Ancient India. Geographical position

1. Geographical ideas of the ancient East

Primitive man was already distinguished by keen observation and even the ability to make drawings of the area on skins, birch bark, wood - prototypes geographical maps. The primitive map as a way of transmitting geographic information apparently arose long before the emergence of writing. Already at the earliest stages of his economic activity, primitive man entered into complex interactions with the natural environment. Research by archaeologists in recent years has shown that already at the end of the Paleolithic (ancient Stone Age), man destroyed the bulk of large mammals within temperate zone northern hemisphere, thereby causing a kind of “first ecological crisis” in the history of our planet, and was forced to move from gathering and hunting to agriculture.

The beginnings of scientific geographical knowledge arose during the period slave system, which replaced the primitive communal one and was characterized by more high level productive forces. The first division of society into classes arises and the first slave states are formed: China, India, Phenicia, Babylonia, Assyria, Egypt. As noted by V.T. Bogucharovsky, “during this period people began to use metal tools and use irrigation in agriculture; Cattle breeding developed on a large scale, crafts appeared, and the exchange of goods between different peoples expanded significantly. All this required good knowledge of the area."

During this period, writing appeared, which made it possible to record and systematize accumulated knowledge. The oldest monuments of Chinese writing (Shanhaijing, Yugong, Dilichi) appeared in the 7th-3rd centuries. BC. They already have some geographical information. "Shanhaijing" contains a collection of myths, legends and travel descriptions. “Yugong” describes mountains, rivers, lakes, soils, vegetation, economic products, land use, tax system, transport (of China and areas inhabited by other peoples. One of the chapters of the book “Dilichhi” - “History of the Han Dynasty” gives information about nature , population, economy and administrative regions of China and neighboring countries.

Chinese scientists have conducted a number of geographical studies. For example, Zhang Rong identified the relationship between water flow speed and runoff, on the basis of which measures to regulate the river were subsequently developed. Yellow River. The scientist Guan Zi described the dependence of plants on soil, groundwater and some other geographical factors. Pei Xu introduced six principles for drawing up geographical maps, using scale, orienting oneself, showing heights, etc. In addition, the Chinese in ancient times invented a compass and had instruments for determining the direction of the wind and the amount of precipitation.

India is also the oldest center of culture. The written monuments of the ancient Hindus, the so-called “Vedas,” dating back to the 2nd millennium BC, in addition to religious hymns, contain information about the peoples who lived in India and about the nature of these areas. The Vedas mention the rivers of Afghanistan (Kabul), describe the river. Indus, r. Ganges and Himalayan mountains. Hindus knew Ceylon and Indonesia. As V.P. points out. Maksakovsky, “in the 1st century. AD Hindus penetrated through the Himalayas and Karakoram into the southern regions of Central Asia. They opened the tops river basins, starting at northern slopes The Himalayas - Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra, and crossed the high deserts of Tibet and Tsaidam. From Bengal they passed to Eastern Burma."

The ancient Hindus had a good calendar. In treatises on astronomy dating back to the 6th century. AD, it is already indicated that the Earth rotates on its axis and that the Moon borrows its light from the Sun.

In the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC. h. Sumerians lived who were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding and traded with neighboring peoples. Apparently, they traded with Crete, Cyprus and sailed to the country of Elam, located on the coast of the Persian Gulf (Iran), as well as to India.

The Sumerian culture was inherited by the ancient Babylonians, who founded their own state, which existed until the 7th century. BC, in the middle reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The Babylonians penetrated into central Asia Minor and may have reached the Black Sea coast. For some territories, the Babylonians compiled simple maps.

In the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates from the end of the 3rd millennium BC. and until the end of the 7th century. BC. there was a state of the Assyrians, who subsequently conquered all of Mesopotamia and undertook military campaigns in Egypt, Syria, Transcaucasia and Iran.

By brave sailors ancient world there were Phoenicians who lived on the east coast Mediterranean Sea. Their main occupation was maritime trade, which was carried out throughout the entire Mediterranean Sea and captured the western (Atlantic) coast of Europe. On the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, the Phoenicians founded many cities, among which in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. Carthage especially advanced. I.Yu. Fatieva notes that “at the end of the 6th and first quarter of the 5th century. BC. The Carthaginians carried out a bold venture to colonize the west coast of Africa. We know about this event from an official written document located in the Temple of El in Carthage. It contains a decree on the organization of the expedition and a description of the journey along the coast of Africa."

The Phoenicians made a remarkable journey around Africa, which they undertook on orders Egyptian pharaoh Necho. This journey was later described by the Greek scientist Herodotus. The details of the description confirm the authenticity of the voyage, which was completed at three years old. Every autumn, sailors landed ashore, sowed grain, harvested crops and sailed on. During the journey, they saw the sun only on the right side. The Phoenicians skirted Africa from the south, moving from east to west, and, therefore, could see the sun in the north, i.e. on the right side at noon. This detail in Herodotus's story is evidence of sailing around Africa.

M.S. Bodnarsky writes that “the ancient Egyptians knew Central Africa, sailed across the Red Sea to the country of Punt (the African coast from modern Massu to the Somali peninsula) and visited South Arabia. In the east they had relations with the Phoenicians and Babylonians, and in the west they subjugated a number of Libyan tribes. In addition, the Egyptians traded with Crete."

Also, the Egyptians quite accurately determined the length of the year and introduced a solar calendar. The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians knew sundial. Egyptian and Babylonian priests, as well as Chinese astronomers, established patterns of repetition solar eclipses and learned to predict them. From Mesopotamia the ecliptic is divided into 12 zodiac signs, the year into 12 months, the day into 24 hours, the circle into 360 degrees; there the concept “ lunar week" Modern numeric numbering originates from India.

At the same time, the ideas of the peoples of the Ancient East about nature, although they were based on real practical experience, in theoretical terms retained a mythological character. Back in the 3rd millennium BC. The Sumerians created myths about the creation of the world, the flood and paradise, which turned out to be extremely tenacious and were reflected in many religions. Astronomical observations at that time did not lead to correct views on the structure of the Universe. But faith in direct impact the influence of heavenly bodies on the destinies of people led to the emergence of astrology (it was especially popular in Babylonia).

