Socialist countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Asia, Africa and Latin America after World War II

As for the largest countries in Asia, such as India, China and Japan, their leadership in their statements about what was happening then in the Middle East, although they differed from each other, nevertheless, on the whole, did not go beyond a balanced approach.
Thus, the Indian Ministry of Foreign Affairs expressed concern and regret over the aggravation of the situation in the Middle East, and also called on the participants in these events - the State of Israel, the Hezbollah organization and the Palestinians, and not only the leadership of the Palestinian Authority, but also organizations such as " Islamic Jihad” and “Islamic Resistance Movement-Hamas”, stop the violence and start negotiations. On the other hand, the allegation that the State of Israel is characterized by "disproportionate and excessive use of force" against its opponents was also made very clear, which was condemned,
as, however, and the actions of the Hezbollah organization associated with the abduction of several soldiers of the Israel Defense Forces.
Chinese Foreign Minister Li Zaoqing urged both sides to show restraint towards each other in order to avoid further deterioration of the situation, and also expressed his serious concern about what is happening in the Middle East. At the same time, the death of a Chinese citizen, who was a UN observer in southern Lebanon, caused an increase in criticism from the PRC against Israel: the PRC put forward demands to Israel to apologize, as well as to immediately stop bombing the places where the United Nations personnel are stationed. At the same time, the PRC sent a request to the UN Security Council to condemn Israel's actions in Lebanon, which, however, ran into resistance from the United States.
Japanese Prime Minister D. Koizumi stressed: "I understand Israel's anger, but I hope that you will not act on the principle of 'an eye for an eye', bearing in mind the importance of peace in the region."
Among African countries, the position of South Africa deserves attention, the leadership of which, and, in particular, Foreign Minister A. Pahad, stated the following: “South Africa is very concerned that violence is growing in the Middle East, which could lead to a real catastrophe and large-scale war in the region.”
Finally, anxiety about what is happening in the Middle East was also recorded in the statements made by representatives of the leadership of Latin American countries.
For example, press releases issued by the ministries of foreign affairs of the largest countries in the Latin American region - Mexico, Brazil and Argentina - contained an absolute condemnation of the actions of the State of Israel, which resulted in numerous civilian casualties. At the same time, calling for the establishment of a truce, and after that for the beginning of a dialogue, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina considered it necessary to release the previously captured soldiers of the Israel Defense Forces.
At that time, only the position of the leadership of Venezuela, headed by President U. Chavez, differed from this. The latter, confirming his pronounced anti-imperialist views, as well as his negative attitude towards the United States, extended a similar attitude to the State of Israel. At the same time, U. Chavez, as well as other representatives of the leadership of Venezuela (for example, Foreign Minister A. Rodriguez) did not limit themselves to condemning Israel's actions. On August 3, 2006, U. Chavez announced that the Ambassador of Venezuela to the State of Israel left his residence and was recalled to his homeland. August 2006 U. Chavez said that he does not rule out the possibility that, as a sign of protest against what is happening in the Middle East, diplomatic relations between Venezuela and the State of Israel will be severed.

AT further action The states of Israel were even qualified as "aggression" and even "genocide". Chavez's interview to the Arabic news channel Al-Jazeera turned out to be eloquent, in which he, taking advantage of the situation, dealt another "blow" to the US supporting the State of Israel. In particular, W. Chavez compared the United States with the likeness of "Dracula, constantly looking for blood, which is oil for Washington."
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The actions of the State of Israel almost everywhere in the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America provoked protest from the widest sections of the population. For example, a series of protest demonstrations against the actions of the State of Israel in Lebanon took place in Latin American countries - Mexico, Brazil and Argentina.
The only exception was India, where on July 11, 2006, a major terrorist attack was committed, which resulted in numerous casualties, and the actions of the State of Israel were regarded in the context of the fight against international terrorism. As a result, in many countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, the role of the State of Israel in the world received a predominantly negative assessment, as, however, the actions of the United States in the context of the escalation of the Arab-Israeli conflict in 2006 were also criticized.

The collapse of the colonial system. Stages of decolonization

After the end of World War II, the life of the peoples of Asia and Africa begins new stage. In countries that were still in colonial dependence, a powerful wave of liberation movement arose.

The events of World War II contributed to the weakening of the political dominance of European states in their colonies. They could no longer seriously influence the situation there. The colonies also changed during the war years. Many of them strengthened the national economy, which worked for the military needs of the metropolis, the positions of the national bourgeoisie strengthened, the working class increased, and new patriotic organizations arose. In a number of countries in the South East Asia national armed forces were created, which fought against the Japanese invaders and gained experience in armed struggle. All this created the conditions for the collapse of colonialism. Decolonization was also accelerated by the confrontation that began between the two "superpowers" - the USSR and the USA, since each of them sought to strengthen its camp by attracting the peoples of the periphery.

The process of decolonization is conditionally divided into three stages (three waves). The first stage lasted from 1945 until the mid-1950s. During this stage, the countries of Asia freed themselves from colonial dependence. The countries of Southeast Asia and the Middle East were the first to declare independence.

Under the conditions of the collapse of the colonial system, the emerging metropolitan states behaved differently. England pursued a more flexible policy in the colonial question. Therefore, she managed to avoid a military confrontation with the countries that were being liberated. Even more - she managed to maintain control over her former colonies for a long time, forming the British Commonwealth of Nations.

The colonial policy of France was characterized by a lack of flexibility. The French government sought to restore the pre-war order of things, without stopping at the same time before using forceful measures, frank diktat. Such actions led to a confrontation with their former colonies. As a result, France was drawn into colonial wars. So, in 1946-1954, she waged a colonial war in Indochina. This war ended with the defeat of France.

The second stage of decolonization lasted from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s. During these years, the decolonization of the North and Tropical Africa. 34 countries freed themselves from colonial dependence. The collapse of the British, French and Belgian colonial empires is coming to an end. 1960, during which 17 African states gained independence, went down in history as the "Year of Africa".

The third stage lasted from 1975 to 1990 and was characterized by the completion of the decolonization of South Africa. The main event of this stage was the collapse of the oldest Portuguese colonial empire. Its “survivability” was explained by the fact that Portugal, which did not have its own economic opportunities for the development of the natural resources of its colonies, allowed foreign capital there. As a result, the Portuguese colonial empire turned into a "collective colony" of the West. Western countries were interested in maintaining the Portuguese colonial regime in Africa. But in 1974, a democratic revolution took place in Portugal, which ended the former authoritarian regime. The Portuguese colonial empire was overthrown, and on political map world, new states appeared (Angola, Mozambique, etc.). In 1990, the last colony in Africa, Namibia, gained independence. This event completes the global process of elimination of colonialism.

