the formation of feudalism among the Anglo-Saxons is the preservation of the freedom of the rural community for a long time.

In the first century after the conquest, the society was based on free peasants - community members (kerls) and noble people (erls). The tribal nobility at first occupied a special position, but was gradually pushed aside by the warriors, on whom the king relied, asserting his power, and to whom he distributed land positions - communal lands along with the peasants who lived on them.

The peasants bore duties in favor of the landowners and became personally dependent on their masters. Those peasants who remained free performed duties in favor of the state.

With the growth of social inequality and the decomposition of the community, the earls turned into large landowners.

By the 11th century thanks to the support of both the royal authorities and the church, which encouraged the development of feudal ownership of land and justified the enslavement of peasants, communal relations were replaced by feudal ones.

In the Anglo-Saxon era, the need for defense in the fight against Norman raids and the need to rally all the forces of the ruling class in order to overcome the resistance of the peasants to enslavement created the prerequisites for the rise and strengthening of royal power;

The royal court became the center of government of the country, and the royal entourage became officials of the state.

Despite the fact that the relationship to the king as a military leader and the principle of elections when replacing the throne were still preserved, the monarch gradually approved:

Ø its right of supreme ownership of the land;

Ø monopoly right to mint coins, duties;

Ø the right to receive in-kind supplies from the entire free population;

Ø the right to military service by the free.

Supreme government agency there was a witanagemot council of the witans, which included the king, the higher clergy, and the secular nobility. The main functions of the Witani council were the election of kings and the highest court.

Local government in England retained the principles of territorial self-government;

The main territorial units of the country in the X century. 32 districts became counties, the centers of which were fortified cities. The most important local matters were discussed twice a year at a county meeting. All free people of the district were to participate in it;

Cities and ports had their own collections, which eventually turned into city and merchant courts. There were also assemblies of villages;

The county was headed by an ealdorman, who was appointed by the king with the consent of the witanagemot of the representatives local nobility and in charge of the county assembly as well as its armed forces;

By the X century. the personal representative of the king - the gref (appointed by the king from the middle layer of the service nobility), who oversees the timely receipt of taxes and court fines to the treasury, acquires police and judicial powers.

Topic 2. Byzantium

The Byzantine Empire was a centralized state. The emperor was at the head of the state. In his hands was the legislative, executive and judicial power. The emperor managed not only secular, but also church affairs, convened church councils, appointed the highest officials of the church. The church played in Byzantium very important role. The Patriarch of Constantinople was the second person in the state after the emperor and had a great influence on political life.

According to the teachings of the Byzantine (Orthodox) Church, the emperor received his power from God, his person was considered sacred.

In Byzantium there was no definite order of succession to the throne. Formally, it was believed that the emperor was elected by the senate, the army and "the people." His coronation by the patriarch was envisaged. But very often various factions of the ruling class and the army carried out palace coups and killed emperors in order to put their protege on the throne

Under the emperor, there was a permanent deliberative body, the Senate. He discussed issues of foreign and domestic policy, considering bills, which, after their approval by the emperor, entered into force, appointed senior officials, and administered justice in the most important criminal cases. However, in political life decisive role the Senate did not play. And in the reign of Emperor Leo VI (886912), the Senate, in favor of the imperial power, was deprived of the right to consider bills and appoint the highest officials of the empire.

At the head of the central government was another advisory body, the State Council. He discussed all current issues of state administration and exercised judicial functions.

The highest officials of the empire included two prefects of the praetorium, the prefect of the capital, the head of the palace, the quaestor, two committees of finance and two masters of the army.

The prefect of the praetorian of the East ruled over Asia Minor, Pontus and Thrace, the Illyrian prefect of the praetorian of the Balkan Peninsula. All administrative, financial and judicial power in these territories was concentrated in their hands.

Constantinople with the adjacent rural district constituted an independent administrative unit, headed by the prefect of the capital, who was directly subordinate to the emperor. At the same time he was the chairman of the Senate.

The head of the palace, being the commander palace guard, was in charge of the protection of the emperor, his personal office, state mail and foreign policy activities. He was also in charge of the control of the police and the supervision of officials.

The quaestor was the chairman of the State Council, in addition, he was in charge of the development and distribution of imperial decrees and had judicial power.

One of the two committees of finance managed the state treasury, the other was in charge of the imperial property.

At the head of the army were two masters. One of them commanded the infantry, the other the cavalry.

In the 7th century all Byzantine officialdom was divided into 60 categories. higher officials were called logothetes. The whole system was headed by the logothete drama, who was in charge of the imperial guards, his personal office, mail, communication routes, foreign affairs and the police.

The offices carried out direct management of certain areas public life. A large staff of officials in these departments, who received a small salary, became a breeding ground for corruption and bribery. There was a practice of selling positions.

Administratively, Byzantium was divided into two prefectures, which, in turn, were divided into 7 dioceses. Each diocese included 50 provinces.

Initially, local government was based on the principles of separation of military and civilian government. Local communities were governed by elected officials under the control of government officials. But under the influence of the military threat in many regions, new administrative units of the theme were formed, where military and civil power was concentrated in the hands of the commander of the military units stationed in this territory.

Byzantium had a fairly strong army. In the 7th century, a special military estate of stratiots was created from among the free communal peasants. The land of the stratiotes could not be alienated and was inherited by one of the sons, who was supposed to serve.

Since the 11th century, a new form of conditional feudal holding of pronia has been spreading, similar to Western European benefices.

The highest judicial body of Byzantium was the imperial court. He considered cases of the most serious crimes against the state, and was also the court of appeal.

State Council cases of state crimes and crimes of officials were under jurisdiction.

The prefect of Constantinople had jurisdiction over the cases of members of handicraft and trade corporations.

Land disputes and cases of wills were considered by the quaestor, one of the highest judicial officers. In the themes and provinces, the praetor was the supreme judicial authority. The ecclesiastical justice had an extensive judicial system.

Thus, the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) in feudal era had a unique and special system of state power and administration.

Topic 3. Feudal states of Central and South-Eastern Europe

In the 6th century, Slavic tribes began to colonize the Balkans. In the 7th century, they form a union on the territory of present-day Bulgaria, known as the "Seven Slavic Tribes". In the 70s. In the same century, the nomadic tribes of the Bulgars, led by Khan Asparuh, invaded this region.

In the face of a military threat from Byzantium and other nomadic tribes, the Bulgars and Slavs conclude an alliance. Khan Asparuh becomes the supreme ruler of Bulgaria.

The level of economic and cultural development of the Slavs was higher than the Bulgars, in addition, they surpassed the latter in numbers. Therefore, in a very short time, the Bulgars were assimilated by the Slavic population, but left them their generic name.

In the 9th century, feudal relations were established in Bulgaria. Stand out the ruling class of feudal lords "Bolyare" and exploited peasantry. The peasants were divided into three categories: Bashtinniks, who retained personal freedom, allotments and some freedom in the disposal of property; wigs of serfs who carried duties both in favor of the feudal lords and the state and the youths of slaves planted on the ground.

In the ninth century scattered Slavic tribes were united into one Bulgarian state, which contributed to the strengthening of the centralization of the state and the adoption of Christianity.

At the beginning of the 11th century, Bulgaria was conquered by Byzantium and was under its rule for about 150 years. In 1187 the Bulgarian kingdom regained its independence.

During the Byzantine domination, the personal freedom of the Bashtin peasants is liquidated, they turn into serfs.

In the regions of the Balkans neighboring Bulgaria, the formation of the Serbian nationality and development in its environment is taking place. feudal relations. However, due to geographical disunity, the constant struggle with Byzantium and the Bulgarian kingdom, these processes are slow. However, in the period of the 111th centuries. the formation of early feudal statehood among the Serbs takes place. Since the 9th century they have adopted Christianity.

