What light source is artificial. Natural and artificial light sources: examples

Welcome to my blog again. I'm in touch with you, Timur Mustaev. I want to congratulate all Muslims on the holy holiday of Eid al-Adha, wish a clear sky over their heads, sincere love and health! Take care of the people close to you!

Today we will look at artificial and natural light sources. Since an important aspect of photography is lighting, without which shooting is generally impossible. Let's start with the definition of concepts.

Sources are divided into two types:

natural;
Artificial.

Daylight

Sources of natural light:

The sun;
The moon replaces the sun at night;
Bioluminescence - the glow of living organisms;
Atmospheric electrical charges, such as thunderstorms.

The first two sources are ordinary and constant, the next two can serve the photographer only under special conditions.

Natural lighting is less controllable as it depends on many factors:

1. Weather

Sunny

Everyone knows that you should not take pictures on a sunny day, as the result of the photos will have hard shadows and well-defined contours that will not be in favor of the photographer. On a sunny day, it is better to photograph in deep shade where the sun's rays do not fall, for example, the shadow of a large building, gazebos, etc.

cloudy

Cloudy weather is the most preferable for filming, because the clouds provide soft lighting and the image is built so that the colors smoothly merge into one another in tone.

Unfortunately, cloudiness may not always be uniform, and often its density fluctuates, which affects the intensity of light.

Other unusual weather conditions

Is it possible to take pictures in unusual conditions? With a hurricane, thunderstorm and storm, the black sky will add drama to your photo.

Shooting in fog will help the viewer get a better sense of the depth of the image and build a good perspective.

2. Time of day

To get the perfect result when shooting portraits or landscapes, choose sunrise or sunset. 30 minutes before sunset and after sunrise is considered the golden time for photography. The advantage is that the lighting changes quickly. This allows you to get whole line unique variety of pictures.

The only drawback is the opportunity to miss the perfect moment of shooting. At sunset, the shadows lengthen and become less bright, and in the morning everything is exactly the opposite.

3. Geographic location

4. Air pollution

The polluted particles scatter the light rays, making it softer and less bright.

Advantages:

Free source;
Color rendering is excellent as the solar spectrum is continuous throughout the entire range of visibility.

Disadvantages:

Cannot be used in dark time days;
Inconsistent color temperature, which requires frequent adjustment changes;
Difficulty of application for building complex lighting schemes;
Low brightness requires a slow shutter speed, which cannot be obtained when shooting handheld.

artificial lighting

Everything is different with the control of artificial light. The photographer becomes the powerful master of lighting and adjusts all parameters:

Quantity;
Injection;
Location;
Intensity;
Rigidity;
color temperature;
White balance.

Why do you need white balance? So that the color rendition does not have distortions or has only minimal errors.

Colorful temperature

Let's take a closer look at this parameter. What it is? Well, if you rely on theory, then this is a characteristic that determines the temperature of a black object that emits its color. measured this characteristic in Kelvin (K).

Permanent lighting

What is an example of constant light sources? The most common are halogen lamps, as well as sodium lamps, fluorescent cold light and incandescent lamps. All of them have different color temperature settings.

For example, if you take tungsten lamps, they emit a reddish tint, and halogen lamps emit a cold blue light.

Benefits of using:

Moderate price;
Full control over the light;
You can build the necessary lighting schemes to your liking, obtaining various light and shade patterns.

Disadvantages:

Large consumption of electricity, respectively, large financial costs;
When shooting, you need a long one (not in all cases);
Large heat dissipation heats the air and objects in the room, which may affect their deformation.

Impulse Lighting

What are the sources of impulsive color? Built-in and external flashes, monoblocs and generator systems.

How is the shooting process? In studios, in addition to a flashing lamp, a pilot light is installed, that is, a constant source. It acts as an auxiliary parameter and helps to correctly build a black and white pattern. When the photographer presses the shutter button, the flash fires and at the same time the modeling light goes off and lights up when the flash ends.

Advantages:

Energy consumption is less than permanent artificial sources;
Heat dissipation is low;
Allows you to use the effect of “freezing objects” when shooting, for example, splashes or falling drops;
You can come up with complex lighting schemes that will help take your work to a higher level.

Disadvantages:

The high cost of acquisition;
If there is no pilot light, then you will have to look for a “golden” frame among the probes;
Requires a connection to the camera, so may slow down shooting when taking pictures with multiple cameras.

What light source to choose?

If you are shooting portraits or photographing subjects, use artificial lighting to adjust all settings.

If you are photographing landscapes or wildlife, then there is no choice. Only natural light.

Before shooting, choose the right mood and feelings that you want to convey in your photo. After that, select the desired lighting scheme.

Finally, study the video course "" or " My first MIRROR". It will help you understand the basics of photography and will be an indispensable assistant in your endeavors as a photographer.

My first MIRROR- for supporters of the CANON DSLR.

Digital SLR for beginners 2.0- for NIKON DSLR supporters.

This concludes our course on types of light sources. You can combine all the sources together, if necessary, to translate a creative idea. It is only necessary to take into account the different temperature, which affects the color rendering. For example, photographing a person at sunset, artificial lighting is indispensable if you want to get a lit face of the model and a beautiful sunset.