The main result of decolonization is the emergence of about 100 independent states on the former colonial periphery. New states have become an important factor in world politics. The peoples of the liberated countries got the opportunity to choose the paths of development, taking into account national traditions and cultural and civilizational characteristics.

Features of the development of the countries of the East in the 40-90s

Serious tasks appeared before the young liberated countries: strengthening their political independence, gaining economic independence, carrying out social transformations and developing culture. On questions about the way, methods and timing of solving these problems in many developing countries, a sharp confrontation unfolded between various political forces.

Many countries that have liberated and in which bourgeois relations are deeply and firmly rooted have gone to the countries of the West and have chosen the path of capitalist development (India, Pakistan, South Korea, Nigeria, etc.). In these countries they have relied on parallel existence various forms of ownership, development of market relations, political and ideological pluralism, strengthening of comprehensive ties with advanced capitalist countries. A feature of the development of capitalism in the countries of Asia and especially Africa lies in the underdevelopment of the private sector, the weakness of large and medium-sized capital. Therefore, the state often showed great activity in the economic sphere: it created key industries and enterprises within the public sector, regulated and directed the development of the private sector in the right direction, promoted national entrepreneurship in its fight against foreign capital, etc.

A number of countries in Asia and Africa have chosen a non-capitalist path of development (or "socialist orientation"). As a rule, these countries were characterized by the presence of a significant (sometimes dominant) public sector, centralized regulation of the economy, agrarian reforms which resulted in a strong cooperative sector, overtly authoritarian nature of political structures, a significant restriction of civil liberties, a focus on Soviet Union and other socialist countries. The idea of a non-capitalist path was especially popular in the 6070s. In the 1980s, almost all developing countries, along this path, found themselves in a deep economic and political crisis. As it rises crisis phenomena in the Soviet Union and after its collapse, many countries of "socialist orientation" (Angola, Mozambique, Somalia, Ethiopia, etc.). They changed their course and embarked on the path of economic and political liberalization.

Difficulties in the economic development of young states

Most of the independent states are in a difficult situation due to their socio-economic and cultural backwardness. For the vast majority African countries For example, there has been a trend towards a slowdown in the rate of economic development in recent decades. The problem of underdevelopment of these countries is increasing due to the increase in the growth rate of their population. As output growth does not keep pace with population growth, per capita income falls. By the beginning of the 21st century, economic backwardness had become the main problem of African countries.

The economic situation in some countries of Asia and Africa is getting worse because of the desire of the existing regimes there to enrich themselves at the expense of their own peoples. In Africa, for example, the policy of "Africanization" of government and administration, carried out by all independent countries, gives mixed results. On the one hand, it has obvious positive consequences, since all leading positions in politics and the economy are passing into the hands of Africans. But on the other hand, this policy opened the way for the quick enrichment of dishonest people. Bribery, embezzlement, nepotism flourished.

Important economic problem, which confronts many young states, is the peculiar export specialization of these countries (cotton, citrus fruits, coffee, etc.) that developed during the colonial period and is difficult to overcome. Such one-sided development has narrowed their economic opportunities, made them directly dependent on the changing situation on world markets, on changes in world prices.

Huge external debt has been and remains an acute problem for most Asian and African states.

In a number of regions of the East, rapid population growth ("population explosion") caused agrarian overpopulation. In some areas, this led to a real disaster. An example of this is the zone of Africa north of the Sahara, where, due to the violation of the ecological balance (deforestation, plowing of all suitable lands, depletion of drinking water sources, etc.), a constant threat of famine has arisen since the 70s.

High population growth rates, characteristic of most Asian and African countries, complicate the solution of the problem of overcoming backwardness. Huge unemployment - a consequence of rapid population growth - entails the maintenance of low wages and slows down technical progress. The low level of the economy of many states has led to a sharp decrease in state appropriations for education, health care, and vocational training. And this, in turn, has preserved the existing problems for a long time.

Question 01. Tell us about the integration processes in Latin America. Why do they cause discontent among US ruling circles?

Answer. Integration in Latin America mainly affects economic sphere. Unions such as the Common Market of South America, the Andean Community, the Union of South America strengthen precisely the economic cooperation of these states as opposed to the economic influence of the United States, which is precisely why they cause dissatisfaction with the United States.

Question 02. Tell us about foreign policy modern China, Russian-Chinese relations. When answering, use materials from the media and the Internet.

Answer. China has become one of the most economically developed countries in the region (not counting Japan), so it began to pursue an active foreign policy around the world, taking care of economic cooperation with many countries. Special place deals with China's cooperation with Russia. Of exceptional importance is the signing in 2001 of the Treaty of Good Neighborliness, Friendship and Cooperation between these countries. At the same time, China's position in International Affairs remains very rigid. In particular, Beijing is not going to recognize the independence of Taiwan.

Question 03: What development problems does Japan experience? How does this affect its economic position in the Asian region?

Answer. The emergence of strong competitors, rising energy prices and overproduction have caused a protracted economic crisis in Japan, the ruin of many enterprises, rising unemployment. Stimulation of the economy by lowering the interest rate on loans does not give results, from time to time there is even talk of switching completely to electronic money, due to which the interest rate can be made negative.

Question 04. What are the features of the modernization process in India at the present stage?

Answer. Peculiarities:

1) India's economy has developed as a multi-structural one;

2) there are special economic zones with favorable conditions for business;

3) there is a huge difference between large cities of the European type and underdeveloped rural areas;

4) large cities by European standards are significantly overpopulated, their infrastructure requires serious development;

5) The Indo-Pakistani conflict remains relevant, but smoldering, periodically it leads to terrorist attacks;

6) since 1998, both sides of the Indo-Pakistani conflict have had nuclear weapons;

7) the pace of India's economic development is one of the highest in the world;

8) property stratification in the country is huge, most of the population lives below the poverty line;

9) a significant part of the poorest population remains illiterate and has no chance of getting an education.

Question 05: What has enabled India to make significant progress in modernization? What are some examples of industries in which the Indian economy has been particularly successful?

Answer. The reasons for the success of the Indian economy are government regulation that encourages the development of advanced areas of the economy and creates attractive conditions for investors from developed countries. At the same time, domestic consumption creates a significant part of the demand. A typical example is mechanical engineering. Based on discoveries made in other countries, India has developed its own car models targeted at the local market. The main criterion for this was the low price due to the simplicity of the design, which is implemented, in particular, in the cheapest car in the world - Tata Nano. Another example is Indian cinema, the famous Bollywood. The film industry creates a fairy tale for people living in difficult conditions, the consumption of its products is huge, especially within the country, which ensures the prosperity of the industry.