In the XII century, during the reign of Stefan Neman, the Serbian state united most of the Serbian lands up to the Adriatic coast. In 1217 Serbia becomes a kingdom. Feudal relations flourish. Serbia reaches its greatest strength and greatness during the reign of Stefan Dušan (1308-1355).

The ruling class of Serbia consisted of two classes of rulers and rulers.

The rulers constituted the highest feudal nobility. Their landed property was hereditary in nature and did not depend on the will of the king. The rulers occupied all the most important positions in the central and local apparatus. The rulers belonged to the feudal lords of the lowest rank.

The Serbian peasantry was divided into three main groups: free people, serfs (merops), who were supposed to bear certain natural and monetary duties in favor of the feudal lords, and youth slaves.

After the death of Stefan Dusan, Serbia began to quickly disintegrate into destinies, which weakened the power of the state.

At the end of the XIV century. early 15th century Serbia and Bulgaria fell under the yoke of Turkey and their independent state development stopped for a long time.

At the turn of the 20th century, the formation of statehood and the formation of feudal relations took place on the territory of the Polish lands by the First Ruler Polish state was Prince Mieszko I (960-992). During his reign, Poland adopts Christianity.

Princes rely on their retinue. But their power is limited to the council of the nobility and feudal congresses (diets).

During this period, the bulk of personally free peasants, grandfathers, passes into the category of "assigned", i.e. personally dependent.

During the XIII century, the custom of inheriting the highest positions in the country within certain families was established. Various tax, judicial and administrative immunities are widely spread.

The peculiarities of the economic development of Poland were due to the fact that the Polish cities, where the German colonists occupied a dominant position, were not interested in establishing a strong royal power. The kings, seeing their main support in chivalry, were forced to satisfy his political demands. In 1374, the Polish nobility achieved equalization with the magnates in their rights to land and exemption from duties (taxes) in favor of the state. In various regions, gentry-magnate assemblies of the sejmiki of the lands began to form. And since 1454, a rule has been established that no law affecting the interests of the nobility can be adopted without the prior consent of the sejmiks. Court cases against the gentry were removed from the competence of the royal court and transferred to the estate gentry zemstvo court.

In 1569, Poland was unified with the Principality of Lithuania at the Sejm of Lublin to form the Commonwealth.

The head of state was the king. But his power was rather arbitrary. The royal power was elective and depended on the will of the magnates and the gentry.

The real power belonged to the All-Polish Sejm, which met twice a year. The Sejm consisted of two chambers. The lower, "ambassadorial hut", consisted of deputies elected by the gentry diets. The upper one, the senate, included representatives of the feudal aristocracy, church hierarchs, and senior officials. Representatives of the cities did not take part in the work of the Seimas.

A unanimous vote was required to make a decision. Even one vote "against" led to the failure of the decision. The nobility protected this principle in every possible way, calling it "libertum veto" (the right of free prohibition).

The general consequence of this political system was the weakening of the state. During the XVIII century, as a result of 3 partitions between Austria, Prussia and Russia, Poland lost its statehood.

In the 9th century, the Great Moravian Principality arose on the territory of the settlement of Czech tribes, but in 906 it fell under the onslaught of the Hungarian invasion. In the middle of the tenth century, the Czech Principality was formed on the territory of these lands.

The Czech Republic developed along the path of "noble democracy". Due to the fact that the leading position in the Czech cities belonged to the German patriciate, therefore, the Czech kings were forced to seek support in the middle and small nobility.

In 1433, freedom of religion was established in the Czech Republic, the secularization of church property, and the abolition of church jurisdiction in criminal cases.

The decisions of the Zemsky Court of 1437 eliminated the personal freedom of the peasants and their right to dispose of their own property without the permission of the master.

The Czech Sejm began to represent all three estates of the pans, the petty gentry (lords) and the townspeople (citizens). But the feudal magnates (pans) also gained predominance here. And after 1500, the city patriciate was generally excluded from participating in the Sejm.

At the beginning of the 16th century, the threat of Turkish conquest loomed over the Czech, Hungarian and Austrian lands. This necessitated a closer alliance, and in 1526 Ferdinand of Habsburg was elected king of Bohemia. The policy of planting Catholicism began, the restriction of the rights of Czech state institutions. The king secured for himself the right to appoint to all the highest positions in the country and to determine the work of the Sejm. The Czech throne was declared a hereditary possession of the Habsburgs. In 1627, the independent state existence of the Czech Republic was terminated.

Central Europe after the Thirty Years' War.

The historical development of the german-s-states from the se-re-di-ns of the 17th century. signifi-c-tel-but from-whether-cha-elk from the history of An-g-liya and France of the same period, for sure, but embarked on the path of prices -t-ra-li-for-tion. Time from the windows of the Three-tsa-ti-years-her war in the se-re-di-not of the 17th century. to na-cha-la Franc-tsuz-with-coy re-vo-lu-tion of the end of the XVI-II centuries. it was very difficult in the history of the Germans.

October 24, 1648 in the cities of Mun-s-te-re and Os-nab-rueck-ke (in West Fa-lie) du im-pe-ra-to-rum and de-pu-ta-ta-mi sos-lo-viy Im-pe-rii, on the one hand, France-tsi-ey and Sweden-tsi -she - with a friend-goy-, in-lo-zhi-whether to-net Thirty-tsa-ti-years-her howl-not. Weight-t-fal-s-ki world - the first try-ka us-ta-nov-le-niya in Ev-ro-pe but-in-th time-me-no peace in a row -kov - a prize-for-a-shaft-as-a-new-for-ko-nom for eternity for Holy Rome-with-koy im-pe-rii, ga-ran- ta-mi-ko-ro-go became-but-vi-lis France and Sweden. Ga-ran-you uk-re-pi-li for yourself for-in-evan-nye in the Empire ter-ri-to-rii. There was a san-k-qi-they-ro-va-no vla-de-nie co-ro-lem of France bishop-cop-s-t-va-mi Metz, Toul and Ver-den, and so -there is a ter-ri-to-riy house nearby in El-za-se and on the Upper Rhine, thus an important step was taken in the promotion of Fran -tion in the direction of the so-called-y-va-em of its "ess-t-vein-ny borders". The Swedish-with-king-role became-but-vil-im-per-with-kim prince-earth, in the best-chal Fore-red-ny (Western) In-me-ra-tion , ar-hi-epis-cop-s-t-vo Bre-men, etc., i.e. Sweden con-t-ro-li-ro-va-la us-tya is important of the rivers El-by, Ode-ra and Ve-ze-ra.

Holy Rome-s-kai-im-pe-riya german-man-s-koi-na-tion in re-zul-ta-te Weight-t-fal-s-ko-go mi-ra extended its su -s-t-in-va-nie for another half-so-ras-that years. But it would be pro-of-ve-de-but. something-swarm from-me-not-nie in its sos-ta-ve: Switzerland-tsar-ria and the Netherlands (Res-pub-li-ka of the Union Pro-vin-tsy-) came out of Im-pe-rii and became su-ve-ren-ny-mi go-su-dar-s-t-va-mi. In the Empire, as before, enter-di-whether on-se-len-nye non-German-s-mi-is-pan-s-kie of the Netherlands, Franche-Kon- those, etc., on the se-ve-re Shlez-vi-ga zhi-li dat-cha-ne, in Che-khii (Bo-ge-mii) and Mo-ra-via bol-shin-s- t-in on-se-le-niya sos-tav-la-li che-chi and mo-ra-you, in Si-le-zia pro-zhi-va-li in la-ki and che-chi, and in Karin-tii and Kray-there weren’t many words-veins, etc. Were there ure-gu-li-ro-va-ny re-li-gi-oz-no-pra -for the first time -le-we. Gra-ni-tsy races-p-ros-t-ra-non-niya ka-li-tsiz-ma and pro-tes-tan-tiz-ma us-ta-nav-li-va-lis in os -new-nom according to their su-shches-t-in-va-nia in the so-called-y-va-em nor-mal-nom (1624) year, and the right of prince-zya on from-me- non-confessions of og-ra-ni-chi-va-moose this year. Cal-vi-nism, re-for-mat-with-kaya church, prize-for-shaft third con-fess-si-she. Intro-di-las sis-te-ma pa-ri-te-ta ka-to-li-kov and pro-tes-tan-tov in im-per-s-kih-dir-de-ni-yah. Re-li-gi-oz-nye questions-ro-sy in rey-xs-ta-ge about-so-da-li-li-ka-mi and pro-tes-tan-ta-mi from- del-but also the decision could-whether you could be accepted only with their consent-la-si.