Ideas about the Earth were based on direct perception of the surrounding world. So, as V.V. points out. Eaglet, “The ancient Egyptians saw the Earth as a flat, elongated rectangle, surrounded on all sides by mountains. According to Babylonian myth, the god Marduk created the Earth among a primarily continuous ocean. In a similar, though more poetic form, the origin of the Earth is depicted in holy books Indian Brahmins - “Vedah”: The earth arose from water and is like a blooming lotus flower, one of the petals of which is India.”

Thus, as an analysis of the literature has shown, geography arose in ancient times in connection with the practical activities of people - hunting, fishing, nomadic cattle breeding, primitive agriculture. The first large slave states appeared in the 4th millennium BC. among the agricultural peoples of Asia Minor, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Northern India and China. Their formation was facilitated by the location along large rivers (irrigation sources and waterways) and reliable natural boundaries - mountains and deserts. The first written documents were created, which give an idea of ​​the geographical knowledge of the peoples of the ancient East, provide a description of the entire then known part of the Earth, contain brief descriptions of the territory of the state, etc.

2. Geographical ideas of ancient scientists

Among the geographical ideas of the ancient world inherited modern geography, special meaning have the views of ancient scientists. Ancient (Greco-Roman) geography reached its peak in Ancient Greece and Rome in the period from the 12th century. BC. to 146 AD This was due to the fact that Greece’s position on the routes from Western Asia to the southern and western Mediterranean countries placed it in very favorable conditions for trade relations, and, consequently, for the accumulation of geographical knowledge.

The earliest written documents of the Greeks are the epic poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey” attributed to Homer, the recording of which dates back to the 8th-7th centuries. BC, but the events described in them took place approximately in the 16th-12th centuries. BC. From these poems one can get an idea of ​​the geographical knowledge of the era. The Greeks imagined the Earth as an island shaped like a convex shield. They knew well the countries adjacent to the Aegean Sea, but had vague ideas about more remote areas. However, they knew large rivers Mediterranean-Black Sea basin: Rion (Phasis), Danube (Istrian), Po (Padua), etc.; and they also had some information about Africa and about the nomadic peoples who lived north of Greece.

In ancient Greece, attempts were made to compile geographical maps of the territory known at that time. The Greeks also tried to explain various natural phenomena from the point of view of natural science theories. The Greek thinker Parmenides (5th century BC) put forward the idea that the Earth is spherical. However, he came to this conclusion not through experimental data, but based on his philosophy of perfect forms.

As A.G. writes Isachenko, “Aristotle (IV century BC) in the treatise “On Heaven”, in “Physics” and “Metaphysics” provided the first reliable evidence in favor of this idea: round shape the earth's shadow during lunar eclipses and changes in the appearance of the starry sky when moving from north to south."

Aristotle wrote many works of geographical content. One of the essays is “Meteorology” - the top geographical science Antiquity. In particular, it examines the issue of the water cycle with the participation of evaporation from the surface of reservoirs, cooling with the formation of clouds and precipitation. Precipitation that falls on the surface of the earth forms streams and rivers, the largest of which form in the mountains. Rivers carry their waters to the seas in a volume equal to the amount of evaporated water. This is why sea levels remain stable.

There is constant opposition between sea and land, which is why in some places the sea destroys the coast, in others new land is formed. On this occasion, Aristotle writes the following: “And since the sea always recedes in one place and advances in another, it is clear that throughout the entire Earth, sea and land do not remain by themselves, but over time one turns into the other.”

Aristotle concluded that there is a constant flow of water from the Sea of ​​Azov towards the Mediterranean, since “the flow of the entire sea... depends on the depth and on the amount of river water... The fact is that more rivers flow into Pontus and Maeotis than into the other seas from Maeotis to Ponto, from Pontus to the Aegean, from the Aegean to the Sicilian, becomes noticeably deeper and deeper.”

Aristotle talked about “dry” evaporation (thermal radiation from the earth’s surface), about heat zones and winds, as a result of uneven heating of the earth’s surface, and gave a description of the 12-ray wind rose. Aristotle wrote about earthquakes, thunder, lightning, hurricanes, rainbows and other phenomena and the reasons for their formation.

In the book “Politics,” he examined the influence of natural factors on man and his behavior in a direction that later became known as “geographical determinism.” The state of nature, according to Aristotle, also influences the level of development of statehood: “The peoples living in countries with cold climates and in northern Europe are full of courageous character, but intellectual life and artistic interests they are less developed. Therefore, they retain their freedom longer, but are not capable of state life and cannot dominate their neighbors. On the contrary, the peoples inhabiting Asia are very intellectual and have artistic taste, but they lack courage; therefore they live in a subordinate and servile state. The Hellenic people, geographically occupying a sort of middle place between the inhabitants of northern Europe and Asia, combine natural properties both; she has and courageous character And developed intellect; therefore, it retains its freedom, enjoys the best state organization and would be able to rule over everyone if only it were united by one state system.”

The works of the greatest Greek scientist Herodotus (484-425 BC) were very important for the development of geography. The value of these works lies in the fact that they were compiled on the basis of his personal travel and observations. Herodotus visited and described Egypt, Libya, Phenicia, Palestine, Arabia, Babylonia, Persia, the nearest part of India, Media, the shores of the Caspian and Black Seas, Scythia (the southern part European territory USSR) and Greece.

Herodotus’s extensive work, created in the 5th century BC, did not immediately receive the name “History in Nine Books”. Two or three centuries after the death of the scientist, his book was divided in the Library of Alexandria into nine parts - according to the number of muses; Individual parts were named after them, and the entire manuscript as a whole was called “History in Nine Books”, or “Muses”.

This work tells about the Greco-Persian wars, and about distant lands, about many peoples, and about various customs and the art of people from different countries.

Herodotus's "History" is not only a generalizing historical and geographical work, but also one of the most important monuments of travel and discovery of the Earth. From it we learn about the travels of Herodotus himself through the countries of Europe, Asia, Africa and about other ancient journeys by land and sea, about which information would not have been preserved for posterity if the famous historian and traveler of antiquity had not told about them in his book “Muses” .