Question 06. What are the features of the development of the Islamic countries of the Middle East and North Africa?

Answer. Peculiarities:

1) a significant part of the countries of the region live off significant revenues from the sale of oil;

2) the region is torn apart by religious contradictions between Shiites and Sunnis;

3) the influence of fundamental Islam in the region is constantly growing;

4) in 2010-2011, revolutions took place in a number of countries in the region that overthrew secular authoritarian regimes, the so-called "Arab Spring".

Question 07. What are the main features of the development of the states of Central and South Africa? Why problems poorest countries this continent have become global?

Answer. Peculiarities:

1) in many states of the regions there is political instability, often there are coups d'état;

2) the economy of most countries in the region remains backward and cannot provide a decent income for a significant part of the population;

3) the problem of hunger remains very relevant in the region, it is further exacerbated by the high birth rate;

4) the problem of AIDS, which has infected a significant number of people, remains very topical in the region;

5) terrible epidemics periodically occur in the region, the latest in time is an outbreak of the Ebola virus.

The problems of this region are also becoming relevant for Europe due to illegal migration from these countries. Fleeing from a low, often unbearably low standard of living, people cross the Mediterranean in fragile boats in the hope of a better life.

One of the most significant, global processes world history in the second half of the 20th century. was the liberation of the peoples of Asia and Africa from colonial and semi-colonial dependence, the collapse of colonial empires. As a result, several dozens of new independent states appeared in the world, the peoples of which, from the “objects” of history, became its active creators.

Liberation panorama

The process of liberation of colonial and dependent countries, which lasted several decades, was full of tension and drama. It combined daily struggles and climactic, turning points, the meaning of which went beyond the national history. These included, for example, the proclamation of the Republic of India in 1950, the liberation of 17 African states in 1960 at once, the fall of the last colonial empire, the Portuguese, in the mid-1970s (it is noteworthy that the Portuguese were the first to come to Africa as colonizers and the last to leave from her). Masses of people participated in the movement for independence, bright, original leaders came to the fore. It can be said without exaggeration that the result of these events was a change in the face of the world, the emergence of completely new phenomena and processes in it.

The leaders of the liberation struggle in individual countries had different social origins, views and convictions, and political experience. Some of them, like, for example, J. Nehru, became public and political figures according to family tradition, continuing the work of their parents. Others have worked their way up from the social ranks, acquiring the education and profession that have led them to freedom movement. For still others, a military career served as a launching pad. Among the leaders of the liberation movement of the peoples of Africa in the 1950s-1960s there were many people who belonged to the scientific and creative intelligentsia. Thus, the first president of the Republic of Ghana, K. Nkrumah, had the title of Master of Pedagogy and Philosophy, the head of the government of Senegal, L. S. Senghor, was a sociologist and one of the outstanding African poets. The first president of the Republic of Angola A. A. Neto is also known as a prominent cultural figure, writer and poet.

Ways and models of development

Path choice. From the first steps of political independence, the states of Asia and Africa were faced with questions: which way to go further? How to break out of backwardness and poverty, to catch up with the advanced countries?

The world of developed states was split in those years into Western and Eastern (capitalist and socialist) blocs. The liberated countries were offered, respectively, two paths - capitalist or socialist. Today, the conventionality of these definitions has become apparent. But in those years they were considered as fundamentally various options development, with particular emphasis on ideological and political confrontation. The choice of the liberated countries was often primarily a political orientation towards one or another group of states. Politics in such cases "walked ahead" of the economy.

In the countries of Southeast Asia, the liberation of which took place at the end of the Second World War and immediately after its completion, the delimitation of movements and groups within the liberation movement, their cooperation with various external forces led to the split of some countries (Vietnam, Korea), violation of the territorial integrity of others (separation of Taiwan from China).

In the late 1950s - 1970s, most of the young states retained the "capitalist orientation" inherited from the former mother countries. These were, first of all, countries where the industrial structure turned out to be relatively advanced. At the same time, new features appeared in their development - the creation of a significant public sector, state regulation of the economy, the introduction of long-term planning, state economic and social programs.

"Non-capitalist", socialist orientation was adopted fewer liberated countries. In the 1960s, about 30 states declared such a choice; by the end of the 1980s, there were about ten of them. Often these were countries with a predominance of pre-industrial, sometimes communal relations. The transition from communal property to socialized property seemed to them the fastest and most painless way to solve their economic and social problems.

In countries that embarked on this path in the 1960s (Algeria, Syria, etc.), gradual transformations of a general democratic nature were carried out. The forces that came to power most often took revolutionary-democratic positions and did not share Marxist ideas. The states that adopted a "non-capitalist" orientation in the 1970s (Angola, Afghanistan, Ethiopia) were led by politicians who claimed to be "guided by the ideas of scientific socialism." Accordingly, the tasks they set were of a more radical nature. In reality, these countries are faced with many problems. They were underdeveloped, there was practically no working class, which, according to ideological concepts, should have become the backbone of the new system, the peasantry in its modern sense was not formed either, community-tribal relations played a significant role, ethnic, tribal, religious contradictions were not overcome. All this created a gap between the put forward slogans and reality.

Among the countries of Asia and Africa there were also those that chose not one of the two proposed by the European world, but their own ("third", "fourth") path of development. One example of such a choice demonstrated Iran in which the so-called "Islamic state" was established.

In 1979, as a result of the anti-monarchist revolution in the country, the Shah's regime was overthrown and the Islamic Republic. According to the constitution, the legislative power began to belong to the Majlis (parliament), and the executive power to the president and the council of ministers. At the same time, the activities of both the president and the government are controlled by the highest spiritual and political authority - the velayet-i-faqih (he was one of the leaders of the Iranian revolution, Ayatollah R. Khomeini, until his death). The basis of legislation, of the entire internal life of the country, is the establishment of the holy book of Muslims - the Koran and the code of everyday norms - sharia. According to the constitution, the leading role in society belongs to the Muslim clergy.

A special path was chosen in Libya. In September 1969, the performance of an organization of young officers led by M. Gaddafi led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the proclamation of a republic. In 1977, a decree announced the establishment of a "regime of people's power", a new name for the country was adopted - the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (jamahir in Arabic - "popular masses"). Supreme bodies authorities in the country - the General People's Congress and the Supreme People's Committee. The post of head of state was taken by M. Gaddafi, whose official title is "Leader of the September 1 Revolution." He put forward the concept that the path to democracy lies through a “people's revolution”, establishing a regime where power is exercised not by the party, not by the class, not by the parliament, but by “the whole people” (through popular assemblies and committees).

Evolution or leap? In the early years of independent India, J. Nehru wrote: “Should we follow the English, French or American path? Do we have 100-150 years to reach our goal? This is completely unacceptable. In that case, we'll just die."