It was important to have post-ta-nov-le-niya about pre-dos-tav-le-ni prince-pits in Im-pe-rii su-ve-re-ni-te-ta, in including for-to-but-yes-tel-ny rights, right-va in-weapons, that provides-ne-chi-va-lo su-shches-t-in-va-nie pos -then-yan-nyh army w right-va zak-lu-che-niya of the unions between with-fight and with foreign-t-ran-ny-mi go-su-dar-s-t- you. Thus, we enter the diva-shie into Im-pe-riyu go-su-dar-s-t-va, carry-mot-rya on the top-ho-ven-s-t-in im-pe-ra- then-ra and general for-ko-no-da-tel-s-t-vo, ter-ri-to-ri-al-go-su-dar-s-t-va, how to- zy-va-li, st-but-vi-lis sa-mos-the-yatel-us-mi sub-ek-ta-mi between-du-on-kind-no-go right-va. Dei-st-vi-tel-but su-ve-ren-ny-mi would only be the largest of them, some of them in the -whether with each other. If not-something-ry-mi lands-la-mi Im-pe-rii vla-de-li inos-t-early go-su-da-ri (ko-ro-li France , Sweden, and later d-her and An-g-lii, ko-ro-lem-ko-swarm became chicken-furst Gan-no-ve-ra), then chicken-furst Bran-den-bur -ga from the house of Go-gen-tsol-ler-nov vla-del Prus-si-ey-, someone-paradise does not enter-di-la into Im-pe-riyu; vla-de-letz ze-mel Av-s-t-riy-sko-go do-ma Gab-s-burg-gov, king of Bo-ge-mia, was king of Ven-g-rii , also not included in the composition of Im-pe-rii. In such a way, after-the-ice before-with-tav-la-la co-battle co-community-t-in from del-states, co-unit nen-nyh not-something-ry-mi general-schi-mi in-with-ti-tu-ta-mi and uch-dir-de-ni-yami, and first of all, kai-ze -rum (emper-ra-to-rum) - symbol-in-scrap one-s-t-va princes and states. Im-pe-ra-tor from-bi-ral-sya-kol-le-gi-her spirit-hov-nyh and light-with-kur-fyur-s-tov headed by May-nts-kim ar -hi-epis-ko-pom. Im-pe-ra-tor to the end of su-shches-t-in-va-niya -vi-te-lem di-nas-tii Gab-s-burg-gov (Austrian-go-ma) and, consequently, to-va-tel-but, on-ho-dil-sya in Ve- not. Kol-le-gy kur-fyur-s-tov (so-vet kur-fyur-s-tov) cos-tav-la-la first kuri, ru-ko-vo-di-muyu Main-nz -kim ar-hi-epis-ko-pom. The second curia was co-tav-lyal by the co-vet of the princes (light-with-their and spiritual), about-la-give-shih 100 go-lo-sa-mi; and the third ku-riyu - the so-vet of the cities, where-da-do-do-do-do-it-at the end of the im-pe-rii pre-s-ta-vi-te-li from 51 im-per-s -who-go-ro-yes. Since 1663, a rey-khs-tag from the ambassadors-lan-ni-kov of the princes-zei-to-yan-but for-se-gave in the city of Re-gene-s-burg-ge. In rei-xs-ta-ge, it would be difficult to beat one-leg-las-no-go solution of all three chickens. Re-she-niya rey-xs-ta-ga under-le-zha-whether obya-for-tel-no-mu ut-ver-zh-de-niyu im-pe-ra-to-ra (someone -ry in the dis-review of important questions-of-owls an hour from-ka-zy-val) and only after this-st-but-we-were for-to- nom. In the XVI-II centenary, ta-ki-mi for-ko-na-mi became-whether for-ko-us, someone-rye re-gu-li-ro-va-li prob-le- we are workshops, apprentices and under-masters, which, of course, is not my most important problem-le-my Empire. Central-t-ral-ny-mi educational-director-de-ni-yami Im-pe-rii would be: im-per-s-kai pri-vor-naya kan-tse-la-ria, in the ve with a single-with-t-ven-im-per-with-kim mi-nis-t-rum - vi-tse-kan-ts-le-rum Im-pe-rii, im-per-s-cue ad-thief council, im-per-s-kai su-deb-naya pa-la-ta. In the Empire, there are more than 300 worldly and spiritual princes, 51 im-per-s-cities and 1475 them -per-s-ryths-tsars-rey (in the second-swarm-lo-vi-not of the 17th century), some were also considered “su-ve-re-na- mi". The power of many princes, including such large ones as Kur-furst Bran-den-burg-ha, consisted of hours-tei-, times -b-ro-san-nyh in Im-pe-rii and beyond her pre-de-la-mi.

Economic situation.

In si-lu is-to-ri-ches-kih-lo-viy in this pe-ri-od ob-lu-da-sya for-slow-growth of eco-no-mi-ki german -from-the-states-of-states, also honey-len-but in comparison with the pe-re-to-you-countries-on-mi Western Europe-ro-py different vi-va-lis and new pro-from-water-s-t-ven-nye from-no-she-niya: their co-you-va-la ter-ri-to-ri-al-naya time -d-rob-len-ness. It’s hard to say-zy-va-moose opus-it-she-nie times of the Three-tsa-ty-years-of war. True, yes, on-a-row with strong-but pos-t-ra-dav-shi-mi re-gi-she-mi like-de Po-me-ra-nii, Ty-ring-gii, Pfal- tsa or Nyur-n-berg-ga, where on-se-le-ni-reduce by two-thirds, Schleswig-Gol-sh-tei-n or Sal-z-burg is not so pos-t-ra-yes-whether, and on-se-le-nie Hamburg-burg-ga you-grew-lo 3 times. It’s hard from-ra-zi-lis-the-ice-s-t-via of the war in the village-with-com-ho-zyay-st-ve, in the ra-zo-ren-noy de-rev- no, where pro-zhi-va-lo pain-shin-s-t-in on-se-le-niya.

For german-s-states, would there be big differences in ag-rar-nyh from-no-she-no-yah. To the east of the El-ba (in Bran-den-burg-ge, Meck-len-burg-ge, Prussia) in the XVII-XVI-II centuries. raz-vi-va-moose large noble-ryan-with-some household-st-in, ori-en-ti-ro-van-noe for that-var-noe pro-from-water-s- t-in bread, flax and cattle, for you to carry abroad, first of all to An-g-lea, Holland-dia, and also in Shwe -tion. Kres-t-yane would be in a personal for-vi-si-mos-ty from the earth-lion-la-del-tsa and carried personally and with your own draft bar-schi- well - so about-is-ho-di-lo "second-rich-noe zak-re-po-shche-nie" kres-t-yan-s-t-va, moreover, zem-lev-la-del -tsy nep-re-ryv-but increase-li-chi-wa-whether the area of ​​​​their lands due to the cross-t-yan-s-kih. In-me-shchi-ki and sa-mi ve-whether ho-zyay-st-vo due to the work of bat-ra-kov and po-den-shchi-kov, someone-ry-mi hundred-but -were the chair-t-yane, whether-shav-shi-esya of the earth, but os-ta-vav-shi-esya in personal for-vi-si-mos-ti. For example, on the south-pas-de-Im-pe-rii, for example-ri-mer in Ba-de-ne or Wuer-te-berg-ge, su-shches-t-in-va- whether relations similar to the senior-ori-al-ny regime in France, when the cross-t-yane is pla-ti-li-fe-odal-ren- that for their states, and there were no large nobles-from-farms. In general, on the pas-de-Im-pe-rii kres-t-yane was-ta-va-lis in its mass-se de-zha-te-la-mi on-de-lov.