This combination is also typical when shooting black and white photographs. Share the article with your friends on social networks and subscribe to the blog to become a professional in photography.

All the best to you, Timur Mustaev.

Two types of electric lamps are used for artificial lighting - incandescent lamps (LN) and gas discharge lamps (GL).

Incandescent lamps are thermal light sources. Visible radiation (light) in them is obtained as a result of heating a tungsten filament with an electric current.

In gas-discharge lamps, visible radiation arises as a result of an electric discharge in an atmosphere of inert gases or metal vapors, which fill the lamp bulb. Discharge lamps are called fluorescent, because the inside of the bulb is covered with a phosphor, which, under the action ultraviolet radiation, emitted by an electric discharge, glows, thereby converting invisible ultraviolet radiation into light.

Incandescent lamps are the most widely used in everyday life because of their simplicity, reliability and ease of use. They also find application in production, organizations and institutions, but to a much lesser extent. This is due to their significant disadvantages: low light output - from 7 to 20 lm / W (light output of a lamp is the ratio of the lamp's luminous flux to its electrical power); short service life - up to 2500 hours; the predominance of yellow and red rays in the spectrum, which greatly distinguishes the spectral composition of artificial light from the sun. In the marking of incandescent lamps, the letter C denotes vacuum lamps, G - gas-filled, K - lamps with krypton filling, B - bispiral lamps.

Gas-discharge lamps are most widely used in production, in organizations and institutions, primarily because of the significantly higher light output (40 ... PO lm / W) and service life (8000 ... 12000 hours). Because of this, gas discharge lamps are mainly used for street lighting, illumination, illuminated advertising. By choosing a combination of inert gases, metal vapors filling lamp bulbs, and a luminoform, you can get light of almost any spectral range - red, green, yellow, etc. mercury. The light emitted by such lamps is close in its spectrum to sunlight.

Gas-discharge lamps include various types of low-pressure fluorescent lamps with different luminous flux distribution over the spectrum: white light lamps (LB); cold white light bulbs

(LHB); lamps with improved color rendering (LDC); warm white light lamps (LTB); lamps close in spectrum to sunlight (LE); lamps of cold-white light with improved color rendering (LHBTs).

High-pressure gas-discharge lamps include: color-corrected high-pressure arc mercury lamps (DRL); xenon (DKst), based on the radiation of an arc discharge in heavy inert gases; sodium high pressure (HPS); metal halide (DRI) with the addition of metal iodides.

Lamps LE, LDTs are used in cases where there are high requirements for determining the color, in other cases - LB lamps, as the most economical. DRL lamps are recommended for industrial premises, if the work is not associated with color discrimination (in high workshops of machine-building enterprises, etc.), and outdoor lighting. DRI lamps have a high luminous efficiency and improved color, they are used for indoor lighting high altitude and squares.

Light sources have different brightness. The maximum human-tolerable brightness under direct observation is 7500 cd/m2.

However, gas-discharge lamps, along with advantages over incandescent lamps, also have significant disadvantages, which so far limit their distribution in everyday life.

This is a pulsation of the light flux, which distorts visual perception and adversely affects vision.

When illuminated with gas discharge lamps, a stroboscopic effect can occur, which consists in the incorrect perception of the speed of objects moving. The danger of the stroboscopic effect when using gas discharge lamps is that the rotating parts of the mechanisms may appear to be stationary and cause injury. Illumination pulsations are also harmful when working with fixed surfaces, causing rapid visual fatigue and headache.

The limitation of ripples to harmless values is achieved by uniformly alternating the supply of lamps from different phases of a three-phase network, using special wiring diagrams. However, this complicates the lighting system. Therefore, fluorescent lamps are not widely used in everyday life. The disadvantages of gas-discharge lamps include: the duration of their warm-up, the dependence of their performance on the ambient temperature, the creation of radio interference.

Another reason, apparently, is the following circumstance. The psychological and partly physiological impact on a person of the chromaticity of the radiation of light sources is undoubtedly largely related to the light conditions to which mankind has adapted during its existence. Distant and cold blue sky creating for most of daylight hours high illumination, in the evening - a close and hot yellow-red fire, and then came to replace it, but similar in color to "combustion lamps", creating, however, low illumination - these are the light regimes, adaptation to which, probably, explains the following facts. A person has a more efficient state during the day in the light of predominantly cold shades, and in the evening with a warm reddish light it is better to rest. Incandescent lamps give a warm reddish-yellow color and promote calm and relaxation, fluorescent lamps, on the contrary, create a cold White color that excites and sets to work.

The correct color reproduction depends on the type of light sources used. For example, a dark blue fabric appears black under the light of incandescent lamps, yellow flower- off-white. That is, incandescent lamps distort the correct color reproduction. However, there are objects that people are accustomed to seeing mainly in the evening under artificial lighting, for example, gold jewelry looks "more natural" under the light of incandescent lamps than under the light of fluorescent lamps. If correct color reproduction is important in the performance of work - for example, in drawing lessons, in the printing industry, art galleries, etc. - it is better to use natural lighting, and if it is insufficient, artificial lighting of fluorescent lamps.