It can be safely assumed that the question is: how, in what way and at what expense to overcome backwardness, to achieve dynamic development? - set before themselves the leaders of many liberated countries. In the variety of answers to it, two approaches can be distinguished. In one, the idea of evolutionary development prevails, when the new is created in unity with the traditional, transforms what already exists, in accordance with the spirit of the times, but without destroying the previously established foundations. Thus, J. Nehru noted that the history of India “is a process of continuous adaptation of old ideas to a changing environment, old forms to new ones. In view of this, there are no interruptions in the development of culture in Indian history and, despite repeated changes, there is continuity from the ancient times of Mohenjo-Daro to our century.

Another approach is focused on a breakthrough, a leap in development. It manifested itself in the "great leap" of the late 1950s in China, the so-called "tiger jump" - "new industrial countries» Southeast Asia in the 1970s and 1980s, economic growth in the same years in a number of oil-producing Arab states. The sources of the "jump" in individual countries were different - investments from outside, profits from the exploitation of natural resources, cheap labor, etc. Its methods also differed (the use of advanced technologies, the organization of production, labor policy, etc.).

Liberated countries in the modern world

One of the main tasks facing the young states of Asia and Africa in the second half of the 20th century was the achievement of economic and cultural independence. Related to this is the problem of confronting neo-colonialism as a system of unequal economic and political relations imposed by the leading industrial powers and transnational capital. The post-colonial exploitation of the countries of Asia and Africa is carried out through the penetration of transnational companies into their economies, economic dictate based on the huge external debt of these countries, military pressure.

The economic activity of foreign monopolies in the countries of Asia and Africa is selective. They open their enterprises in more developed countries, where there are rich natural resources, where there is a cheap labor market, where low wages are combined with the presence of disciplined, easily trained workers. The policy of the international monopolies in the countries of Asia and Africa is characterized by promoting the agrarian and raw material specialization of the economy, the deployment of mainly the lower levels of industrial production (mining and manufacturing, the manufacture of semi-finished products, etc.), the export to these regions of environmentally friendly hazardous industries from developed countries.

One of the most acute problems for the countries of Asia and Africa is the external debt. In the second half of the 1980s, it accounted for almost 2/5 of their annual gross production of goods and services. These states often use all the foreign aid they receive to pay interest and other obligations on their external debt.

Gaining independence, the desire for dynamic development led the states of Asia and Africa to active participation in international political and economic cooperation, in the work of the UN and other organizations. Many of them became the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement (its first conference was held in Belgrade in 1961), which already included 100 states by the mid-1980s. Supporters of the movement advocated non-participation in military-political blocs, for peace and international security, perestroika international relations on the basis of equality and justice.

In 1963, the Organization of African Unity arose, which advocated the strengthening of national sovereignty, political and economic cooperation of African countries, against all types of colonialism and neo-colonialism, racism and apartheid (by the end of the 20th century, it consisted of more than 50 states). In 2001 it was replaced by the African Union. The protection of the economic interests of the countries of Asia and Africa is also served by a number of international organizations, including the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and regional associations.

This review characterizes the main processes, trends and problems of the development of Asian and African countries in the second half of the 20th century. Further, the situations in individual states, groups of countries are considered.

Japan

From defeat to leadership, "Japanese miracle". This can be called the path traveled by Japan in the second half of the 20th century. The country that was defeated in the war, deprived of all previously conquered territories, subjected to atomic bombing, in a few decades has become one of the leading states of the industrial world.

What was the basis of this success? Historians believe that the main role in it was played by the Japanese culture that appeared in Japan since the end of the 19th century. the ability to modernize, while rapid, dynamic development was carried out on the basis of traditional relations for a given society. Japan's post-war economy was distinguished by such features as high growth rates of industrial production, widespread use of the latest technologies, and expansion of foreign economic relations. In the difficult post-war years, the slogan "Export first!" was put forward in the country. The products of Japanese industry have become the standard of quality. Japanese goods began to penetrate the world markets. The country's share in the exports of the Western world increased during 1950-1979. from 1.3 to 8.5%. In the 1970s, Japanese monopolies greatly expanded the export of capital, and in the 1980s, Japan overtook the United States as the world's largest banking country.

Figures and facts

From the late 1950s to the late 1970s, Japanese car production increased 100 times. In 1979, 10 million cars were produced, almost the same as in the USA. In the early 1980s, more cars were being produced than in the United States, with half of Japanese cars being exported.

In the 1960s, the Japanese industry overtook the United States in the number of radios produced, and in the 1970s in the production of televisions. At the same time, Japan was ahead of Germany in the production of watches.

Explaining the reasons for this successful development countries, experts talk not only about the rapid renewal of capital, the use of the latest world scientific discoveries and inventions, Japan's insignificant military spending, etc. The importance of the traditional work culture - brought up over centuries of diligence, discipline, striving for common success - is especially emphasized. At medium and small enterprises in Japan, the relations of employees are built as in a big family - with the subordination of the younger to the elders, the elders taking care of the younger ones. Thus, the human factor plays no less important role than economic and technological factors.

The scientific, technical and economic achievements of Japan have also been facilitated by a consistent policy of supporting secondary and higher education. In the late 1980s, 93% of Japanese children received a complete secondary 12-year education, more than a third continued their studies at universities and colleges.

In the political sphere, the embodiment of the traditional foundations of Japanese society is the monarchical form of the state that has survived to this day. The emperor is not engaged in the daily administration of the country, he acts as a "symbol of the state and the unity of the nation", the supreme guardian of the state religion of Shinto, personifies the unified spiritual basis of Japanese society.

In the postwar years, Japan developed a system of multi-party parliamentary democracy. For almost 40 years, the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), essentially a conservative party, was in power. Opposition from the left was made up of the Socialist Party and the Communists. During the crisis years of the 1970s, the position of the LDP was weakened; it lost its majority in parliament several times. In 1993-1996 for the first time in the post-war years, the authorities were coalition governments, including led by the socialist T. Murayama. At the beginning of the XXI century. The LDP regained its parliamentary majority.

Japan's foreign policy in the post-war decades was determined by decisions to demilitarize the country. In the 9th article of the Japanese constitution of 1947, "three non-nuclear principles" were written down: not to have, not to produce and not to import nuclear weapons. Instead of the army, "self-defense forces" were created. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, the country's military spending began to increase, Japanese troops began to take part in international maneuvers. The military potential of Japan has increased.