The consequences of the Three-tsa-ti-years-her war, other wars on the territory of the Empire , the growth of na-log-gov and the severity of wine-nos-tey you-zy-wa-whether not-to-will-with-t-in, active feeling-with-t-in about -test-ta and, as a trace-s-t-vie, mass-co-vye-dumb-le-niya, there were plenty of them in this half-lu- then-ra-ve-ko-howl per-ri-od.

Peasant movements.

Especially an hour about-is-ho-di-whether waves-not-niya kres-t-yan, they lasted for many years. Once upon a time in 1684, Count Roy-s-Schlei-ts from-to-lo-nil zh-lo-kres-t-yan from Ober-g-rai-tsa and De-lau on the severity of of logs and military posts, they are at their gatherings of post-ta-but-vi-whether to-get-away from not-se-niya bar-schi-ny ; only a few years later, with the help of the military ek-s-pe-di-tion, the count brought them to vi-no-ve-tion. In 1650, there were cross-t-yan-s-waves in count-s-t-ve Schonburg, some did not stop in those -che-nie 30 years; in them, with-no-ma-whether the participation of a few thousand kres-t-yan, while pro-is-ho-di-whether kro-va-vy table-to-but-ve- nia with attached-lan-ny-mi howl-ska-mi. In the not-big-shom government of Go-gen-tsol-lern-Ge-khin-gen from 1699 to 1735, they didn’t stop in-weapons-wife-kres-t-yan -s-th-stup-le-tions, directed against the rights of hunting and cre-pos-t-nyh wines.

The resistance of the cross-t-yan with-no-ma-lo sa-my different personal forms. Do-free-but shi-ro-cue time-max in-lu-chi-li tre-bo-va-niya fik-sa-tion in vin-nos-tey- that in some kind of me -re could-lo protect the cross-t-yan from in-me-shchich-his pro-from-la, nep-re-twitch-but there were su-deb-processes on it-mu-in-do. For a very hour, village-cha-not from-ka-zy-va-lis you-half-nyat bar-schi-well, pay for-lo-gi; a great opportunity for you-zy-va-lo fe-odal right-of-hunting. Running-with-t-in the cross-t-yan or their re-se-le-nie is also a-la-moose environment-with-t-vom pro-test-ta. De-re-ven-with-ki-te-kill-wh-whether gentlemen, compress-ga-whether them to-ma and castles, join-come-go to the ot-rya -damn to the native will-no-tsy.

In 1761-1771. in various districts of South Germany, the action-st-in-vallar of a large detachment, someone-eye ru-ko-vo-dil Ma-ti-as Klos- ter-may-er, pol-zo-vav-shiy-sya active under-der-zh-koy kres-t-yan. Thanks-go-yes-rya their help in the Zhelez-ny mountains, the detachment of "raz-boy-n-kov" Kar-la Shtul-p-ne-ra could act -vat from 1780 to 1803. The same detachments of action-st-in-va-li in Ty-ring-gia, Franco-nii and other districts.

In 1705-1706. a large cross-t-yan-with-kim-a-hundred-ni-eat would-la oh-va-che-na Ba-va-riya. Having risen, yes, they tried to take her hundred Mun-chen. The memory of this resurrection, of such heroes of it as the blacksmith Ko-hel, is still preserved in ba-var-s-com fol-to-lo-re. Kres-t-yane, na-ho-div-shi-esya in the cre-pos-t-noy for-vi-si-mos-ty from mo-us-you-rya St. Blas-nen in count-s- t-ve Ha-uen-sh-tay-n in Schwarz-wal-de, in 1719 from-ka-za-lis-full-take in wine-nos-ti, some from them tre-bo-val mo-us-tyr. Prize-van-nye mo-us-you-rem av-s-t-riy-skie troops in the 20-40s of the 16th-2nd centuries. in three so-called se-lit-rya-nyh wars (many of the cross-t-yan would be pro-from-in-di-te-la-mi or gov-gov -tsa-mi se-lit-ry) pro-ve-whether ka-ra-tel-nye ek-s-pe-di-tions against the rebels. One-to-no ka-ra-tel-nye ek-s-pe-di-tions, nor arrests-you and you-syl-ki in Tran-sil-va-niyu ru-ko-vo-di-te -lei of the resurrection could not, in those days of the whole XVI-II century, half-nose-destroy this movement. Not-one-knok-rat-but kres-t-yan-s-kie-mu-sche-nie had a place in Prussia.

In a number of cases, the fight-ba kres-t-yan settled down in view of the tsi-onal-no-go corner-not-the-niya kres-t-yan-sla -vyan (lu-ji-chan-sor-bov and po-la-kov). Pain-sho-go time-ma-ha dos-ti-ga-la fight-ba kres-t-yan-s-t-va in Si-le-zia, in a swarm pol-s-kie and non-metz -kie-th-yane bo-ro-lis owls-months-t-but. Large cross-t-yan-s-waves in 1765 oh-va-ti-li Upper and Lower Si-le-ziyu. The stubborn struggle-ba-kres-t-yan continued even in 1785. us-thing-howl-not ”cres-t-yan against-po-me-schi-kov. The Soviet-month-t-naya struggle of the glory of the Vyans and the Germans had a place and in the vla-de-ni-yah of Gab-s-burg-gov.

In some cases, kres-t-yan-s-t-in the heights-tu-pa-lo together with the city-with-ki-mi no-for-mi.

Along with the assets-we-mi for-ma-mi pro-tes-ta kres-t-yane is-ka-li and other forms. Among them, in a measure of weight, you can carry a departure to re-li-gi-oz-ny sects, someone grew up in different personal ter-ri-to-ri-al-nyh go-su-dar-s-t-wah. Us-lo-via life-no za-tav-la-whether to look for a way out and in emigration. At the hour-t-nos-ti, in the second-lo-vi-not of the 16th-2nd centuries. non-metz-kies-t-yane re-re-se-la-lied beyond the At-lan-ti-chess-cue ocean-an in amer-ri-can-s-co-lo-nia and in Ros -this.

German cities.

In Im-pe-rii, from-give-to-su-s-t-in-va-li and developed-vi-va-lis city-ro-yes. After-le Trid-tsa-ti-years-her war, the number of them-per-from-the-cities of sok-ra-ti-moose, two-thirds of them are prev-ra-ti- lis in the prince-zhes-kie. In connection with the strengthening of the role of the ter-ri-to-ri-al-nyh states and their pra-vi-te-lei, did the so-called-va-va-emye go -ro-da-re-zi-den-tion. So, Ve-na, having in 1620 30 thousand zhi-te-ley-, in 1750 there were already 175 thousand of us-chi-you-va-la, and in Ber-lin, in some-rum in 1661 there were 6.5 thousand people, in 1777 there were already 140 thousand inhabitants. To the number of such cities-ro-dov-re-si-den-tsy from-no-si-were also Dres-den, Munich-chen, Stuttgart, Gan-no-ver, etc. In the cities-ro-dah-re-zi-den-qi-yah, most of the na-se-le-niya would be connected with the yard and with go-su-dar-s-t -ven-ny control-le-ni-eat.