Thus, right choice Colors for the workplace contribute significantly to the productivity, safety and overall well-being of workers. Finishing surfaces and equipment in the work area also contributes to creating a pleasant visual experience and a pleasant working environment.

Ordinary light consists of electromagnetic radiations with different wavelengths, each of which corresponds to certain range visible spectrum. By mixing red, yellow and blue light, we can get the most visible colors including white. Our perception of the color of an object depends on the color of the light with which it is illuminated and on how the object itself reflects the color.

Light sources are classified into the following three categories based on the color of the light they emit:

* "warm" color (white reddish light) - recommended for residential lighting;
*intermediate color (white light) - recommended for workplace lighting;
* "cold" color (white bluish light) - recommended for work that requires a high level of illumination or for hot climates.

Thus, important characteristic light sources is the color of light emission. To characterize the color of radiation, the concept of color temperature is introduced.

Color temperature is the temperature of a black body at which its radiation has the same color as the radiation under consideration. Indeed, when a black body is heated, its color changes from warm orange-red to cold white tones. Color temperature is measured in degrees Kelvin (°K). The relationship between degrees Celsius and Kelvin is as follows: °K = °C + 273. For example, O °C corresponds to 273 °K.

Introduction

1. Types of artificial lighting

2 Functional purpose of artificial lighting

3 Sources of artificial lighting. Incandescent lamps

3.1 Types of incandescent lamps

3.2 Construction of an incandescent lamp

3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of incandescent lamps

4. Discharge lamps. general characteristics. Application area. Kinds

4.1 Sodium discharge lamp

4.2 Fluorescent lamp

4.3 Mercury discharge lamp

Bibliography

Introduction

The purpose of artificial lighting is to create favorable visibility conditions, to maintain good health and reduce eye fatigue. In artificial light, all objects look different than in daylight. This happens because the position, spectral composition and intensity of radiation sources change.

The history of artificial lighting began when man began to use fire. Bonfire, torch and torch became the first artificial light sources. Then came oil lamps and candles. At the beginning of the 19th century, they learned how to emit gas and refined petroleum products, a kerosene lamp appeared, which is still used today.

When the wick is lit, a luminous flame is produced. A flame emits light only when a solid body is heated by this flame. It is not combustion that generates light, but only substances brought to a red-hot state emit light. In a flame, light is emitted by incandescent particles of soot. This can be verified by placing the glass over the flame of a candle or a kerosene lamp.

Lighting oil lamps appeared on the streets of Moscow and St. Petersburg in the 30s of the 18th century. Then the oil was replaced with an alcohol-turpentine mixture. Later, kerosene began to be used as a combustible substance and, finally, lighting gas, which was obtained artificially. The light output of such sources was very low due to the low color temperature of the flame. It did not exceed 2000K.

In terms of color temperature, artificial light is very different from daylight, and this difference has long been noticed by the change in the color of objects during the transition from daylight to evening artificial lighting. First of all, a change in the color of the clothes was noticed. In the twentieth century, with the widespread use of electric lighting, the change in color during the transition to artificial lighting decreased, but did not disappear.

Today, a rare person knows about the factories that produced lighting gas. The gas was produced by heating hard coal in retorts. Retorts are large metal or clay hollow vessels that are filled with charcoal and heated in a furnace. The released gas was purified and collected in facilities for storing lighting gas - gas holders.

More than a hundred years ago, in 1838, the St. Petersburg Gas Lighting Society built the first gas plant. By the end of the 19th century, almost all major cities Russia has gas tanks. The streets were lit with gas railway stations, businesses, theaters and residential buildings. In Kyiv, engineer A.E. Struve installed gas lighting in 1872.

The creation of direct current generators driven by a steam engine made it possible to widely use the possibilities of electricity. First of all, the inventors took care of the light sources and paid attention to the properties of the electric arc, which was first observed by Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov in 1802. The dazzlingly bright light made it possible to hope that people would be able to give up candles, a torch, a kerosene lamp, and even gas lamps.

In arc lamps, it was necessary to constantly move the electrodes put "nose" to each other - they quickly burned out. At first they were shifted by hand, then dozens of regulators appeared, the simplest of which was the Archro regulator. The luminaire consisted of a fixed positive electrode fixed on a bracket and a movable negative electrode connected to a regulator. The regulator consisted of a coil and a block with a load.

When the lamp was turned on, current flowed through the coil, the core was drawn into the coil and diverted the negative electrode from the positive one. The arc was ignited automatically. With a decrease in current, the retracting force of the coil decreased and the negative electrode rose under the action of the load. This and other systems have not received wide distribution due to low reliability.

In 1875, Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov proposed a reliable and simple solution. He arranged the carbon electrodes in parallel, separating them with an insulating layer. The invention was a tremendous success, and "Yablochkov's candle" or "Russian light" found wide use in Europe.

Artificial lighting is provided in rooms where there is not enough natural light, or to illuminate the room during the hours of the day when there is no natural light.

1. Types of artificial lighting

Artificial lighting can be general(all production facilities are illuminated with the same type of lamps, evenly spaced above the illuminated surface and equipped with lamps of the same power) and combined(local illumination of work places is added to general lighting with lamps located near the apparatus, machine tool, instruments, etc.). The use of only local lighting is unacceptable, since the sharp contrast between brightly lit and unlit areas tires the eyes, slows down the process of work and can cause accidents and accidents.