Development Paths of East, Southeast and South Asia

This part of Asia was the focus of several historical civilizations, each of which went its own way of development. Liberation from colonial and semi-colonial dependence gave the peoples of the region the opportunity for self-determination and control over their own destiny. However, they were faced with the choice already mentioned above. And it was here that the choice was accompanied by a split of previously united countries into states with different social systems.

China

After the end of World War II in China, a civil war between supporters of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China (CCP) continued for several more years. In 1949 it ended with the defeat of the Kuomintang army. Chiang Kai-shek and the remnants of his troops took refuge on the island of Taiwan. Subsequently, an authoritarian regime was established in Taiwan, headed by Chiang Kai-shek, and then by his son Jiang Jingguo. From 1949 to 1987, a state of emergency was in effect on the island. The preservation of the Taiwanese regime was facilitated by diplomatic and military support from the United States.

On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed. In the first half of the 1950s, the PRC adopted a policy of building socialism along the Soviet lines. At the same time, the uniqueness of China was taken into account, the preservation of small private ownership of the means of production was envisaged, elements of a mixed economy were allowed, etc. But it was not easy to raise a huge country out of devastation and poverty. And the Chinese leader Mao Zedong did not have enough patience for a long journey. Already in 1955, the pace of collectivization and industrialization began to "spur up". After the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned Stalin's personality cult, Mao Zedong, in an effort to maintain his power in the party, curtailed contacts with the Soviet party and state leadership.

In May 1958, the course of the "three red banners" was proclaimed, which included the "new general line", the "great leap" and the "people's communes". The slogan of the new course was the saying: "Three years of hard work - ten thousand years of happiness!"

The industry has received inflated tasks. Agricultural collectives united into large "people's communes", in which everything was socialized, right down to household utensils. Each commune included several thousand peasant farms. They were supposed to become self-sufficient, including the production of steel, tools, etc. The construction of many blast furnaces began, in which low-quality steel was smelted in an artisanal way. A year later, it became clear that the “jump” had failed. The country was left without steel and without food. In the early 1960s, she suffered a famine.

The next revolutionary campaign covered the political and ideological sphere. In 1966, the “great proletarian cultural revolution” began. One of her mottos was: "Open fire on headquarters!" In pursuance of this task, purges were carried out of the leading party and state bodies, teachers were expelled from higher educational institutions, representatives of the intelligentsia were sent "for re-education" to the village. The main driving force of the cultural revolution was the student and working youth - equipped with quotation books of Mao Zedong hungweibing ("red guards") and zaofani ("rebels"). The “Great Pilot”, as Mao Zedong was called, said: “We need decisive people, young, without special education with strong positions and political experience to take matters into their own hands.”

After the death of Mao Zedong (September 1976) power passed to his widow and several associates - the so-called " group of four". Not wanting to change anything in the country, they tried to bet on the concept of "poor socialism", but were soon overthrown. The new leaders were faced with the question of what course to take next.

One of the oldest figures in the Chinese Communist Party played a decisive role in the transition to a new policy Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997).

Having joined the party in 1924, he went through a long, full of trials way. He was deprived of party posts three times, including during the years of the "great cultural revolution", when his entire family was persecuted. Return to power in 1977, Deng Xiaoping used to make a turn in the development of the country. At the same time, he retained the conviction that economic development would be successful if it was directed by a strong party.

Since 1979, under the slogan of "socialist modernization", economic and social reforms have begun in China. In the countryside, a “yard contract” was introduced (peasants could rent land for 15 years), it was allowed to purchase equipment, use hired labor. In industry, enterprises expanded their independence in planning, organizing production, and marketing products. There was a transition to a mixed economy. Along with the state, joint-stock and private property was legalized. An open door policy was proclaimed foreign economic relations: foreign investment in the Chinese economy was allowed, free economic zones were created.

The reforms brought both clearly positive results and some problems. In the first half of the 1980s, there was a significant increase in industrial and agricultural production (in 1984, for example, the increase in production amounted to 14.2%). For the first time in many decades, a country with a billion people has solved the food problem and even began to export food. The well-being of the people has improved. At the same time, after the abolition of centralized state administration, the number of intermediary administrative companies increased, and corruption among state officials developed.

The political and ideological foundations of society underwent almost no changes during the reforms. The CPC followed the teachings of Marxism-Leninism and the ideas of Mao Zedong (however, a clause was made in the party charter about the inadmissibility of the personality cult). In 1987, the party congress set the task of moving "along the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics."

The preservation of the former political system caused a critical attitude on the part of some social forces. In the spring and summer of 1989, student demonstrations took place on Tiananmen Square in Beijing demanding democratic changes: the abolition of the CCP's monopoly on power, the introduction of a multi-party system, the observance of human rights, etc.

Armed forces were sent against the demonstrators. Many of those gathered were killed or wounded. The events sparked an international outcry. But inside the country, their consequence was only the resignation of individual party leaders. The next congress of the CPC in 1992 confirmed the task of strengthening the "democratic dictatorship of the people" and the leading role of the party.

In 1997, China returned Hong Kong (leased to Great Britain at the end of the 19th century). Since the late 1970s, negotiations have been periodically resumed on the reunification of Taiwan (which seceded in 1949) with China. During the post-war decades, significant successes in industrial development were achieved here (more on this later). In relation to these territories, the "patriarch of Chinese reforms" Deng Xiaoping put forward the position: "One state - two systems." Line on the variety of shapes economic life got a sequel.

Vietnam and Korea

The fate of Vietnam and Korea, divided after the war into states with different social order. In both countries, in 1945, communist-led liberation forces proclaimed democratic republics. But the new power was established only in a part of the territory of each of the countries. The southern and central regions of Vietnam were occupied by French troops (before the Japanese occupation, Vietnam was a possession of France, and the former owners wanted to return their property). The war of resistance to the colonialists continued until 1954. As a result of the Geneva Agreement, the country was divided into two parts along the 17th parallel.

Socialist construction unfolded in North Vietnam, with assistance provided by the Soviet Union and other states of the "eastern" bloc. The Workers' Party of Vietnam, headed by Ho Chi Minh, also set the task of achieving the unification of the country. At this time, to the south of the 17th parallel, the Republic of Vietnam emerged with the capital in Saigon, supported by the United States. In 1964, the United States directly intervened in the confrontation between the North and the South, sending its troops to Vietnam.

The Vietnam War ended in 1973 with the defeat of the Saigon regime and US troops. In 1976, the country was unified, it was proclaimed Socialist Republic Vietnam. The socio-economic system of the South began to be rebuilt along the lines of the North. But the difficulties of post-war reconstruction and the changing international situation sharply raised the question of the course of the country as a whole. In the 1980s, Vietnam began an economic transformation similar to those that had previously unfolded in China.