Let's get acquainted with two characteristic fragments from the fourth book of "History". The first of them describes the Borysthenes River - this is how Herodotus calls the Dnieper: “The Borysthenes is the largest of the Scythian rivers after the Istra [Danube] and, in our opinion, the richest not only among the Scythian rivers, but among all in general, except, however, the Egyptian Nile ; no other river can compare with this latter. But of the other rivers, the Borysthenes is the most profitable: it supplies the most beautiful and luxurious pastures for livestock, the most excellent fish in great abundance, its water tastes very pleasant, clean, while the rivers next to it have muddy water; excellent arable fields stretch along it or very tall grass grows in those places where grain is not sown; At the mouth of the river, salt collects by itself in huge quantities; in Borysthenes there are huge fish without a vertebral column, called antakai [sturgeons], which are used for salting, and many other things worthy of attention.”

Herodotus also reports that the region of the Scythian farmers extends along the Borysthenes [Dnieper] for a ten-day voyage. His ideas about the lands located upstream of the Borysthenes are vague: “... the only thing that is certain is that up to the region of the Scythian farmers, it [the Borysthenes] flows through the desert...”.

Regardless of any special purposes historical research about ancient Scythia, it is interesting to read the description of the Dnieper, made two and a half millennia ago.

Herodotus also sailed along the Pontus Euxine (Black Sea), visited Olbia - ancient greek city on the shore of the Dnieper-Bug estuary; visited the vicinity of Olbia, saw the northern Black Sea region. The above description of the Dnieper shows that he collected information about the middle Dnieper region; Only the area of ​​the upper reaches of the Dnieper remained unknown to him.

Herodotus's curious comparison of the two geographical mysteries: “Not only me, but, it seems, none of the Hellenes can determine the origins of either Borysthenes [i.e. Dnieper], nor the Nile.” Herodotus traveled up the Nile earlier, before he went to the lower reaches of the Dnieper. His work contains reflections on the causes of the periodic floods of the Nile and the mystery of the sources of this great river, about which “no one knows anything reliable.”

In order to better imagine the value of Herodotus’s work as a monument not only to his own wanderings, but also to other travels, let us turn to another fragment from the fourth book of the History, which preserves for us the memory of one of the most remarkable sea voyages of antiquity.

Herodotus reports on an expedition around Africa. The name Africa itself appeared much later; in Herodotus’s descriptions, Africa is called “Libya”: “Libya turns out to be surrounded by water, except for the part where it borders on Asia; the first to prove this, as far as we know, was the Egyptian king Necho” - these lines begin short message about amazing swimming.

It goes on to tell how Necho instructed the Phoenician navigators to sail around Libya by sea: “... He sent the Phoenicians on ships to the sea [Red Sea] with orders to sail back through the Pillars of Hercules [Straits of Gibraltar] until they entered the northern sea and arrived to Egypt, the Phoenicians sailed from the Erythraean Sea and entered the southern sea. When autumn came, they landed on the shore, and, no matter where they landed in Libya, they sowed the land and waited for the harvest; After harvesting the grain, they sailed on. So two years passed on the voyage; and only in the third year did they round the Pillars of Hercules and return to Egypt. They also said, which I don’t believe, but someone else might believe, that while sailing around Libya, the Phoenicians had the sun on the right side. This is how Libya became known for the first time.”

The above lines are the only news about sailing, which apparently had no analogues in antiquity and the Middle Ages. In the works of geographers of different eras - from the ancients, who mostly doubted the reality of navigation or even categorically denied its possibility, to modern ones, whose opinions differ - there are many different statements.

The importance of one of the arguments “for” was drawn attention to more than a hundred years ago by A. Humboldt. Its essence boils down to the following. The most incredible thing about the story of the voyage around Africa, from the point of view of ancient scientists, was that “the Phoenicians had the sun on the right side.” Herodotus himself did not believe this. After all, the expedition skirted Africa from east to west, and any resident of Mediterranean countries knew that if a ship sails across the sea to the west, then the sun is on the left along the ship’s course, that is, it shines at noon from the south. The Phoenicians supposedly saw the sun to the north - how can one believe such an inconsistency? And Herodotus considered it necessary to add: “... which I do not believe, but someone else, perhaps, will believe.”

In order to believe the Phoenician sailors, one had to know that in the southern hemisphere of the Earth the sun at noon is actually visible in the north. So, as V.T. points out. Bogucharovsky, “the most serious argument that an ancient scientist who doubted the reliability of amazing story about the voyage, became two thousand years later the most compelling argument confirming the historical authenticity of the expedition of Phoenician sailors around Africa. The storytellers could not come up with such a thing. And it was possible to see the sun at noon in the north only by sailing south from the equator.”

Thus, the main directions of geographical science originated in Ancient Greece. Already by the 6th century. BC. the needs of navigation and trade (the Greeks founded a number of colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas at that time) necessitated descriptions of the land and sea coasts. At the turn of the 6th century. BC. Hecataeus from Miletus compiled a description of the Oikumene - all the countries known to the ancient Greeks at that time. “Description of the Earth” by Hecataeus became the beginning of the regional studies trend in geography.

In the era of “classical Greece,” the most prominent representative of regional studies was Herodotus. His travels did not lead to the discovery of new lands, but contributed to the accumulation of more complete and reliable facts and the development of descriptive and regional studies in science.

The science of classical Greece found its completion in the works of Aristotle, who founded in 335 BC. philosophical school - Lyceum in Athens. Almost everything that was known about geographical phenomena at that time was summarized in Aristotle's Meteorology. This work represents the beginnings of general geoscience, which were isolated by Aristotle from the undivided geographical science.

The Hellenistic era (330-146 BC) dates back to the emergence of a new geographical direction, which later received the name mathematical geography. One of the first representatives of this trend was Eratosthenes (276-194 BC). He was the first to quite accurately determine the size of the circumference of the globe by measuring the meridian arc (the measurement error was no more than 10%). Eratosthenes owns a large work, which he called “Geographical Notes,” using the term “geography” for the first time. The book gives a description of the Oikumene, and also discusses issues of mathematical and physical geography (general geoscience). Thus, Eratosthenes united all three areas under the single name “geography”, and he is considered the true “father” of geographical science.

Half a century after Eratosthenes, the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus introduced the names “geographical latitude” and “geographical longitude” into use, invented the astrolabe, and continued Eratosthenes’ research. What all this meant for the history of the discovery of the Earth is said with great expressiveness in the “History of Geography” by K. Ritter, although his figurative assessment of the merits of these two scientists of the ancient world is somewhat hyperbolic.