In re-zul-ta-te Thrid-tsa-ti-years-her war-we re-mes-lo in the cities pe-re-zhi-va-lo dropped-doc as due to direct times-ru-she-nii-, gra-be-zhey and murders during the war, and as a result of the pain-sho-go-for import into German-man-s -kie go-su-dar-s-t-va from de-liy inos-t-ran-noy industrial-mice-len-nos-ti, first of all, ma-well-fak-tour- noi-, and also you-in-for-not-mets-ki-mi merchant-ca-mi raw materials. The fall-dock of the re-mes-la led to the os-lab-le-tion of the workshops and the entire workshop. Only from the end of the 17th to the cha-la of the 16th-2nd centuries. began the process of increasing the pro-from-water-s-t-va, in the weight-t-me-re connected with the city-ro-yes- mi-re-zi-den-qi-yami. Pro-is-ho-dil and the growth of bush-tar-noy pro-mice-len-nose-ti outside the tse-ho-in-th system, in the village, in the main-new-nom in the districts , where the cross-t-yane, because of the ma-lo-zem-melya, could not provide-ne-chi-vat itself with the earth-le-del-che-kim labor house. They, from-go-tov-lya-were different personal fabrics, yarn, lace, about-ra-ba-you-va-li-metal-ly. Buy from the pro-from-in-di-te-lei of their production of stingy-shchi-ka-mi and com-pa-ni-yami post-te-pen-but with-ob-re -ta-la more and more shi-ro-ki ha-rak-ter, appeared-la-las-ra-se-yan-naya ma-well-fak-tu-ra. Voz-nik-la and cen-t-ra-li-zo-van-naya ma-well-fak-tu-ra in tech-s-til-n pro-from-water-s-t-ve and me- tal-lo-ob-ra-bot-ke, vov-le-kav-shay in separate del districts and workshops re-mes-len-ni-kov, which led to more-she-mu os-lab-le-niyu of the tse-ho-in-go system. Not-rarely large ma-nu-fak-tu-ry was-but-you-were princes. The meaning of the go-su-dar-s-t-ven-nyh ma-well-fak-tour, ra-bo-tav-shih at the army, as well as pro-from-to-div- shih do-ro-gye pre-me-you ros-ko-shi for pro-da-zhu (for example, far-fo-ro-way ma-well-fak-tu-ra in May-se- no, in Sak-so-nii, os-no-van-naya in 1710), it was ve-li-ko. Or-ga-ni-za-tion of large ma-nu-fak-tour would-la ha-rak-ter-noy for po-li-ti-ki mer-can-ti-liz-ma, pro-vo - diva-shey-sya in Western Europe-ro-ne of that time-me-ni.

The spread of the ma-nu-fak-tour on-carried-lo a strong blow to the tse-ho-in-mu re-mes-lu. In for-for-more times-vi-tyh-su-dar-s-t-wah (for example, in Prussia, Sak-so-nii, Wur-tember-ge) the role of ma -well-fak-tour in a row from-races-lei became-la pre-ob-la-da-chee. In the last quarter of the 16th-2nd centuries, for example, an important center of tech-s-til-no-go pro-from-water-s-t- wa and metal-lo-ob-ra-bot-ki became Berlin, where only in tech-s-til-n pro-from-water-s-t-ve in 1782 dey-st -in-va-lo 65 ma-well-fak-tour. At the same time, the first machines also appeared (in Sak-so-nii in 1785 there was a post-t-ro-ena first pa-ro-vaya ma -tire). In 1784, in Ra-tin-ge-ne, not-da-le-ko from Dus-sel-dor-fa, from-to-ry-the first spin-dil-naya factory-ri-ka, in 1795, a spinning factory for-ra-bo-ta-la in Ber-lyn. So, in non-Metz-kih-su-dar-s-t-wah, where yes, half-nose-tew is not yet in-be-di-lo ma-well-fak-tour-noe pro-from -water-with-t-in, the first sim-p-then-we-pro-mys-len-noy re-in-lu-tion appeared. In the conditions of-lo-vi-yah, the development of ka-pi-ta-liz-ma grew-la, the role of the for-mi-ro-vav-shay-xia bourgeois-zhu-asia, still very much for-vi-si -mine from the authorities. All these pro-cesses influenced the lower-call of the city-genus-from-to-the-se-le-niya, you-zy-vaya pro-test.

Movements in cities.

The movements of the people-no-go pro-test in the cities usually had no connection with the movements in the village. They took-no-ma-whether different-but-different-form-we, and their char-ter signifi-c-tel-but changed, first of all, in connection with the development of the ka-pi-ta-lis-ti-ches-kih from-no-she-ny.

In those-th-th of all this-th time-me-no city-rod-s-th movement-same-an hour before-s-tav-la-whether so-fight fight-boo workshops , high-to-fall-shih at the head of the chalk-to-go bur-ger-s-t-va against the gos-under-s-t-va city-rod-with-koi pat-ri-qi -en-with-coy oli-gar-khii, as it, for example, had a place in Cologne, where in 1685, with the pressure of the movement was ve-shen (his ru-ko-vo-di-tel ku-pets Gyu-lah, in Fran-k-fur-te-on-Main-ne, Ul-me, Er-fur-te, Roy -tling-ge-ne. gg., where de-lo got to the arrival of troops.

At the same time, about-is-ho-di-whether a table-to-no-ve-nia between mas-te-ra-mi and under-mas-ter-yami, some-rye at-about-re-ta -is it more and more wide-ro-ki-swing and pos-te-pen-but in the XVI-II century, in its own meaning and os-t-ro-te prev- zosh-whether yes, fight-boo with pat-ri-chi-atom; after-ice-ny in a number of cases, you have already fallen together with ma-te-ra-mi against sub-mas-ter-ev. Sub-masters united in unions-brother-s-t-va, the meaning of someone grew-lo and someone-ry heights-to-pa- whether for saving “si-not-go-not-del-ni-ka” (free-of-the-day after holidays) and prize- wa-whether to prek-ra-shche-niyu ra-bo-you. Would these brothers-s-t-va be connected with other brothers-s-t-va-mi in various ter-ri-to-ri-al-nyh-go- su-dar-s-t-wah and not-rarely put-them-whether-ti-ki fight-ko-ta us-pesh-but bo-ro-were with the press-le-do-va-ni -yami authorities. The movement of sub-mas-ter-evs became-but-vi-elk more and more significant, sometimes dis-p-gross-t-ra-nya-is from one but-go-su-dar-s-t-va in another. To fight against him, the authorities, yes, decided in 1731. from-give them-per-s-cue the law on the workshops, someone forbade the brother-s-t-va; vy-stup-le-niya under-mas-ter-ev against mas-te-ditch and strikes under-le-zh-whether strictly-go-on-ka-za-niyu until death -noy Kaz-no. Was from-me-nen "blue in-not-del-nick." One-new-re-men-but this law og-ra-ni-chi-val mo-but-pol-noe-lo-same-shops and raz-re-shal mas-te-ram have any number of sub-masters.

The main part of the pre-p-ro-le-ta-ri-ata was the ra-bo-chie ma-nu-fak-tour and other on-em-ra-bo-chie. In many centers, there were observed waves of non-niya workers - yes, and life. These pro-tests-you appeared in such forms as pre-pa-s-che-ing of work-bo-you, to what-mu-be-ga-li, for example -mer, then-chil-schi-ki in Rem-shay-de, sta-lep-la-vil-schi-ki in Zo-ling-ge-ne, coal-schi-ki in Achen or ra-bo -chie ma-well-fak-tour in Ber-lyn. Work-bo-chie not-one-no-rat-but pro-tes-that-wa-li, and an hour with us-pe-hom, against op-la-you their work is not a day- ha-mi, but pro-duk-ta-mi. Active-but participate-t-in-va-whether in the fight-be ra-bo-chie, occupied in the mountain de-le, where ka-pi-ta-lis-ti-ches- some from-no-she-niya would be comparable-no-tel-but once-you.

In this way, in Germany in the second half of the 17th and in the 16th-2nd centuries. nep-re-break-but pro-is-ho-di-whether on-native movements, mainly directed against feudal row-kov, ras-sha-you-vav-shie fe-odal system and object-tiv-but ras-chi-shav-shi way new common-t-ven-nym from-but -she-no-yam.

Absolutism.