2.Functional purpose of artificial lighting

According to the functional purpose, artificial lighting is divided into working , duty , emergency .

Work lighting mandatory in all premises and in illuminated areas to ensure the normal work of people and traffic.

Emergency lighting included outside of business hours.

Emergency lighting It is provided to ensure minimum illumination in the production room in case of a sudden shutdown of the working lighting.

In modern multi-span one-story buildings without skylights with one side glazing in the daytime, natural and artificial lighting is used simultaneously (combined lighting). It is important that both types of lighting are in harmony with one another. For artificial lighting in this case, it is advisable to use fluorescent lamps.

3. Sources of artificial lighting. Incandescent lamps.

In modern lighting installations designed to illuminate industrial premises, incandescent, halogen and gas discharge lamps are used as light sources.

incandescent lamp- an electric light source, the luminous body of which is the so-called filament body (the filament body is a conductor heated by flow electric current to high temperatures). Tungsten and alloys based on it are currently used almost exclusively as a material for the manufacture of a heating body. AT late XIX- the first half of the XX century. The heating body was made from a more affordable and easy-to-process material - carbon fiber.

3.1 Types of incandescent lamps

The industry produces various types of incandescent lamps:

vacuum , gas-filled(filler mixture of argon and nitrogen), coiled, with krypton filling .

3.2 The design of the incandescent lamp

Fig.1 Incandescent lamp

The design of a modern lamp. In the diagram: 1 - flask; 2 - the cavity of the flask (vacuum or filled with gas); 3 - glow body; 4, 5 - electrodes (current inputs); 6 - hooks-holders of the body of heat; 7 - lamp leg; 8 - external link of the current lead, fuse; 9 - base case; 10 - base insulator (glass); 11 - contact of the bottom of the base.

The design of the incandescent lamp is very diverse and depends on the purpose of a particular type of lamp. However, the following elements are common to all incandescent lamps: filament body, bulb, current leads. Depending on the characteristics of a particular type of lamp, filament holders of various designs can be used; Lamps can be made without bases or with bases. various types, have an additional external flask and other additional structural elements.

3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of incandescent lamps

Advantages:

low cost

small size

The uselessness of ballasts

When turned on, they light up almost instantly.

The absence of toxic components and, as a result, the absence of the need for infrastructure for the collection and disposal

Ability to work as DC(any polarity), and on an alternating

The ability to manufacture lamps for a wide variety of voltages (from fractions of a volt to hundreds of volts)

No flicker or buzz when running on AC

Continuous emission spectrum

Electromagnetic Impulse Immunity

Ability to use brightness controls

Normal operation at low ambient temperature

Disadvantages:

Low light output

Relatively short service life

Sharp dependence of luminous efficiency and service life on voltage

The color temperature lies only in the range of 2300-2900 K, which gives the light a yellowish tint.

Incandescent lamps are a fire hazard. 30 minutes after turning on the incandescent lamps, the temperature of the outer surface reaches the following values, depending on the power: 40 W - 145 ° C, 75 W - 250 ° C, 100 W - 290 ° C, 200 W - 330 ° C. When the lamps come into contact with textile materials, their bulb heats up even more. Straw touching the surface of a 60 W lamp flares up after about 67 minutes.

The luminous efficiency of incandescent lamps, defined as the ratio of the power of the rays of the visible spectrum to the power consumed from the electrical network, is very small and does not exceed 4%

Electric Energy;
light energy;
thermal energy;
energy chemical bonds, which is found in food and fuel, each of these types of energy was once solar energy!

Thus, the most important - the main energy for life on earth - is solar energy.

artificial light sources

Modern technical progress walked very far. Mankind was able to create artificial energy of light and heat, which has firmly entered the life of man and without which mankind can no longer exist. Today in the modern world there is an abundance of various artificial sources of light and heat.

Artificial light sources - technical devices of various designs and different ways energy conversion, the main purpose of which is to obtain light radiation. Light sources use mainly electricity, but chemical energy and other methods of generating light are also sometimes used.

The very first source of light used by people in their activities was the fire of a fire. With the passage of time and increasing experience with burning various combustible materials, people have found that more light can be obtained by burning any resinous woods, natural resins and oils and waxes. From point of view chemical properties such materials contain a higher percentage of carbon by mass and, when burned, sooty carbon particles become very hot in the flame and emit light. Later, with the development of metal processing technologies, the development of methods for rapid ignition with the help of flint and flint, it was possible to create and largely improve the first independent sources lights that could be installed in any spatial position, transported and recharged with fuel. And also a certain progress in the processing of oil, waxes, fats and oils and some natural resins made it possible to isolate the necessary fuel fractions: refined wax, paraffin, stearin, palmitin, kerosene, etc. Such sources were, first of all, candles, torches, oil, and later oil lamps and lanterns. From the point of view of autonomy and convenience, light sources that use the energy of burning fuels are very convenient, but from the point of view of fire safety, emissions of products of incomplete combustion are known danger as a source of ignition, and history knows a great many examples of large fires that were caused by oil lamps and lanterns, candles, etc.

gas lanterns

Further progress and development of knowledge in the field of chemistry, physics and materials science allowed people to use also various combustible gases, which give off more light during combustion. A special convenience of gas lighting was that it became possible to illuminate large areas in cities, buildings, etc., due to the fact that gases could be very conveniently and quickly delivered from a central storage using rubberized sleeves, or steel or copper pipelines, as well as it is easy to cut off the gas flow from the burner by simply turning the stopcock.