K. Ritter writes that “few inventions had a more beneficial influence on the fate of sciences and the welfare of peoples than those associated with the names of Eratosthenes and Hipparchus... From then on, the navigator could find his way back and forth in seas not yet visited, and depict it for posterity. The caravan could reach the goal of its journey along hitherto unknown paths, through the desert or an entire part of the world, to unknown countries. From then on, only posterity could take advantage of the geographical discoveries of their ancestors. The often forgotten or obscured position of lands and localities could now easily be found using a given figure and latitude and longitude.”

Not everything in this statement is indisputable. It overemphasizes the previous difficulties in determining the locations of lands and the ease of these determinations after Eratosthenes. However, even one and a half thousand years after the great geographers and astronomers of antiquity, travelers still did not have accurate methods of determining geographic longitude. This is precisely what is associated with the often repeated searches for “enchanted islands”, which either appeared, then again eluded the discoverers and, accordingly, disappeared from the map.

However, K. Ritter had every reason to single out the inventions of Eratosthenes and Hipparchus as significant in the history of human knowledge of the Earth. The modern network of geographic coordinates originates from a simple network on a map drawn by Eratosthenes. And in the writings of travelers, in the descriptions of new lands in the ship's journals of seafarers, numbers gradually take their place, changing many times along the way, numbers that cartographers eagerly await, degrees and minutes of geographic latitude and longitude.

Eratosthenes' "Geography" has not survived to this day. Its content is known from individual excerpts, from the statement of the scientist’s opinions and brief reviews of his work, which can be found in other ancient authors, especially Strabo. “Geography” gives a general outline of the history of knowledge about the Earth, talks about its shape and size, the size of the inhabited land, and individual countries that were known to the ancient Greeks at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.

Following Aristotle and other scientists who support the idea of ​​the spherical shape of the Earth, Eratosthenes proceeds in his reasoning, as well as in his famous measurement of the size of the Earth, from the fact that the Earth is spherical. The statement of Eratosthenes is also connected with this, the meaning and importance of which became clearly clear one and a half thousand years later: “If the vastness of the Atlantic Sea had not prevented us, it would have been possible to sail from Iberia [the Iberian Peninsula] to India in the same parallel circle.”

Let us point out another work, which the author himself, Strabo, rightfully called “colossal”. He wrote: “Our work is, as it were, a colossal work that treats the great and worldly...”

“Geography”, or “Geography in Seventeen Books” - under such a laconic title, Strabo’s work was published countless times during the two thousand years that have passed since the time when it was written. Little is known about Strabo. He was a historian and geographer, visited different countries Mediterranean, he wrote briefly about his travels in Geography, just a few phrases, only to explain which lands he saw himself and which he knew about from other people’s descriptions.

Strabo's work contains the most detailed collection of geographical knowledge of the ancient Greeks and Romans about the world. Eight books of “Geographies” are dedicated to European countries, six books to Asian countries and one book to African countries. “The Geography of Strabo” - the prototype of later regional studies books - does not, of course, belong to the literature of travel, but like the work of Geodotus, it also includes some valuable reports for science about remarkable travels of antiquity.

From Strabo we learn, for example, about the voyages of Eudoxus. Strabo himself did not believe the information about this voyage. He borrowed them from Posidonius, a historian and philosopher of the 1st century BC, whose geographical judgments are known mainly from Strabo. Having outlined the story of Posidonius, Strabo reproaches him for his fiction: “... this whole story is not particularly far from the inventions of Pytheas, Euhemerus and Antiphanes. Those people can still be forgiven, just as we forgive magicians for their inventions, because this is their specialty. But who can forgive this for Posidonius, a man very skilled in evidence and a philosopher. This turned out unsuccessfully for Posidonius.”

The above lines are unfair to both Pytheas and Posidodonius. But the merit of Strabo is that he considered it necessary to place in his book a story that seemed implausible to him. This is what is now known thanks to this about one of the oldest voyages to India, completed in the 2nd century. BC. by a certain Eudoxus from Cyzicus (an island in the Sea of ​​Marmara).

Strabo writes: “Eudoxus, as the story goes, arrived in Egypt during the reign of Euergetes II; he was introduced to the king and his ministers and talked with them, especially regarding travel up the Nile... Meanwhile, the story continues, some Indian at that time was accidentally delivered to the king by the coast guard from the very depression of the Arabian Gulf. Those who brought the Indian said that they found him half dead alone on a ship that had run aground; who he is and where he comes from, they do not know, since they do not understand his language. The king handed the Indian over to people who were supposed to teach him Greek. Having learned Greek, the Indian said that, while sailing from India, he accidentally lost his course and, having lost his companions, who died of hunger, eventually reached Egypt safely. Since this story was received with doubt by the king, he promised to be a guide to the persons appointed by the king to sail to India. Among these persons was Eudoxus. Thus Eudoxus sailed to India with gifts and returned with a cargo of incense and precious stones…» .

Eudoxus' travels and adventures did not end there. The goods he brought were taken from him by King Everget, and after the death of Everget, he had the chance to set sail again to India, this time at the behest of Cleopatra. On the way back, the ship was carried by the winds to the south of Ethiopia.

The third voyage was unsuccessful. Regardless of this, the message that Eudoxus took to the open sea using constant winds is very important. It can be assumed that already on his first voyage to India he learned from the “guide” - an Indian - about the monsoons of the Indian Ocean and how a ship should sail along open sea with the help of these winds.

Travel from Greece and Egypt to India had been made before, long before Eudoxus. But such journeys - more by land than by sea - lasted a long time, about two years, and were an exceptional and difficult undertaking. And the monsoon helped the ship not to stay close to the shore, to cross the ocean and make the whole journey in a month or two.

By sea ​​route trodden by the expedition of Eudoxus, were sent more and more often merchant ships Greeks, Romans, Egyptians. In the 1st century AD Even a detailed reference book for sailors was written in Egypt - “Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,” that is, “Navigation on the Indian Ocean.” In it we find a brief mention of the Greek navigator Hippalus, who “discovered” sailing to India “directly across the sea.” Nowadays it is difficult to establish definitively whether there is a connection between this mention and the story given in Strabo’s book about the travels of Eudoxus. Some modern researchers believe that Hippalus was a participant in the first voyage to India, which was made by Eudoxus. But the main content of Strabo’s “Geography” lies in detailed systematic descriptions of countries known to scientists of the ancient world.