In Korea, which in 1945 was liberated from the Japanese invaders from the north Soviet troops, and the Americans occupied from the south, a line of demarcation was established along the 38th parallel. Two states emerged in two zones of occupation - the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea. (Remember when and where else a similar situation took place.)

Unfolded between them in 1950-1953. the war, in which foreign powers also participated, did not give an advantage to either side. Each of the states continued to go its own way. This concerned primarily the economic system. North Korea has established a state-owned centralized economy. AT South Korea a market economy developed on the basis of private ownership of the means of production (however, state regulation of the economy played a significant role here).

Significant differences are characteristic of the socio-political system of the two states. In North Korea, the Juche doctrine, developed by its long-term leader Kim Il Sung, was introduced into life. In particular, it proclaims: “Man is the master of everything”, “Man decides everything”. There were similar declarations in the system of democratic values promoted in South Korean society. However, power in the two countries took on different forms. In the DPRK, this was the sole power of the "leader" - the President of the country and General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea Kim Il Sung, who passed after his death to his son Kim Jong Il. For several decades, South Korea had a military regime that relied on a one-party system and brutally cracked down on any manifestations of opposition. Only in 1987 were the first multi-party elections held. In 1993, a civilian politician, one of the leaders of the opposition, Kim Yong Sam, became president.

South Korea, along with Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, has become one of the new industrial countries. They made themselves known in the 1970s, when they literally broke into world markets with a wide range of their products - from computers and ships to clothing and shoes. The Western press dubbed them "young tigers" or "dragons".

Their path in many ways resembled what had been done earlier in Japan. For economic policy these states are characterized by the following features: the use of state regulation of the economy; encouraging domestic capital accumulation; introduction of the latest technologies by studying world novelties, acquiring licenses, improving the organization of production; gradual industrialization; all-round promotion of exports.

In the 1980s, several other states of this region went in a similar way - Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand.

India

Nehru course. On August 15, 1947, the flag of independent India was raised over the Red Fort in Delhi. The well-known leader of the liberation movement J. Nehru said in this regard: “We have completely suffered our freedom, our hearts still keep the pain of these sufferings. Nevertheless, the past is over, and now all our thoughts are directed only to the future. But the future will not be easy... Serving India means serving millions of suffering and unfortunate people. It means striving to end centuries of poverty, disease and unequal opportunity ... We must build a new stately home for free India - a home in which all her children can live.

Jawaharlal Nehru became the first and permanent for 17 years (until his death in 1964) head of the government of India. His work was continued by his daughter Indira Gandhi and grandson Rajiv Gandhi, who headed the country's government in the 1960s-1980s. Their policy was based on the mass and influential Indian National Congress party, which was in power for almost the entire period from the beginning of the country's independence, with interruptions in 1977-1979 and 1989-1991.

The main activities of the government of J. Nehru were: reorganization of the country's states along national and ethnic lines; the agrarian reform, as a result of which large-scale landownership was limited, part of the land was transferred to small-land peasants; the creation of a public sector in industry and the introduction of planning in the economy; beginning of industrialization. In domestic policy, emphasis was placed on a combination of the principles of democracy and centralism. An expression of the foreign policy of independent India was its participation in the organization of the Non-Aligned Movement. I. Gandhi, continuing the course of his father, sought to strengthen the economic position of the state, in 1969 the nationalization of large banks was carried out. R. Gandhi considered the main objectives of his policy to be ensuring the national unity and territorial integrity of the country, raising the living standards of the least well-off strata of the population, and modernizing production.

In the 1980s, nationalist and separatist movements began to intensify in India. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, the struggle of the Sikhs for autonomy and then for secession from India, the actions of Tamil separatists in the south of the country led to numerous casualties. I. Gandhi (1984) and R. Gandhi (killed in 1991 during a trip around the country during the election campaign) died at the hands of terrorists.

Afghan experiment

History reference

Development of Afghanistan up to 1978: figures and facts

The main branch of the economy was agriculture. It gave 60% of the gross national product (GNP). The landlords, who made up 2% of the rural population, owned 30% of the land suitable for cultivation, while about 1/3 of the peasant farms had no land at all. Lease was widespread with payment to the landowner up to half of the harvest. Over half of the lands suitable for crops were not cultivated. At the same time, the country imported a significant part of the consumed grain and other foodstuffs. Industry accounted for only 3.3% of GNP. There were a little over 200 industrial enterprises in the country (mainly for the processing of agricultural raw materials), where a total of 44 thousand people worked. Another 67 thousand people were employed in construction.

About 2.5 million people in Afghanistan led a nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyle (the total population of the country at that time was about 16.5 million people). Pashtuns, who made up more than half of the population, lived in conditions of tribal relations.

In this country, the leaders of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which came to power after the April 1978 uprising, proclaimed the tasks of "establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat" and (over the next five years) "transition to socialism." This course received the support of the Soviet leaders, as it fit into the then dominant concept of socialist orientation.

The rivalry of party factions led at the end of 1979 to a political upheaval. The leader of the PDPA, the head of the Revolutionary Council N. Taraki, was overthrown by his colleague H. Amin and then killed. The Soviet leadership decided to intervene in the course of events. In December 1979, during the storming of the presidential palace by Soviet special forces, Amin died. Soviet military units entered Afghanistan. B. Karmal became the head of the party and the state. The course towards "building socialism" continued.

Soon after the establishment of the power of the PDPA in Afghanistan, a number of decrees were issued to regulate agrarian relations: first, a decree on reducing the debt of landless and landless peasants, eliminating usury, then on agrarian reform. The latter provided for the confiscation of large land holdings without compensation, the seizure of part of the land from the middle peasants. Landless peasants received land, but without the right to sell it, rent it out, or split it during inheritance. Employment was prohibited. The practical implementation of the aforementioned and other decrees met at first hidden and then open resistance from the peasantry. Many peasants sided with the anti-government Islamic opposition.

Opposition forces began an open struggle against the authorities. Armed detachments of the Mujahideen (fighters for the faith) were created. More than 100 camps and training centers were organized on the territory of Pakistan and Iran, where military formations were trained with the help of Western instructors. The outbreak of the civil war, in which Soviet troops took part on the side of the government, led to the death of hundreds of thousands of people, the destruction of cities and villages. Unable to cope with the opposition, the government took a number of steps towards reconciliation. In 1987, Najibullah became the new president of the country. In 1988, a number of agreements were concluded on a political settlement in Afghanistan with the participation of Pakistan, the USSR and the USA. In accordance with them, all Soviet troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan by February 15, 1989 (in the same year, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR condemned the decision taken in 1979 to send troops to Afghanistan).