The most important gas for the organization of urban gas lighting was the so-called "Lighting gas", produced by pyrolysis of the fat of marine animals, and somewhat later produced in large quantities from coal during coking of the latter at gas lighting plants. One of the most important components of lighting gas, which gave the greatest amount of light, was benzene, discovered in lighting gas by M. Faraday. Another gas that found significant use in the gas lighting industry was acetylene, but due to its significant tendency to ignite at relatively low temperatures and high concentration ignition limits, it did not find wide use in street lighting and was used in mining and bicycle "carbide" lamps. Another reason that made it difficult to use acetylene in the field of gas lighting was its exceptional high cost in comparison with lighting gas. In parallel with the development of the use of a wide variety of fuels in chemical sources light, their design and the most profitable method of combustion were improved, as well as the design and materials to enhance the return of light and power. To replace the short-lived wicks from plant materials, vegetable wicks were impregnated with boric acid, and asbestos fibers, and with the discovery of the monazite mineral, its remarkable property was discovered to glow very brightly when heated and contribute to the completeness of combustion of the lighting gas. In order to increase the safety of use, the working flame began to be fenced with metal nets and glass caps.

The advent of electric light sources

Further progress in the field of invention and design of light sources was largely associated with the discovery of electricity and the invention of current sources. At this stage scientific and technological progress it became quite obvious that in order to increase the brightness of light sources, it was necessary to increase the temperature of the area emitting light. If, in the case of the use of combustion reactions of various fuels in air, the temperature of the combustion products reaches 1500-2300 ° C, then when using electricity, the temperature can still be significantly increased. When heated by electric current, various conductive materials with high temperature melting, they emit visible light and can serve as light sources of varying intensity. Such materials were proposed: graphite, platinum, tungsten, molybdenum, rhenium and their alloys. To increase the durability of electric light sources, their working bodies began to be placed in special glass cylinders, evacuated or filled with inert or inactive gases. When choosing a working material, the lamp designers were guided by the maximum operating temperature of the heated coil, and the main preference was given to carbon and later to tungsten. Tungsten and its alloys with rhenium are still the most widely used materials for the manufacture of electric incandescent lamps, since under the best conditions they can be heated to temperatures of 2800-3200 ° C. In parallel with the work on incandescent lamps, in the era of the discovery and use of electricity, work was also begun and significantly developed on the electric arc light source and on light sources based on glow discharge.

Electric arc light sources made it possible to obtain colossal light fluxes, and light sources based on a glow discharge made it possible to achieve unusually high efficiency. Currently, the most advanced light sources based on an electric arc are krypton, xenon and mercury lamps, and based on a glow discharge in inert gases with mercury vapor and others.

Types of light sources

Various forms of energy can be used to produce light, and in this regard, we would like to highlight the main types of light sources.

Electrical: Electric heating of incandescent or plasma bodies. Joule heat, eddy currents, electron or ion flows;
Nuclear: isotope decay or nuclear fission;
Chemical: combustion of fuels and heating of combustion products or incandescent bodies;
Thermoluminescent: The conversion of heat to light in semiconductors.
Triboluminescent: transformation of mechanical influences into light.
Bioluminescent: Bacterial sources of light in wildlife.

Dangerous factors of light sources

Light sources of a particular design are very often accompanied by the presence of dangerous factors, the main of which are:

open flame;
Bright light radiation is dangerous for the organs of vision and open areas of the skin;
Thermal radiation and the presence of hot working surfaces that can lead to burns;
High-intensity light radiation that can lead to fire, burns, and injury - radiation from lasers, arc lamps, etc.;
Combustible gases or liquids;
High supply voltage;
Radioactivity.

The brightest representatives of artificial light sources

Torch

A torch is a type of luminaire capable of providing long-lasting intense light outdoors in all weathers.

The simplest form of a torch is a bundle of birch bark or torches made of resinous tree species, a bunch of straw, etc. A further improvement is the use of various grades of resin, wax, etc. combustible substances. Sometimes these substances serve as a simple coating for the torch core.

At the beginning of the 20th century, electric torches with batteries came into use. In peasant life one could also meet the most primitive forms of torches. Torches have always been used for both utilitarian and religious purposes. They were used when radiating fish, during night crossings through a dense forest, when exploring caves, for illuminations - in a word, in cases where it is inconvenient to use lanterns.

Modern torches are used to add romance to various ceremonies. As a rule, they are made of bamboo and have a liquid mineral oil cartridge as a fire source. Usually made in China, but there are exceptions. Well-known European designers are also involved in the production of torches.

oil lamp

An oil lamp is a lamp that burns oil. The principle of operation is similar to the principle of operation of a kerosene lamp: oil is poured into a certain container, a wick is lowered there - a rope consisting of vegetable or artificial fibers, along which, according to the property of the capillary effect, the oil rises. The second end of the wick, fixed above the oil, is set on fire, and the oil, rising along the wick, burns.