A number of works concerning geography were written by the materialist philosopher Democritus. He traveled a lot and compiled a geographical map, which was used in the compilation of later maps. Democritus posed a number of geographical problems, which were subsequently dealt with by many scientists: the measurement of the then known landmass, and then the entire Earth, the dependence of organic life on climate, etc.

As noted by V.P. Maksakovsky, “for the development of geography in ancient Greece, the campaigns of Alexander the Great and sea ​​travel beyond the Mediterranean Sea. Among the latter, the voyage of Pytheas from Massilia (Marseille) is of greatest interest. Pytheas, having passed the Strait of Gibraltar, sailed along the coast of northwestern Europe and presumably reached Norway. Pytheas's notes mention thick fogs, ice and the midnight sun, which indicates the high latitudes he reached. It can be assumed that Pytheas went around Great Britain and saw Iceland."

Rome became the heir to the cultural conquests of Greece and Alexandria. It must be said that researchers know little about the major geographers and travelers of the Romans.

Thus, the largest ancient scientist of Roman origin is called Gaius Pliny Secundus the Elder (23-79), author " Natural history"in 37 books - an encyclopedia of natural science knowledge of his time, compiled on the basis of a compilation of the works of two thousand authors, Greek and Roman. When describing, Pliny paid special attention to quantitative indicators, whether it concerned the size of a known part of the Earth or the distances between noticeable geographical objects.

Here is a fragment from the “Natural History” concerning the Sea of ​​​​Azov: “Some say that the Meotian lake itself, receiving the Tanais River, which flows from the Rhipean Mountains and is the extreme border between Europe and Asia, extends in a circumference of 1406 miles, others - 1125 miles. It is known that according to straight path from its mouth to the mouth of the Tanais is 275 miles.”

Pliny notes the length and width Kerch Strait, titles settlements on its banks. The peoples living in a particular area, their customs and occupations are listed everywhere. Also. Pliny knew of the "Nile Marshes", an area located south of a strip of desert inhabited by elephants, rhinoceroses and pygmies.

One of the greatest experts in the philosophical heritage of the Ionians and Epicureans was the famous scientist and poet Titus Lucretius Carus (99-55 BC). His poem “The Nature of Things” is an attempt to consider and explain all natural phenomena from the Universe to living organisms, to understand the secrets of birth, human thought and soul.

As A.B. writes Dietmar, “the poem consists of six books. The first and second contain the doctrine of the eternity and boundlessness of the Universe, the doctrine of atoms and their properties, the doctrine of the eternity of motion. The third and fourth talk about the unity of soul and body and about sensory sensations as a source of knowledge. The fifth and sixth books describe the world as a whole, individual phenomena and the causes that give rise to them, and give an idea of ​​animals and humans, religion and social activities.”

In nature, everything changes, arises, decays, and is created again. All things in their decomposition return to the state of primary matter in order to again take part in natural transformations. “If I see that members and parts of the great world perish, then are born again, therefore, also our earth and firmament a beginning has been made and their destruction lies ahead.”

For Lucretius, evolution and the acquisition of new properties is a self-evident property of matter. “Time...changes the entire nature of the world, and one state is always followed by another. The world does not stagnate in one position... From one state the earth passes into another. It does not have the same properties as before, but it has something that was not there before.”

And all this happens without the participation of the gods and without prior expediency. Lucretius concerns the origin of the Earth, various meteorological phenomena, the water cycle, the causes of thunder and lightning, earthquakes and many other phenomena.

Thus, Roman scientists created generalizing geographical works in which they tried to show all the diversity of the world they knew. The largest works of this type include the book of Pomponius Mela (1st century) “On the Position of the Earth”, or “On Chorography”.

As V.T. points out. Bogucharovsky, “Pomponius systematized information from the works of Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus and other predecessor scientists. The description of the territories was not accompanied by significant original theoretical calculations. Pomponius divided the earth into five climatic zones: hot, two cold and two temperate and supported the hypothesis of the existence of a southern habitable zone inhabited by “antichthons” (anti-living).

The campaigns and wars of the Romans gave a great deal to geography great material, but the processing of this material was carried out mainly by Greek scientists. The largest of them are Strabo and Ptolemy.

The mathematician and geographer Claudius Ptolemy, Greek by birth, lived in Egypt in the first half of the 2nd century. AD His greatest work was the creation of the “world system,” which dominated science for more than a thousand years. Ptolemy's geographical views are expressed in the book "Geographical Guide". He builds his geography on purely mathematical principles, first of all pointing out geographical definition latitude and longitude of each place.

Ptolemy had more significant geographical material than Strabo. In his works, as M. Golubchik writes, “one can find information about the Caspian Sea, about the river. Volga (Ra) and r. Kame (Eastern Ra). When describing Africa, he dwells in detail on the sources of the Nile, and his description is in many ways similar to the latest research."

The works of Ptolemy summed up all the geographical knowledge of the ancient world, which was quite large. Geographers of the most developed countries of Western Europe until the 15th century. added almost nothing to the geographical knowledge that the Greeks and Romans had before the 3rd century. From the given examples of the most important geographical works of antiquity, two paths of development of geography are already outlined with sufficient clarity. The first way is a description of individual countries (Herodotus, Strabo). The second way is a description of the entire Earth as a single whole (Eratosthenes, Ptolemy). These two main paths in geography have survived to this day.

Thus, during the era of the slave system, significant geographical knowledge was accumulated. The main achievements of this period were the establishment spherical The earth and the first measurements of its size, the writing of the first major geographical works and the compilation of geographical maps and, finally, the first attempts to give scientific explanation physical phenomena happening on Earth.

As a result of a theoretical analysis of the literature, it was revealed that the first large slave states appeared in the 4th millennium BC. among the agricultural peoples of Asia Minor, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Northern India and China. Their formation was facilitated by the location along large rivers (irrigation sources and waterways) and reliable natural boundaries - mountains and deserts. The first written documents were created, which give ancient ideas about the geographical knowledge of the peoples of the ancient East, describe a known part of the Earth, contain brief descriptions of the territory of the state, etc.

In the ancient world, two paths for the development of geography are outlined. The first way is a description of individual countries (Herodotus, Strabo). The second way is a description of the entire Earth as a single whole (Eratosthenes, Ptolemy).

List of sources

1.Ancient geography/ comp. M.S. Bodnarsky. - M.: Mysl, 1953. - 360 p.

.Ancient geography of the Mediterranean: electronic resource http: // www.mgeograf.ru.