Despite the agreements, attempts by the authorities to bring about national reconciliation failed. In 1992, armed detachments of the Mujahideen captured Kabul. Power passed to the Jihad Council ("jihad" - the struggle for faith; Jihad Council - a coalition of Islamic parties). The country was declared an Islamic state. The head of the Islamic Society of Afghanistan, B. Rabbani, began to perform the functions of the country's president. At the same time, the struggle for power continued in the center and locally between the commanders of military formations belonging to different parties and national groups - G. Hekmatyar (representative of a large ethnic group of Pashtuns, he also headed the Islamic Party of Afghanistan), A. Sh. Masud ( Tajik by nationality), R. Dostum (representing the Uzbek population of the north of the country).

In 1995, the Taliban Islamic movement joined the fight. Its organizers are the Taliban (meaning "students") - former students of religious schools who were trained in opposition military camps.

In September 1996, the Taliban captured Kabul and then most of the country.

Following the massacre of political opponents, they demanded from the population strict observance of Sharia law. Women were forbidden to work outside the home and appear on the street without a veil, girls were forbidden to attend schools. It was also forbidden to watch TV shows, movies, listen to music on the radio, etc. For deviation from the prescribed rules, punishment was due under medieval Islamic laws.

One of the journalists called the events in Afghanistan "a war without end and winners." In autumn 2001, after the refusal of the Taliban government to extradite to the United States of America W. bin Laden, who had organized terrorist actions in New York and Washington, a military operation to overthrow the government. Along with the American troops, the forces of the armed anti-Taliban opposition took part in it. The Taliban have left Kabul. In December 2001, a new interim administration of Afghanistan was formed. Elected in 2004 new president countries. However, civil strife continues.

countries of the Arab world. Middle East conflict

A wave of liberation revolutions took place in the Arab countries in the 1950s and 1960s. In some cases, this was the overthrow of monarchical regimes, for example, in Egypt in 1952, Iraq in 1958. A significant role in these revolutions, which had the character of a coup, was played by patriotic army officers. In other cases, revolutions crowned many years of liberation struggle against colonial dependence. This happened in Algeria, where the struggle for independence since 1954 grew into a popular uprising, embraced all segments of the population, and the National Liberation Front became the organizing force. The proclamation in 1962 of the Algerian People's Democratic Republic meant the victory of the revolution.

The overall outcome of these events was the establishment of parliamentary republics in most Arab countries, the implementation of democratic socio-economic reforms, including agrarian reforms, and the nationalization of part of the industry. The positions of foreign capital were limited. The diversity of interests of individual social groups - entrepreneurs and intellectuals, Islamic clergy, artisans and merchants, workers and peasants - made the political development of these countries very contradictory and changeable. In addition to internal disagreements, there was also the influence of external forces, the desire of the leading world powers to strengthen their positions in this strategically important region. It is not surprising that in a relatively short period of time (30-40 years) in many countries, political regimes and policies have changed two or three times.

So it was in Egypt, where the tenure of three leaders - G. A. Nasser (1954-1970), A. Sadat (1970-1981) and M. X. Mubarak (1981-2011) - was accompanied by significant changes in domestic and foreign policy. In the first years of Nasser's presidency, banks, large-scale industry, transport were nationalized, a public sector was created in the economy, and an agrarian reform was carried out. In the 1960s, the transition to general economic planning began, the political rights of the population were expanded, and equal rights were established for women. The "socialist perspective" of Egypt's development was discussed. But, according to the plan of the Egyptian leaders, this "socialism" was supposed to have " national character”, to be different from communism (the class struggle and the idea of the dictatorship of the proletariat were rejected), to follow the principles and norms of Islam. Political parties were dissolved and the Arab Socialist Union was created - a special organization that combined the features of the party and a broad social movement that united representatives of different social strata. Since the mid-1960s, economic cooperation with the USSR has expanded. One of its most striking manifestations was the construction of the Aswan Dam and a hydroelectric power station on the Nile.

A. Sadat, who led the country after the sudden death of Nasser, abruptly changed course. A policy of curtailing the public sector, encouraging private entrepreneurship, "infitah" ("open doors" for foreign capital) began to be pursued. For 1974-1984 the share of the private sector in industrial production increased from 10% to 23%. The landowners were given back part of the lands taken from them earlier. The Arab Socialist Union was dissolved, the multi-party system was restored, although the real power was assigned to one party. In foreign policy there was a rapprochement with the United States. Sadat's signing of the Camp David Accords with Israel (1979) led to the isolation of Egypt in Arab world.

The policy of M. X. Mubarak was distinguished by balance and balance. Strengthening positions national economy combined with the encouragement of foreign investment (primarily in the manufacturing sector). Striving for internal stability, the President tightened control over the activities of the opposition, especially extremist Muslim organizations. A flexible foreign policy in the 1980s and 1990s allowed Egypt to regain its leadership position in the Arab world. However, at the beginning of the XXI century. among the Egyptians, dissatisfaction with the situation in the country and the rule of Mubarak began to grow.

Variability example political development also provides a post-war history of Iraq. After the overthrow of the monarchy (1958), power passed several times from military regimes to the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (abbreviated name - PASV, in Arabic sound - "Baath"). This party united wide sections of the population - from the intelligentsia and the military to peasants, small artisans, workers - and existed simultaneously in a number of Arab countries. In 1979, S. Hussein came to power in the Baath Party and in the state, who concentrated in his hands the posts of president, head of government, supreme commander armed forces. dictatorial domestic politics S. Hussein was combined with aggressive actions against neighboring states. In the 1980s, Iraq waged war against Iran, and in 1990 carried out a military invasion of Kuwait. In 2003, S. Hussein's regime was overthrown as a result of a military operation by US and British troops.

AT Algiers for several decades, a course was pursued to "build socialism within the framework of national values and Islam." Banks, large-scale industry, transport, power plants passed into the hands of the state. At the same time, the positions of medium and small private capital remained. A significant part of the land was nationalized and transferred to peasant cooperatives. The inefficiency of the state economy was partly offset by oil revenues. But in the 1980s, the situation in the country deteriorated, and food problems arose. This caused protests and speeches by the opposition forces. In November 1988, the ruling National Liberation Front party was reorganized into public organization with the same name. In accordance with the new constitution, the creation of political parties of various kinds began - from socialist and democratic to fundamentalist (advocating a return to the "primordial norms of Islam"). In 1990-1991 The Islamic Salvation Front, a fundamentalist party, won the majority of votes in local and later parliamentary elections. To prevent her coming to power, the country's leadership canceled the next round of voting. In subsequent years, the situation in the country remained tense.