The oil lamp has been used since ancient times. In ancient times, oil lamps were fashioned from clay, or made from copper. In the Arabic fairy tale "Aladdin" from the collection "A Thousand and One Nights", a Genie lives in a copper lamp.

Kerosene lamp

Kerosene lamp - a lamp based on the combustion of kerosene - a product of oil distillation. The principle of operation of the lamp is approximately the same as that of an oil lamp: kerosene is poured into the container, the wick is lowered. The other end of the wick is clamped by a lifting mechanism in a burner designed in such a way that air leaks from below. Unlike an oil lamp, a kerosene wick has a wicker wick. Lamp glass is installed on top of the burner - to provide traction, as well as to protect the flame from the wind.

After the widespread introduction of electric lighting according to the GOELRO plan, kerosene lamps are used mainly in the Russian outback, where electricity is often cut off, as well as by summer residents and tourists.

incandescent lamp

An incandescent lamp is an electric light source, the luminous body of which is the so-called filament body. Currently, tungsten and alloys based on it are used almost exclusively as a material for the manufacture of HP. At the end of the XIX - the first half of the XX century. TN was made from a more affordable and easy-to-process material - carbon fiber. .

Operating principle. An incandescent lamp uses the effect of heating a conductor when an electric current flows through it. The temperature of the tungsten filament rises sharply after the current is switched on. The filament emits electromagnetic thermal radiation in accordance with Planck's law. The Planck function has a maximum whose position on the wavelength scale depends on temperature. This maximum shifts with increasing temperature towards shorter wavelengths. To obtain visible radiation, it is necessary that the temperature be on the order of several thousand degrees, ideally 5770 K. The lower the temperature, the lower the proportion of visible light and the redder the radiation appears.

Part of the electrical energy consumed by the incandescent lamp converts into radiation, part is lost as a result of the processes of heat conduction and convection. Only a small fraction of the radiation lies in the visible light region, the bulk is in the infrared radiation. To increase the efficiency of the lamp and obtain the maximum "white" light, it is necessary to increase the temperature of the filament, which in turn is limited by the properties of the filament material - the melting point. The ideal temperature of 5770 K is unattainable, because at this temperature any known material melts, breaks down and ceases to conduct electricity.

In ordinary air at such temperatures, tungsten would instantly turn into an oxide. For this reason, HP is placed in a flask, from which atmospheric gases are pumped out during the manufacture of LN. The most dangerous for LN are oxygen and water vapor, in the atmosphere of which HP rapidly oxidizes. The first LNs were made by vacuum; at present, only low-power lamps are made in an evacuated bulb. The flasks of more powerful LNs are filled with gas. The increased pressure in the flask of gas-filled lamps sharply reduces the rate of HP destruction due to spraying. Flasks of gas-filled LNs are not covered so quickly dark patina sprayed material HP, and the temperature of the latter can be increased compared to vacuum LN. The latter makes it possible to increase the efficiency and somewhat change the emission spectrum.

efficiency and durability. Almost all of the energy supplied to the lamp is converted into heat conduction radiation and convection is small. For the human eye, however, only a small range of wavelengths of this radiation is available. The main part of the radiation lies in the invisible infrared range and is perceived as heat. The efficiency of incandescent lamps reaches its maximum value of 15% at a temperature of about 3400 K. At practically achievable temperatures of 2700 K, the efficiency is 5%.

As the temperature rises, the efficiency of the incandescent lamp increases, but at the same time its durability is significantly reduced. At a filament temperature of 2700 K, the lamp life is approximately 1000 hours, at 3400 K only a few hours. As shown in the figure on the right, when the voltage is increased by 20%, the brightness doubles. At the same time, the lifetime is reduced by 95%.

The limited lifetime of an incandescent lamp is due to a lesser extent to the evaporation of the filament material during operation, and in more inhomogeneities arising in the thread. Uneven evaporation of the filament material leads to the appearance of thin areas with increased electrical resistance, which in turn leads to even greater heating and evaporation of the material in such places. When one of these constrictions becomes so thin that the filament material at that point melts or evaporates completely, the current is interrupted and the lamp fails.

The predominant part of the wear of the filament occurs when voltage is applied to the lamp abruptly, so you can significantly increase its service life by using different kind soft starters. A tungsten filament has a cold resistivity that is only 2 times higher than that of aluminum. When a lamp burns out, it often happens that the copper wires that connect the base contacts to the spiral holders burn out. So, a conventional 60-watt lamp consumes over 700 watts at the time of switching on, and a 100-watt lamp consumes more than a kilowatt. As the spiral warms up, its resistance increases, and the power drops to the nominal value. .

To smooth peak power, thermistors with a strongly falling resistance as they warm up, reactive ballast in the form of a capacitance or inductance can be used. The voltage on the lamp increases as the spiral warms up and can be used to shunt the ballast with automatics. Without turning off the ballast, the lamp can lose from 5 to 20% of the power, which can also be beneficial for increasing the resource.