3.Aristotle. Collected works. In 4 volumes: volume 3. Meteorology. - M.: Mysl, 1981. - 374 p.

4.Bezrukov, Yu.F. Physical geography of continents and oceans in questions and answers. In 2 hours. Part 1. Eurasia and the World Ocean. - Simferopol: TNU named after. IN AND. Vernadsky, 2005. - 196 p.

.Bogucharovsky V.T. History of geography / V.T. Bogucharovsky. - M.: Academic project, 2006. - 500 p.

.Brown L.A. History of geographical maps / L.A. Brown. - M.: Tsentropoligraf, 2006. - 480 p.

.Vavilova, E.V. Economic and social geography of the world / E.V. Vavilova. - M.: Gardariki, 2006. - 469 p.

.Herodotus. History in nine books / Herodotus. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. - 274 p.

.Gilenso B.A. History of ancient literature. At 2 p.m. Part 1. / B.A. Gilenson. - M.: Academic project, 2009. - 270 p.

.Golubchik, M. History of geography / M. Golubchik, S. Evdokimov, G. Maksimov. - M.: SSU. - 2006. - 224 p.

.Democritus: electronic resource: http: // eternaltown.com.ua/ content/ view.

.James P. All possible worlds: a history of geographical ideas / P. James / ed. A.G. Isachenko. - M.: Gardariki, 2006. - 320 p.

.Ditmar A.B. From Scythia to Elephantine. Life and travels of Herodotus / A.B. Ditmar. - M.: Nauka, 2004. - 206 p.

.Ivanova N.V. Physical geography: guidelines/ N.V. Ivanova. - Samara: Samara Municipal Institute of Management, 2006. - 40 p.

.Isachenko A.G. Development of geographical ideas / A.G. Isachenko. - M.: Education, 1989. - 276 p.

.Story Ancient Rome: electronic resource: #"justify">. Kuznetsov V.I. Ancient China / V.I. Kuznetsov. - M. Ast-press, 2008. - 210 p.

.Maksakovsky V.P. Historical geography of the world / V.P. Maksakovsky. - M.: Academy, 2005. - 474 p.

.Orlyonok V.V. Physical geography / V.V. Eaglet. - M.: Gardariki, 2009. - 480 p.

geographical map antique scientist

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On the Hindustan Peninsula is located one of ancient states- India. Over the course of centuries and millennia, nomads, farmers, and traders entered India. Therefore, the formation of knowledge about the surrounding world, people’s economic activities, and the development of scientific ideas did not occur in isolation, but under the influence of other peoples.

Tools, household items, culture, art, and religion found during archaeological excavations made it possible to restore in general terms the features of the life and economic activities of the population of Ancient India.

Experts suggest that the Indus Valley was developed earlier than the Ganges Valley. People were engaged in agriculture, various crafts, and trade. IN free time residents loved to listen to music, sing, dance, and play various outdoor games in nature.

Among the sources that have come down to us, revealing the ideas of the ancient Indians about nature, health and disease, a special place is occupied by written monuments - the Vedas. The Vedas are a collection of hymns and prayers, but for us they are interesting because they contain specific natural science and medical knowledge. According to some sources, the creation of the Vedas dates back to the 2nd millennium BC, according to others - to the 9th - 6th centuries. BC e.

According to the Vedas, the disease was explained by the uneven combination of five (according to other sources - three) juices of the human body in accordance with the five elements of the world: earth, water, fire, air and ether. Their harmonious combination was considered a condition without which there is no health. Among the causes of disease, important importance was attached to errors in food, addiction to wine, physical overexertion, hunger, and previous diseases. It has been argued that health status is influenced by climatic conditions, age, mood of the patient.

In the valleys of large Indian rivers with high humidity and high temperatures during the hot season, many diseases raged, killing thousands of people.

Of the signs of individual diseases, the symptoms of malaria, anthrax, elephantiasis, icteric-hemoglobinuric fever, skin and genitourinary diseases were well described. Cholera was considered one of the most terrible diseases. People of the Vedic period knew that plague was the result of a previous epizootic among rodents, that rabies in humans begins with the bite of a rabid animal, and leprosy is the result of prolonged contact between a healthy person and a sick person.

In system medical knowledge Diagnosis was of great importance. The doctor was primarily charged with the duty of “unraveling the disease and only then proceeding with treatment.”

The professional value of a doctor, according to Vedic literature, was determined by the degree of his practical and theoretical training. These two sides must be in complete harmony. “A doctor who neglects theoretical knowledge is like a bird with a cut wing.”

The richness of the flora and fauna of India predetermined the creation of many medicines, which, according to sources of that time, numbered more than a thousand. Some of them have not yet been studied. Among animal products, milk, fat, oil, blood, glands, and animal bile were widely consumed. Mercury, copper and iron compounds, arsenic, and antimony were used to cauterize ulcers, treat eye and skin diseases, and for oral administration.

Mercury and its salts were especially widely used: “A doctor familiar with the healing properties of roots is a person knower of strength prayers is a prophet, but one who knows the effect of mercury is a god.” Mercury was known as a panacea for many diseases. Mercury vapor killed harmful insects.

In Ancient India they knew about the medicinal properties of various muds, as evidenced by references to mud therapy, which was recommended for many diseases known at that time.

The gradual accumulation of knowledge from the field of botany and chemistry, which began since the time of the Vedas, increasingly contributed to the development of pharmacology in India.

When examining the patient, not only his age was taken into account, but also the natural conditions of the place of residence, as well as the patient’s occupation. The medicine of Ancient India was familiar to many peoples.

Key words: Vedas, anthrax, cholera.

In the ancient states (Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Northern India, China) in the IV-II millennium BC. e. Geographical knowledge was gained through the search for fertile lands, military campaigns, and trade communications. The first geographical documents were created there, economic activities were carried out: land surveying, irrigation. The development of science proceeded in stages. The Egyptians determined the length of the year and introduced a solar calendar; sundials were known in Egypt and Babylon. Egyptian, Babylonian priests and Chinese astronomers established patterns of recurrence of solar eclipses and began to predict them. From Assyria and Babylon the ecliptic is divided into 12 zodiac signs, the year into 12 months, the day into 24 hours, the circle into 360°; there the concept of “lunar week” was introduced. Modern numeric numbering originated in India.