In the first decades of the XXI century. internal contradictions in the countries of the Arab world led to new series turning events. Thus, at the beginning of 2011, political crises occurred in Tunisia and Egypt, culminating in the resignations of the presidents who had led these countries for several decades. And the opposition protests against the rule of M. Gaddafi in Libya turned into an armed confrontation. In March of this year, an international military operation began in Libya with rocket attacks on the country's capital.

On November 29, 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted a decision on the division of Palestine, freed from British rule, and the formation of two independent states on its territory - Jewish and Arab.

On May 14, 1948, the Jewish state of Israel was proclaimed. The Arabs of Palestine, with the support of a number of Arab countries, immediately declared war on the new state. Arab-Israeli War 1948-1949 ended with the defeat of the Arab forces. Israel seized part of the territory intended for the Palestinian Arab state. About 900 thousand Arabs were forced to leave their land and move to other countries. The first clash was followed by a third-century series of wars between Israel and the Arab countries (see map).

Dates and events

May 1948- July 1949 - the first Arab-Israeli war (the troops of Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, etc. participated in the attack on Israel). October 1956 - Israel's participation, together with Great Britain and France, in the aggression against Egypt.
June 1967- Six Day War. The capture by Israel of territories belonging to Syria, Egypt, Jordan.
May - June 1970, September 1972 - the invasion of Israeli troops into the territory of Lebanon, where the units of the Palestinian resistance movement were hiding, the repulse of the Lebanese and Syrian troops.
October 1973- Arab-Israeli war over Arab territories previously captured by Israel.
June 1982- the invasion of Israeli troops in Lebanon, the capture of the western part of the capital of Beirut.

In the early 1980s, Israel controlled an area 7.5 times larger than that allocated to the Jewish state in 1947. Jewish settlements began to be founded on the occupied lands. In response, in 1987, the "intifada" began - the uprising of the Arabs. In 1988, the National Council of Palestine, convened in Algiers, announced the creation of an Arab State of Palestine. The difficulty of the situation lay in the fact that each of the parties substantiated its claims to the territory of Palestine by the so-called "historical right", stating that at some time in the past it belonged to all this territory.

The first attempt to stop the conflict was an agreement signed by the leaders of Israel and Egypt, M. Begin and A. Sadat, mediated by the United States in 1979 at Camp David.

It was negatively received both in the Arab world and by extremist forces in Israel. Subsequently, one of the reasons for the assassination of A. Sadat by Islamic militants was that he "betrayed the Arab cause" by signing these agreements.

Only in the mid-1990s did negotiations between Israeli Prime Ministers I. Rabin and Sh. Peres, on the one hand, and the head of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), Yasser Arafat, on the other hand, lead to the conclusion of agreements on a Middle East settlement. However, the negotiation process is constantly threatened by the terrorist attacks of Islamic militants and opposition to the negotiations by part of the Israeli society.

Tropical and South African countries

Most of the peoples of Tropical and South Africa gained independence in the 1960s and 1970s. Their subsequent development is characterized by a particularly frequent change of political regimes and governments. The military and supporters of Marxism replaced each other in power, the republics became empires, one-party systems, then multi-party systems were introduced, etc. The political confrontation was aggravated by the rivalry of tribal groups, the actions of separatists. How this happened in specific circumstances can be seen in the example of Angola.

Since the mid-1950s, three currents have developed in the national liberation movement of Angola.

The People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) is a mass revolutionary-democratic organization that advocated the proclamation of Angola as an independent state, the establishment of a democratic regime, and a general amnesty. The organization saw the path to liberation in armed struggle. By 1973, MPLA units controlled a third of the country's territory.

Union of the population of the North of Angola, later renamed the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). This organization, formed along national, ethnic and religious lines, pursued its own course.

The National Union for the Complete Independence of Angola (UNITA), created in 1966, based on the peoples of the south of the country. UNITA opposed the MPLA, while using the support of South Africa.

After the Portuguese government concluded an agreement with all three organizations in 1975 on the procedure for the transition of Angola to independence, a struggle for power unfolded between them. The advantage turned out to be on the side of the MPLA, which formed a government that adhered to a socialist orientation and received the support of the USSR. Armed detachments of UNITA and FNLA began to fight against the government, relying on the help of the United States and South Africa. Cuban units took part in the war on the side of government forces. Only in 1989 was a truce in hostilities reached. The Cuban military contingent left Angola. But the task of a political settlement remained relevant.

special political structure continued until the end of the 1980s Republic of South Africa. This is a multiracial state in which, along with the indigenous African population, the descendants of white European settlers and immigrants from Asia live.

History reference

In 1948, the Nationalist Party (the party of the white minority that ruled the country) came to power in the country. She proclaimed the policy of anapmxeuda (in Afrikaans, this word means "separation, separate existence, in modern literature the term apartheid is used"). In 1950, the country adopted:

law on settlement by groups (the government received the right to declare any part of the country the area of settlement of any one ethnic group); on the basis of this law, from the mid-1950s, the eviction of Africans from large cities began;
the law on population registration (every resident from the age of 16 was required to constantly carry an identity card indicating his ethnic group: white, colored, black, Asian);
law on the suppression of communism, according to which any doctrine or plan was considered communist, “the purpose of which is to effect any changes within the country in the field of political, industrial, social, economic by organizing unrest and unrest, by illegal or similar actions, as well as by threats actions and the assumption of these threats ... ".

In 1959, a law was passed on the development of “Bantu self-government” (Bantu are the indigenous people of South Africa). It was based on the idea of "national fatherlands" (bantustans), where Africans were supposed to live. Outside the bantustans, they were deprived of all rights.

Racial composition of the population of South Africa (1976)

The total population is 31.3 million people, including: blacks - 22.8; white - 4.8; colored - 2.8; immigrants from Asia (Indians) - 0.9 million people.

South Africa, which has the richest natural resources - deposits of gold, diamonds, coal and rare metals - became an industrialized state in the post-war period. But the policy of apartheid, merciless oppression and exploitation of the black and colored population caused condemnation from the international community and the introduction of economic sanctions against South Africa. In the country itself, a powerful liberation movement of the black population arose, in which several organizations stood out. The most influential were the African National Congress (founded at the beginning of the 20th century) and the Inkata organization (it included representatives of the Zulu people). In 1983, the United Democratic Front of all forces opposed to the apartheid regime was created.

A major role in weakening and then abolishing the apartheid system, democratization political life played by F. de Klerk, who headed the Nationalist Party in 1989 and became president of the country. On his initiative, racial restrictions were lifted, negotiations began with the leaders of the black population movement. Reaching agreements was not an easy task, not only because of the disagreements between the government and the ANC, but also because of the clashes between the supporters of the ANC and Inkata. It was about overcoming both racial and tribal strife.

References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General History. XX - the beginning of the XXI century.