New common-t-ven-nye from-no-she-niya calls-re-va-li in non-metz-kih ter-ri-to-ri-al-ny go-su-dar-s-t -wah in the us-lo-vi-yah ab-so-lu-tiz-ma, uk-re-beer-she-go-sya after the Trid-tsa-ti-years-her war-ny and pro-su -s-t-in-vav-she-go until the end of the XVI-II centenary. When-chi-na-mi us-ta-nov-le-niya ab-so-lu-tis-t-with-what form-we gos-under-s-t-wa would we strengthen-le-nie sop -ro-tiv-le-niya kres-t-yan-s-t-va, especially-ben-but in the conditions "Cross-t-yan-s-t-va for El-boy-, and growing from-me-not-niya in co-from-no-she-nii forces between different personalities -mi society-t-ven-ny-mi class-sa-mi, in the first place, between the feudal nobility-s-t-vom and tor-go-in -ma-well-fak-tour-noy bourgeois-zhu-azi-ey.

If ab-so-lu-tis-t-s-kie re-zhi-we are in some-some-large-go-su-dar-s-t-wah before-bi-va-liz- weight-t-th mustaches, then many pra-vi-te-whether, and light-s-kie, and spiritual-nye, ter-pe-whether in in her own way. To the number of the first, before everything, from-no-si-lis Gab-s-bur-gi in their vla-de-ni-yah and Go-gen-tsol-ler-na in Bran -den-burg-Prussian-go-su-dar-s-t-ve, while sak-son-s-kur-fuhr-s-you couldn’t-up-weight-ti before the end for-du-man-nye pre-ob-ra-zo-va-niya, but in-if-ti-ka-her-tso-gov Wür-tember-ha or Meck-len-burg-ga pro-va-li-las.

Brandenburg-Prussia.

On the pro-tya-zhe-nii in a lu-to-ra hundred-year-old from Ves-t-fal-s-to-go world to the end of the 16th-2nd centuries. zna-chi-tel-but you-grew-la the role of Bran-den-burg-Prussian-go-su-dar-s-t-va. According to Wes-t-fal-s-to-mu mi-ru kur-fürst Bran-den-bur-ha Fried-rich Wil-helm in-lu-chil a number of ter-ri-to-ri-, per hour-t -nose-ti Lower (Eastern) By measure. All the rivers that flowed into the Baltic and Northern seas, pro-te-ka-whether along the ter-ri-to-riy of Bran-den-bur-ha, which s-so-s-t-in-va-lo grew-that of his eco-no-mi-ki, pos-la-lo develop you-cart production of village-s-ko th ho-zyay-st-va.

During the reign of Fried-ri-ha Wil-gel-ma, “ve-li-ko-go-kur-fyur-s-ta”, ter-ri-to-ri-al-noe go- su-dar-s-t-in prev-ra-ti-moose to the European-ro-pei-der-zha-vu. Kur-furst, us-ta-no-viv regime ab-so-lyut-noy-, not-og-ra-ni-chen-noy authorities, sharply og-ra-ni-chil pra- va sos-lo-viy and the role of sos-lov-no-go pre-s-ta-vi-tel-s-t-va, us-ta-no-vil zhes-t-kuyu price-t-ra-li -for-tion in the management-le-nii, created a post-yan-th army. Pro-in-dya-smart external-li-ti-ku, not-rarely changing the front in wars, he won big mustaches, the main ones of some of them would be os-in-god-de-nie in 1660 according to the world in Oli-ve of the duke-s-t-va of Prussia (i.e. e. Eastern Prussia) from len-noy for-vi-si-mos-ti from Pol-shi and dos-ti-same-nie half-but-go su-ve-re-ni-te -that according to the duke-s-t-vu of Prussia. During the time of his rights-le-niya pro-di-moose builder-with-t-in can-on-catch and roads, os-but-you-wa-lis ma-well-fak -tu-ry. Of great importance was the Pot-s-lady-s-ki edict of the cour-fur-s-ta in 1685, according to some-ro-mu more than 20 thousand French-tsuz-s -kih gu-ge-no-tov-pro-tes-tan-tov would-whether in-se-le-na in Bran-den-burg-ge, in the main-new-nom in Ber-lyn, which pos-lu-zhi-lo with an important im-pulse in the development of pro-mice-len-nos-ty and trading-whether Bran-den-burg-ha. In order to develop trading-whether there would be-la-os-no-va-na-ko-lo-nia on the Guinea-be-re-gu in Af-ri-ke, create-da-na bran-den-bur-g-s-ko-afri-kan-s-kaya tor-go-vaya company and built a tor-go fleet.

The son of Fried-ri-ha Wil-gel-ma kur-fürst Fried-rich did-beat-sya from him-pe-ra-to-ra rise-ve-de-niya himself in ko-ro-lion-s -some dos-to-in-s-t-in according to the duke-s-t-vu of Prussia, some-swarm is not included-di-lo in the composition of the Empire and according to -to-ro-mu, next-to-va-tel-but, he was not you-sa-lom im-pe-ra-to-ra. In 1701, he co-ro-no-val-sya in Ke-nig-s-berg as Friedrich I, king in Prussia.

The son of Fried-ri-ha I king Fried-rich Wilhelm I (1713-1740) conducted gesture-t-kuyu mer-can-ti-lis-t-with-kuyu-li-ti -ku, all-che-ki pre-fly-s-t-in-the-shaft to enter-zu-va-ditch because of the border, so that max-si-small-but reduce sewing -re-water de-neg for pre-de-ly go-su-dar-s-t-va. One-new-re-men-but he paid great attention to the builder-s-t-wo of the arm-mia, after receiving for this proz-vi-shche “ko -ro-la-sol-da-ta. They would-la pro-da-na-ko-lo-niya in Af-ri-ke. In 1717, it was the introduction of compulsory school education, and in 1715, pro-cesses against witches were banned.

The vast majority of the go-su-dar-s-t-ven-ny means of ear-di-la for military races. Under Fried-ri-he Wil-gel-me I, ko-ro-left-s-ki ab-so-lu-tism became all-oh-va-you-va-shchim, the king appeared to be building -lem Prussian-go in-en-no-chi-nov-draw-its-go-su-dar-s-t-va with a full price-t-ra-li-for-qi-her pack- rav-le-niya, when the officer-tser-s-kiy kor-pus of the army and chi-nov-no-ches-t-in sos-tav-la-whether dvo-rya-not, but tra- di-qi-on-ny-mi ka-ches-t-va-mi both the Prussian-go-ofi-tse-ra and the Prussian-go-chi-nov-no-ka-whether not-by -ko-le-bi-may fidelity to ko-ro-lu and be-zus-lov-noe you-half-not-your-his-duty.

Prussian military-en-naya system-te-ma sokh-ra-nya-la important value under pre-em-ni-ke Fried-ri-ha Wil-gel-ma I, his son Fried-ri-he II (1740-1786). His rights, in contrast to the rights of his father, would be oz-on-me-no-va-but many-gi-mi howl-on-mi, in which -something big role was played by the Prussian-Austrian an-ta-go-nism, the struggle for the pre-ob-la-give-ing-the-same environment among the ger -man-s-states and in the Empire. Soon after the accession to the pres-toll Friedrich II once-vya-hall howl-well against Av-s-t-rii for Si-le-ziyu. As a result of the three wars, most of Si-le-zia became the Prussian pro-vin-qi-ey.