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"Geographical knowledge in Ancient Europe"

Checking homework

• What geographical knowledge was accumulated in the states of the Ancient East?

• What are the inventions that made it possible to travel long distances in ancient times?

Ancient Greece

• Ancient Greek civilization existed from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.

Ancient Greece

• From 8th to 2nd century BC reached its peak
• To this same time belong the most important work Greek geographers

Discoveries of ancient civilizations

Ancient scientists

Geographical knowledge and discoveries

Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece

• The development of navigation and trade led to the emergence of cartography

Ancient Greece

• Anaximander 610-547 BC.

• Author of the book “On Nature”
• Compiled the oldest map

Ancient Greece

• Hecataeus of Miletus 550-476 BC.

• Compiled a description of the lands known at that time - “Earth Description”
• Laid the beginning of regional studies

Ancient Greece

• Alexander the Great 356-323 BC.

• Ancient Greek ruler and general
• Thanks to his campaigns, the Greeks learned about India, the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf

Ancient Greece

• Aristotle 384-322 BC.

• Provided evidence of the sphericity of the Earth
• He is considered the founder of physical geography

Ancient Rome

• By the beginning of our era, the Romans had conquered almost the entire coast of the Mediterranean Sea, reached the shores of the Persian Gulf, and crossed the English Channel.

Ancient Rome

• Strabo 64/63 BC – 23/24 AD

• Traveled a lot, wrote down his impressions and observations in the work “Geography” (17 books)

"Geography" by Strabo

• The first complete geographical description of almost all countries of Europe, Asia and Africa that has reached us

Ancient Rome

• Claudius Ptolemy c. 100 – approx. 170

• Compiled a “Guide to Geography” in which he outlined methods for constructing maps

Ancient Rome

• Ptolemy wrote the work “Geography” (in 8 books)

Ancient Rome

• Ptolemy compiled the most perfect map of the world at that time

Homework

• Paragraph 4.
• Answer the questions and tasks at the end of the paragraph.

The beginnings of scientific geographical knowledge arose during the period of the slave system, which replaced the primitive communal system and was characterized by a higher level of productive forces. The first division of society into classes arises and the first slave states are formed: China, India, Phenicia, Babylonia, Assyria, Egypt. During this period, people began to use metal tools and use irrigation in agriculture; Cattle breeding developed on a large scale, crafts appeared, and the exchange of goods between different peoples expanded significantly. All this required good knowledge of the area. People's knowledge is becoming more diverse. During this period, writing appeared, which made it possible to record and systematize accumulated knowledge.

The oldest monuments of Chinese writing (Shanhaijing, Yugong, Dilichi) appeared in VII- IIIcenturies BC e. They already contain some geographical information. "Shanhaijing" contains a collection of myths, legends and travel descriptions. “Yugong” describes mountains, rivers, lakes, soils, vegetation, economic products, land use, tax system, transport (of China and areas inhabited by other peoples. One of the chapters of the book “Dilichhi” - “History of the Han Dynasty” gives information about nature , population, economy and administrative regions of China and neighboring countries.

Chinese scientists have conducted a number of geographical studies. For example, Zhang Rong revealed the relationship between the speed of water flow and runoff, on the basis of which measures to regulate the river were subsequently developed. Yellow River. Scientist Guan Zi described the dependence of plants on soil, groundwater and some other geographical factors. Pei Xu introduced six principles for drawing up geographical maps, using scale, orienting oneself, showing heights, etc. In addition, the Chinese in ancient times invented a compass and had instruments for determining the direction of the wind and the amount of precipitation.

India is also the oldest center of culture. Written monuments of the ancient Hindus, the so-called "Vedas", relating to II millennium BC BC, in addition to religious hymns, they contain information about the peoples who lived in India and about the nature of these areas. The Vedas mention the rivers of Afghanistan (Kabul), describe the river. Indus, r. Ganges and Himalayan mountains. Hindus knew Ceylon and Indonesia. IN I V. n. e. Hindus penetrated through the Himalayas and Karakoram into the southern regions of Central Asia. They discovered the upper parts of river basins originating on the northern slopes of the Himalayas - the Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra, and crossed the high deserts of Tibet and Tsaidam. From Bengal they passed to Eastern Burma.

The ancient Hindus had a good calendar. In treatises on astronomy relating to VI V. n. e., it is already indicated that the Earth rotates on its axis and that the Moon borrows its light from the Sun.

In the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in IV And III millennia BC h. Sumerians lived who were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding and traded with neighboring peoples. Apparently, they traded with Crete, Cyprus and sailed to the country of Elam, located on the coast of the Persian Gulf (Iran), as well as to India.

The culture of the Sumerians was inherited by the ancient Babylonians, who founded their own state, which existed according to VII V. BC e., in the middle reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The Babylonians penetrated into central Asia Minor and may have reached the Black Sea coast. For some territories, the Babylonians compiled simple maps.

In the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates from the end III millennium BC e. and until the end VII V. BC e. there was a state of the Assyrians, who subsequently conquered all of Mesopotamia and undertook military campaigns in Egypt, Syria, Transcaucasia and Iran.

The brave sailors of the ancient world were the Phoenicians, who lived on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Their main occupation was maritime trade, which was carried out throughout the entire Mediterranean Sea and captured the western (Atlantic) coast of Europe. On the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, the Phoenicians founded many cities, including VI- Vcenturies BC e. Carthage especially advanced. At the end VI and first quarter V V. BC e. The Carthaginians carried out a bold venture to colonize the west coast of Africa. We know about this event from an official written document located in the Temple of El in Carthage. It contains a decree on the organization of the expedition and a description of the journey along the coast of Africa.

The Phoenicians made a remarkable journey around Africa, which they undertook on the orders of the Egyptian pharaoh Necho. This journey was later described by a Greek scientist Herodotus. The details of the description confirm the authenticity of the voyage, which was completed at three years old. Every autumn, sailors landed ashore, sowed grain, harvested crops and sailed on. During the journey, they saw the sun only on the right side. The Phoenicians skirted Africa from the south, moving from east to west, and, therefore, could see the sun in the north, that is, on the right side at noon. This detail in Herodotus's story is evidence of sailing around Africa.

The ancient Egyptians knew Central Africa, sailed across the Red Sea to the country of Punt (the African coast from modern Massa to the Somali peninsula) and visited South Arabia. In the east they had relations with the Phoenicians and Babylonians, and in the west they subjugated a number of Libyan tribes. In addition, the Egyptians traded with Crete.