Advantages and disadvantages of incandescent lamps.

Advantages

low cost;
small sizes;
the uselessness of ballasts;
when turned on, they light up almost instantly;
the absence of toxic components and, as a result, the absence of the need for an infrastructure for collection and disposal;
the ability to work on both direct and alternating current;
the possibility of manufacturing lamps for a variety of voltages;
lack of flicker and buzz when operating on alternating current;
continuous emission spectrum;
resistance to electromagnetic impulse;
the ability to use brightness controls;
normal operation at low ambient temperatures.

disadvantages

low light output;
relatively short service life;
sharp dependence of luminous efficiency and service life on voltage;
the color temperature lies only in the range of 2300 - 2900 k, which gives the light a yellowish tint;
Incandescent lamps are a fire hazard. 30 minutes after turning on the incandescent lamps, the temperature of the outer surface reaches the following values, depending on the power: 40 W - 145 ° C, 75 W - 250 ° C, 100 W - 290 ° C, 200 W - 330 ° C. When the lamps come into contact with textile materials, their bulb heats up even more. Straw touching the surface of a 60 W lamp flares up after about 67 minutes.

Disposal

Used incandescent lamps do not contain substances harmful to the environment and can be disposed of as normal household waste. The only restriction is a ban on their recycling together with glass products.

LED lightening

LED lighting is one of the promising areas of artificial lighting technologies based on the use of LEDs as a light source. The use of LED lamps in lighting already occupies 6% of the market. The development of LED lighting is directly related to the technological evolution of the LED. So-called super-bright LEDs have been developed, specially designed for artificial lighting.

Advantages

Compared to conventional incandescent lamps, LEDs have many advantages:

use electricity economically compared to traditional incandescent lamps. For example, LED street lighting systems with a resonant power supply can produce 132 lumens per watt, versus 150 lumens per watt for sodium gas discharge lamps. Or against 15 lumens per watt for an ordinary incandescent lamp and against 80-100 lumens per watt for mercury fluorescent lamps;
service life is 30 times longer compared to LN;
the ability to obtain different spectral characteristics, without loss in light filters;
safety of use;
small size;
lack of mercury vapor;
no ultraviolet radiation and low infrared radiation;
slight heat dissipation;
among manufacturers, it is LED light sources that are considered the most functional and promising direction both in terms of energy efficiency, cost and practical application.

disadvantages

high price. The price / lumen ratio of superbright LEDs is 50 to 100 times greater than that of a conventional incandescent lamp;
the voltage is strictly standardized for each type of lamp, the LED needs a rated operating current. Because of this, additional electronic components appear, called current sources. This circumstance affects the cost of the lighting system as a whole. In the very simple case when the current is low, perhaps connecting the LED to the source constant voltage, but with the use of a resistor;
when powered by a pulsating current of industrial frequency, they flicker more strongly than a fluorescent lamp, which in turn flickers more strongly than an incandescent lamp;
can emit short-term interference and electrical noise, which is detected by experimental comparison with other types of lamps with an oscilloscope.

Application

Due to the efficient consumption of electricity and simplicity of design, it is used in hand-held lighting devices - flashlights.

It is also used in lighting engineering to create designer lighting in special modern design projects. The reliability of LED light sources allows them to be used in hard-to-reach places for frequent replacement.

Compact fluorescent lamp

Compact fluorescent lamp - a fluorescent lamp that is smaller than a bulb lamp and less sensitive to mechanical damage. Often found designed for installation in a standard socket for incandescent lamps. Often compact fluorescent lamps are called energy-saving lamps, which is not entirely accurate, since there are energy-saving lamps on other physical principles such as LED.

Marking and color temperature

The three-digit code on the lamp packaging usually contains information regarding the quality of the light.

The first digit is the color rendering index in 1 × 10 Ra.

The second and third digits indicate the color temperature of the lamp.

Thus, the marking "827" indicates a color rendering index of 80 Ra, and a color temperature of 2700 K. .

Compared to incandescent lamps, they have a long service life. However, the dependence of the service life on voltage fluctuations in the mains leads to the fact that in Russia it can be equal to or even less than the service life of incandescent lamps. This is partly overcome by the use of voltage stabilizers and network filters. The main reasons that reduce the life of the lamp are the instability of the voltage in the network, the frequent switching on and off of the lamp.

New developments have made it possible to use an energy-saving lamp in conjunction with devices for reducing / increasing illumination. None of the previously developed dimmers is suitable for dimming fluorescent lamps - in this case, special electronic ballasts with controllability should be used.

Thanks to the use of electronic ballast, they have improved characteristics compared to traditional fluorescent lamps - faster switching on, no flickering and buzzing. There are also lamps with a soft start system. The soft start system gradually increases the light intensity when turned on for 1-2 seconds: this prolongs the life of the lamp, but still does not avoid the effect of "temporary light blindness".

At the same time, compact fluorescent lamps are inferior to LED lamps in a number of ways.