Frederick II, man you-so-ob-ra-zo-van-ny-, on-ho-diving-shy under the influence of the idea-olo-gy of Pros-ve-shche -nia, pe-re-pi-sy-val-sya with Wol-te-rum, someone lived with someone in San-Su si, and he himself wrote a lot, only -French-tsuz-s-ki, pre-zi-paradise non-metz-kuyu-te-ra-tu-ru and art. He was pre-s-ta-vi-te-lem in-li-ti-ki "pro-ve-shchen-no-go ab-so-lu-tiz-ma", str-mil-by-them-re -forms get out of the cri-zi-sa fe-odal system-te-we, when the growing elements of the new class of bourgeois-geo-asia are mouse-la-whether about the os-s-t-in-le-nii of their teas-and-y within the su-s-t-vu-ing system-te-we. Friedrich II carried out reforms in the field of law and management, continued to ti-lis-t-s-kuyu in-li-ti-ku; under him, os-but-you-wa-lis ma-well-fak-tu-ry, from-to-ry-wa-lis banks, built ka-na-ly, pro-vo-di-moose a big builder-s-t-in in Ber-lyn and Pot-s-da-me, improved-sha-elk about-ra-zo-va-nie, shi-ro-ko practice -ko-va-las ve-ro-ter-pi-bridge. Friedrich II paid a lot of attention to armies, us-chi-you-vav-shey 150 thousand people, keeping someone swarm lo-zhi-moose all-ma-heavy bre-me-nem on the people of the masses and is-the-scha-lo country-well, what are you-zy-va-lo shi-ro -something not-to-will-s-t-vo-ko-ro-lem - “phi-lo-so-fom from San-Su-si”, “old Fritz”.

German states in international relations.

After Wes-t-fal-s-ko-go mi-ra half-to-ras-ta years ger-man-s-kie ter-ri-to-ri-al-nye go-su-dar-s-t -va yav-la-lis-t-ran-with-t-vom, where raz-re-sha-lied between-du-on-native pro-ti-in-re-chiya, became-ki- w-was the enemy army, vov-le-kai in the pro-ti-vos-to-thing unions of one or other german-s-kie go-su-dar- s-t-va, someone-rye sa-mi pre-s-tav-la-whether so-boy object zah-vat-no-che-koy-li-ti-ki ga-ran-tov Weight-t-fal-with-to-the world, i.e., France and Sweden. Especially-ben-noy ag-res-siv-nos-tew at the same time from-li-cha-las in-li-ti-ka pra-vi-tel-s-t-va Lu-do-vi-ka XIV, bringing to-te-ryam many non-Metz-kih ter-ri-to-riy.

The transition of Russia to an active in-li-ti-ke in Euro-ro-pe is not-pos-red-s-t-ven-but from-ra-zil-sya on the inter-du-on- native-nome in-lo-same-nii of non-mets-kih ter-ri-to-ri-al-nyh states. From the second to the lo-vin-ny of the 17th century. did the ties between Russia and a number of non-mec-states grow, some-rye especially-ben-but strengthened during the time - Tsar-s-t-in-va-nia of Peter I. In 1699, the union of Russia was concluded with kur-fyur-s-tom Sak-so-nii, pol- with kim king Augustus II (Strong) about the war against Sweden. During the Northern War (1700-1721), Russian troops from 1704 appeared in Germany and did military actions -Wiya. In re-zul-ta-te, the conclusion of the military-en-no-go union with the Prussian king Fried-ri-hom Wil-gel-mom I his howl-ska -t-in-wa-whether in 1715 in the war, to the military-en-no-mu union, joined-united-nil-sya and Gan-no-ver. In-the-s-the-swe-e-tion in the North-north howl-did-ve-lo to the morning of Sweden-qi-her her earlier is strong-but-the-lo-same- niya in Europe and Germany, to a somewhat significant part of the Swede-from-their vla-de-niy on non-mets-coy land. Prussia and Gan-no-ver in Lu-chi-li new ter-ri-to-rii. Russia, turning into a great state, has become a subject in a way of life and -li-ti-ches-ko-go times-vi-tia Germany.

Peter I in Germany built and system-te-mu di-us-ti-chess marriages of his kind-s-t-veins-ni-kov with no members -mets-ki-prince-zhes-kih do-mov, at hour-nos-ti, his daughter An-na married-la for-husband for duke Gol-sh-tei-n-Got-tor -p-s-ko-go, and ple-myan-ni-tsa Eka-te-ri-na became the wife of the Duke of Mek-len-burg-ga. From this time-me-no di-us-ti-chess-marriages of members of the tsar-with-koy fa-mi-lie with pre-s-ta-vi-te-la-mi not- mets-kih di-nas-ty (including all the kings-rei-, except for Alek-san-dr III) would it be a frequent yav-le-ni-em that always nak-la-dy-va-lo op-re-de-len-ny from-pe-cha-current on-whether-ti-ches-kie-imo-from-no-she-niya.

Significant strengthening of the power of Russia, the growth of the influence of Peter in Germany, his connection with Bran-den-burg-gom-Prus-si-she and union with Duke-gom Mek-maple-burg-ga call-wa-whether there is a sharp not-to-will-s-t-in and opa-se-niya from the side of An-g-liya, oh -ra-nyav-shay his tor-go-vuyu ge-ge-mo-nia, and Av-s-t-rii. In 1714, Kur-fürst Gan-no-ve-ra Ge-org I became the king of An-g-lii. Between An-g-li-ey - Gan-no-ve-rum, Av -with-t-ri-she and Sak-so-ni-she - Poland in 1719 was concluded a union contract against Russia and Prussia , pre-dus-mat-ri-vav-shiy-, at the hour-t-nos-ti, and section of the Prussian ter-ri-to-rii. The pressure of the part-t-ni-kov of the union led to the us-tu-kam of Peter, but the way-s-t-in-shaft uk-rep-le-niyu Rus-sko-Prus -skih from-but-she-nii-, wi-de-tel-with-t-vom-th-go-lo us-yatel-noe-same-la-nie co-ro-la Fried-ri -ha Wil-gel-ma I to his pre-em-ni-ku in for-ve-shcha-nii 1722 save and strengthen the union with the Russian im-pe -ra-to-rum. One-on-ko an-g-liy-sky in-li-ti-ka against Russia in Germany with-ob-re-ta-la is more and more significant-chi-tel- nye times-measures, for what would-la raz-ver-well-that shi-ro-kai pro-pa-gan-yes, you-ra-zha-yuscha-ya, at the hour-t-nose -ty, in ras-p-ros-t-ra-non-nii sho-vi-nis-ti-ches-ko-go-mi-fa about "Russian ug-ro-ze Ev-ro-pe".

On the pro-tya-zhe-nii of the XVI-II centenary under the pre-em-ni-kah of Peter I, the Russian dip-lo-ma-tia pro-vo-di-la active like-ti-ku, an hour re-shi-tel-but inter-shi-va-las in the fight-boo of non-mets-kih ter-ri-to-ri-al-nyh-states , in usi-liv-she-esya Prussian-Austrian co-per-no-ches-t-in. Russian troops-ska with-no-ma-whether participation in military actions-st-vi-yah on the territory of Germany, but always as a co- use-no-ki ka-kih-li-bo non-mets-kih-states. So it would have been in the Se-mi-year-old war-well (1756-1763), when Russia took part-t-in-va-la in the war-not in union with Av-s- t-ri-ey-, Sak-so-ni-ey-, Fran-tsi-ey and Sweden-tsi-ey against An-g-lii and Prussia-this. In the course of the war, the Russian-Austrian troops in 1760 entered Berlin, and for-nya-tai in 1758 the Russian-ski-mi howl-ska- mi East Prussia would have declared Russian vla-de-ni-em, and its on-se-le-nie attached-sya-ha-lo to fidelity im-pe-rat-ri-tse Eli-za-ve-te. The death of Eli-za-ve-you saved the co-ro-la of Prussia Fried-ri-ha II from half-no-th time-g-ro-ma.