The ancient Greeks and Romans did a lot for the development of all sciences, including geography. Greece's position on the routes from Western Asia to the southern and western Mediterranean countries placed it in very favorable conditions for trade relations, and, consequently, for the accumulation of geographical knowledge.

The earliest written documents of the Greeks are attributed to Homer epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", the recording of which dates back to VIII- VIIcenturies BC e., but the events described in them took place approximately in XVI- XIIcenturies BC e. From these poems one can get an idea of ​​the geographical knowledge of the era. The Greeks imagined the Earth as an island shaped like a convex shield. They knew well the countries adjacent to the Aegean Sea, but had vague ideas about more remote areas. However, they knew the large rivers of the Mediterranean-Black Sea basin: Rion (Phasis), Danube (Ister), Po (Padue), etc.; and they also had some information about Africa and about the nomadic peoples who lived north of Greece.

In ancient Greece, attempts were made to compile geographical maps of the territory known at that time. The Greeks also tried to explain various natural phenomena from the point of view of natural science theories. Greek thinker Parmenides(VV. BC BC) the idea of ​​the spherical shape of the Earth was put forward. However, he came to this conclusion not through experimental data, but based on his philosophy of perfect forms. Parmenides And Pythagoras The division of the globe into five circles, or zones, is attributed: Arctic, summer, equatorial, winter and Antarctic.

The works of the greatest Greek scientist were of great importance for the development of geography Herodotus(484-425 gg. BC e.). The value of these works lies in the fact that they were compiled on the basis of his personal travels and observations. Herodotus visited and described Egypt, Libya, Phenicia, Palestine, Arabia, Babylonia, Persia, the nearest part of India, Media, the shores of the Caspian and Black Seas, Scythia (the southern part of the European territory of the USSR) and Greece (Fig. 1).

According to Herodotus, the inhabited Earth was divided into three parts: Europe, Asia and Libya (Africa) 1. The Mediterranean Sea in the north passes into the Pont Euxine (Black Sea) and Maeotic Lake (Sea of ​​Azov).

However, Herodotus’ descriptions also contain many erroneous ideas.

A number of works concerning geography were written by a materialist philosopher Democritus, He traveled a lot and compiled a geographical map, which was used in the compilation of later maps. Democritus posed a number of geographical problems, which were subsequently dealt with by many scientists: the measurement of the then known landmass, and then the entire Earth, the dependence of organic life on climate, etc.

Hiking was important for the development of geography in ancient Greece. Alexander the Great and sea voyages beyond the Mediterranean. Among the latter, swimming is of greatest interest Pythea from Massilia (Marseille). Pytheas passing Gibraltar

strait, sailed along the coast of northwestern Europe and presumably reached Norway. Pytheas's notes mention thick fogs, ice and the midnight sun, which indicates the high latitudes he reached. It can be assumed that Pytheas circled Great Britain and saw Iceland.

During times Aristotle(384-322 BC) the idea of ​​the Earth as a ball is already becoming generally accepted. He considered the round shape of the Earth's shadow, which could be observed on the Moon during an eclipse, to be proof of sphericity.

Next, supremely important issue, resolved by Greek and Alexandrian scientists, was the question of the size of the Earth. The first historically known determination of the size of the Earth should be considered an attempt by Aristotle's student Dicaearha(300 BC). Very little information has been preserved about this dimension. We know much more about the measurements made by the Alexandrian scientist Eratosthenes(276-196 BC). The method used by Eratosthenes is very close to the principle of modern measurements. Despite the low precision of the instruments and the errors made, the length of the earth's circumference, determined by Eratosthenes, turned out to be very close to reality.

The second very important merit of Eratosthenes is the creation of one of the first systematic works on geography. The first part of this work examined the history of geography, the second - the shape and size of the Earth, oceans, land, climatic zones, and the third gave a description of individual countries. The book was called "Geography". This word was first used by Eratosthenes, and since then the description of the entire Earth or any part of its surface has been called geography. The word geography literally translated from Greek means land description.

After Eratosthenes, we should also note the Alexandrian astronomer Hipparchus, who first introduced degree network, based on dividing the circumference of the globe into 360°, and indicated the principles of accurate map construction.

Rome became the heir to the cultural conquests of Greece and Alexandria. It must be said that we know very little of the major geographers and travelers of the Romans. The campaigns and wars of the Romans provided a lot of material for geography, but the processing of this material was carried out mainly by Greek scientists. The largest of them are Strabo And Ptolemy.

The Greek scientist Strabo was born around 63 BC. e. Among Strabo's works, it should be noted his “Geography”, consisting of 17 books. Of these, two books were devoted to mathematical geography, eight to Europe, six to Asia, and one to Africa. Strabo, like Herodotus, was an outstanding traveler. Before writing Geography, he visited Western Europe, Greece, Egypt and the then known part of Asia.

Mathematician and geographer Claudius Ptolemy, Greek by birth, lived in Egypt in the first half II V. n. e. His greatest work was the creation of the “world system,” which dominated science for more than a thousand years. Ptolemy's geographical views are expressed in the book "Geographical Guide". He builds his geography on purely mathematical principles, first of all indicating the geographical definition of latitude and longitude of each place.

Ptolemy had more significant geographical material than Strabo. In his works we find information about the Caspian Sea, about the river. Volga (Ra) and r. Kame (Eastern Ra). When describing Africa, he dwells in detail on the sources of the Nile, and his description is in many ways similar to the latest research.

The works of Strabo and Ptolemy summed up all the geographical knowledge of the ancient world, which was quite large. Geographers of the most developed countries of Western Europe before XV V. added almost nothing to the geographical knowledge that the Greeks and Romans had before III V. From the given examples of the most important geographical works of antiquity, two paths of development of geography are already outlined with sufficient clarity. The first way is a description of individual countries (Herodotus, Strabo). The second way is a description of the entire Earth as a single whole (Eratosthenes, Ptolemy). These two main paths in geography have survived to this day. Thus, during the era of the slave system, significant geographical knowledge was accumulated. The main achievements of this period were the establishment of the spherical shape of the Earth and the first measurements of its size, the writing of the first major geographical works and the compilation of geographical maps, and, finally, the first attempts to give a scientific explanation of the physical phenomena occurring on Earth.