Advantages

high luminous efficiency, with equal power, the luminous flux of CFL is 4-6 times higher than that of LN, which saves electricity by 75-85%;
long service life;
the ability to create lamps with different color temperatures;
the heating of the body and bulb is much lower than that of an incandescent lamp.

disadvantages

emission spectrum: continuous 60-watt incandescent lamp and linear 11-watt compact fluorescent lamp, the line emission spectrum may cause color distortion;
despite the fact that the use of CFLs really contributes to saving electricity, the experience of mass use in everyday life has revealed a number of problems, the main of which is a short service life in real conditions of domestic use;
the use of widely used illuminated switches leads to periodic, once every few seconds, short-term ignition of the lamps, which leads to a quick failure of the lamp. This shortcoming, with rare exceptions, is usually not reported by manufacturers in the operating instructions. To eliminate this effect, it is necessary to connect a capacitor with a capacity of 0.33-0.68 microfarads for a voltage of at least 400V into the power circuit in parallel with the lamp;
the spectrum of such a lamp is linear. This leads not only to incorrect color reproduction, but also to increased eye fatigue. ;
disposal: CFLs contain 3-5 mg of mercury, poisonous substance 1st class of danger. A broken or damaged lamp bulb releases mercury vapor, which can cause mercury poisoning. Often, individual consumers do not pay attention to the problem of recycling fluorescent lamps in Russia, and manufacturers tend to move away from the problem.

From January 1, 2011, in accordance with the draft Federal Law "On Energy Saving" in Russia, a complete ban on the circulation of incandescent lamps with a power above 100 W will be introduced. .

A CFL with a spiral bulb has an uneven application of the phosphor. It is applied so that its layer on the side of the tube facing the base is thicker than on the side of the tube directed towards the illuminated area. This achieves the directionality of the radiation. .

Some models of lamps use radioactive krypton - 85.

CFL is considered a dead end branch of the development of light sources. Today, most European countries tend to use LED light sources.

Due to the frequent failure of CFLs long before the expiration of the deadlines promised by manufacturers, consumers began to call for the introduction of special warranty conditions for CFL products, commensurate with the declared manufacturers for marketing purposes.

In connection with the "negative" statements about energy-saving lamps, we decided to take a closer look at them and try to bring at least some clarity on this issue.

First of all, we want to note that in the professional technical literature such lamps are called Compact fluorescent lamps, in Russian - compact fluorescent lamps, and secondarily they are called Energy saving lamps.

About the possible harm to the health of CFLs associated with the generation of a different spectrum of light, flicker, "dirty electricity", electromagnetic radiation, the unresolved issue of disposal, etc., have long been debated. However, we will not concretize the evidence on these issues, because. we can't do professional research and we are not experts in this field, we just want to collect, study and analyze the materials presented by experts on the Internet.

Natural or natural lighting - the view obtained from natural sources Sveta. The internal natural insolation of the room is created due to the directed radiant energy the sun, light fluxes scattered in the atmosphere, penetrating into the room through light openings, and light reflected from surfaces.

Artificial lighting is obtained using special sources of light radiation, namely: incandescent lamps, fluorescent or halogen lamps. Artificial light sources, as well as natural ones, can give direct, diffused and reflected light.

Peculiarities

Natural insolation is inherent important property associated with a change in the level of illumination over a short time period. The changes are random. It is not within the power of a person to change the power of the luminous flux, he can only correct it by certain means. Since the source of natural light is located approximately at the same distance from all illuminated objects, such lighting can only be general in terms of localization.

The artificial method, unlike the natural one, depending on the distance and direction of the light source, allows you to make general and local localization. Local lighting with general variant gives a combination. By means of artificial sources, the light indicators necessary for certain working and rest conditions are achieved.

Pros and cons of two types of lighting

Scattered and uniform light beams of natural origin are the most comfortable for the human eye and provide undistorted color perception. At the same time, the direct rays of the sun have blinding brightness and are unacceptable in workplaces and at home. Decreased light levels in overcast skies or evening time, i.e. its uneven distribution does not make it possible to confine itself to a natural light source. During the period when the duration of daylight hours is long enough, significant savings in energy consumption are achieved, but at the same time, the room overheats.

The main drawback of artificial lighting is associated with somewhat distorted color perception and a fairly strong load on visual system arising as a result of micropulsation of light fluxes. Using indoor spot lighting, in which the flickering of the lamps is mutually compensated and, in terms of its characteristics, is closest to diffused sunlight, eye strain can be minimized. Also, spot light can illuminate a separate zone in space and allows you to treat energy resources economically. Artificial lighting requires an energy source, unlike natural lighting, but such lighting has a constant quality and strength of the luminous flux, which can be selected at your discretion.

Application

The use of only one type of lighting in most cases is irrational and does not meet the needs of a person in maintaining his health. Thus, the complete absence of natural insolation in accordance with labor protection standards is classified as a harmful factor. An apartment without natural light is even hard to imagine. Sources of artificial light allow you to maximize the comfortable parameters of illumination and are also used in the design of the room. Chandeliers are most often used for general lighting of a living space. Sconces or floor lamps are great for highlighting a local area. Thanks to the lampshade or ceiling, the light from such sources is soft and diffused. This property makes it possible to widely use such lamps not only for the practical purpose of lighting, but also to highlight any element of the interior. Moreover, modern artificial sources the lights are so diverse and pretty that they themselves perfectly decorate the interior.