Frederick II for-no-small prominent place in Russian-German-man-with-they-li-ti-ches-kih from-but-she-no-yah. Ob-raz Frid-ri-kha II (died in August 1786) was subjected to strong is-ka-same-ni-pits on the pro-tya-zhenii XIX and XX centuries, grew le-gen-da-mi and mi-fa-mi. The cult of Frid-ri-ha We-li-ko-go was shi-ro-ko is-pol-zo-van re-ak-chi-ey. Ex-ho-div-shy in its own level of pre-s-ta-vi-te-lei di-nas-tii Go-gen-tsol-ler-nov and many other mo- nar-hov Friedrich was a man of shi-ro-kih in-te-re-owls and pre-s-ta-vi-te-lem of Enlightenment; but pe-re-do-new ideas he tried to use for uk-rep-le-niya from-zhi-vav-she-go fe-odal-no-abso-lu-tis -t-with-to-go system and was convinced mi-li-ta-ris-tom. His re-form-we are ob-ek-tiv-but s-so-s-t-in-va-whether time-vi-tiyu ka-pi-ta-lis-ti-ches-kih from-but-she- niy-, but it had-la di-us-ti-ches-ki-char-ter and from-nothing-la “na-tsi-onal-noy-”. To the problems-le-me from-but-she-ni with Russia and the union with her, Friedrich II turned to pro-he-he-of all his king-s-t-in-va-niya. Already in a po-ti-ches-com-for-ve-shcha-nii of 1752, he pointed out that “Russia in no case can be included in the number le-on to our actual enemies, with Prus-si-she, Russia has no raz-legs-la-siy-”, and in 1776 ut-ver- w-gave: “If I am in agreement with Ros-si-she-, then the whole world leaves me in peace,” and called on my own pre-em-ni-kov cre-drink friendship-bu with Ros-si-her.

To strengthen ties with the Russian im-pe-ri-her, Friedrich II used the first section of the Polish lands between -du Prus-si-her-, Av-s-t-ri-her and Ros-si-her in 1772, when he joined Western Prussia and other Prussian lands, achieved the creation of a single ter-ri-to-rii with East Prussian-si-she. From this time on, the ter-ri-to-riy, selected from Pol-shi, has become on the pro-tya-zhe-ni-centenary of the game- to play a large role in up-ro-che-nii from-but-she-nii of three monarchies.

In the last de-sya-ti-anniversary of the XVI-II centenary, the role of Russia in Germany is not-uk-lon-but voz-ras-ta-la; pos-le Te-shen-s-ko-go con-g-res-sa 1779 between Av-s-t-ri-she-, on the one hand-ro-na, Prus-si-she and Sak-so-ni-she - with the other-goy-, behind-top-shiv- our war-well (1778-1779) for Ba-var-s-something us-ice-s-t-in). Russia has become one of the official-tsi-al-nyh gar-ran-tov im-per-s-con-s-ti-tu-tsii. Russian re-zi-den-you at non-Metz courts and Russian envoy-lan-nick in rei-xs-ta-ge game-ra-do not-rarely-know-chi- tel-ny on-li-ti-ches-kuyu role.

In the XVI-II centuries. on-a-row with po-ti-ches-ki-mi connections grew-whether and tor-go-in-eco-no-mi-ches-kie-imo-from-no-she -tion of Russia with German-man-s-ki-mi go-su-dar-s-t-va-mi, spread-shi-ra-were non-Metz-Ko-Russian ties in ob -las-ti kul-tu-ry, na-uki and ob-ra-zo-va-nia. All the big-neck co-li-ches-t-in the Germans re-se-la-moose to Russia; from 1764 to 1767 pe-re-mes-ti-moose only in the district of Sa-ra-to-va on the Volga 23-27 thousand ko-lo-nis-tov.

German nation.

An important result of the development of the Empire by the end of the 16th-2nd centuries. there was a process of warehouse-dy-va-niya of a single non-mets-coy-nation, although he za-rud-did-sya raz-d-rob-len-nos-tew for many ter-ri-to-ri-al-nye go-su-dar-s-t-va: so, their zhi-te-whether count-ta-whether yourself in the first turn ba-var- tsa-mi, sak-son-tsa-mi, ba-den-tsa-mi, etc. then-ry strong-but from-whether-cha-lied from each other, for example, a bar-va-rets with great work-house, no-small mek-len-bur-zh- tsa and this is for-rud-nya-lo you-ra-bot-ku not-mets-ko-go on-tsi-onal-no-go cos-na-niya.

The unity of the birth of a non-mets-coy nation pro-yav-la-moose in the first place in the field of culture. Already in the second swarm in the 17th century. among-di-re-do-scientists on-bi-ra-et si-lu movement for creating a single-but-go whether-te-ra-tour-no-go non-mets-ko-go tongues, for cleansing from the waters of its gal-li-cis-ms. To this end, special-ci-al-communities are being created, and in the second half of the 16th-2nd centuries. li-te-ra-tur-ny language is already in-lu-chil shi-ro-something ras-p-ros-t-ra-non-nie. The non-mets-cue language is becoming-but-vit-sya and the language of uki. The lawyer Christ-ti-an To-ma-zi-us was the first in 1687 to read university lectures not in la-you-no, but in- not-mets-ki, and in 1694 he played a prominent role in the foundation of the uni-ver-si-te-ta in Gal-le. So na-cha-la to show-yourself rise-nick-shay from the end of the 17th century. the idea-olo-gy of non-metz-ko-go Pros-ve-shche-niya. Pe-re-no-may pe-re-to-western-but-ev-ro-pey-ideas, pre-s-ta-vi-te-whether not-mets-ko-go Pros-ve -shche-niya times-vi-va-li and non-mets-kie cultural traditions. High-tu-paya pre-im-im-s-t-ven-but in the sphere of ide-olo-gy, carried-mo-rya on its non-pos-le-to-va-tel-ness, pros-ve -ti-te-whether played a big role in the development of on-tsi-onal-no-go self-creation-on-ne-mets-to-on-ro- yes, ras-p-ros-t-ra-non-ni-re-re-do-y ideas. View of us before-with-ta-vi-te-la-mi not-metz-to-go scientists Goth-f-rid Wil-helm Leibniz and Christ-ti-an Wolf. On-for-the biggest phil-lo-so-fom of the non-metz-ko-go Pros-ve-shche-niya was Im-ma-nu-il Kant.

In the race-p-ros-t-ra-non-nii of ideas you, the number of someone was significant, but more than in other countries (in 1770, so-so-t-in-va-lo 40 -mets-kih, 23 french-tsuz-s-kih, 2 an-g-liy-sky and Mos-kov-s-ki-uni-ver-si-tet in Russia). The ideas of Enlightenment would be the starting point for the development of a non-metz-class-si-ches-coy-te-ra-tu-ry and mu -zy-ki. Non-metz-some Pros-ve-shche-nie made a huge contribution to the juice-ro-visch-ni-tsu culture-tu-ry of all-che-lo-ve-che-t-va .

Culture in-cha-lu once-vi-va-las in the conditions-lo-vi-yah ter-ri-to-ri-al-noy raz-gob-shchen-nos-ti: one-s-t- in this area, it has risen-nick-lo in the first place in the form-ra-zo-van-ny layers. The German nation, according to the op-re-de-le-tion of the same non-Mech-is-to-ri-kov, was at this time not “go-su- gift-with-t-ven-noy on-chi-she (Sta-at-s-na-ti-on)”, as an-g-liy-sky or French-tsuz-s-kai, and “cul- tour-noy on-chi-ey (Kul-tur-na-ti-on)”. The idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe united-with-t-va of the Germans, the creation of a single Germany in the era-hu of the name-re-va-nia of the French-tsuz-with-koy re-vo-lu-tion XVI-II century. in-lu-cha-la everything is more and more shi-ro-something ras-p-ros-t-ra-non-nie.

French Revolution of the 18th century and German states.

Revolutionary events in France from-ra-zi-lied in non-Metz-go-su-dar-s-t-wah. Pe-re-do-pre-s-ta-vi-te-li na-uki and cul-tu-ry, a number of prominent fi-lo-so-fov, pi-sa-te-lei-, com -po-zi-to-ditch (Kant and Schiller, Fich-te and Wie-land, Schle-gel and Beth-ho-ven) were inspired by the ideas of French re-in-lu-tion. In the bourgeois-zhu-az-nyh