The problem of interpersonal relationships and communication. The problem of interpersonal relations and interaction of people - abstract

Speaking about the translation process, V.N. Komissarov, wrote: “At the moment of translation, the translator brings together two linguistic systems, one of which is explicit and stable, and the other is potential and adaptable. The translator has a point of departure in front of his eyes and he needs to create a point of arrival. First of all, he will apparently examine the original text, evaluate the descriptive, affective and intellectual content of the translation units that he has isolated; restore the situation that is described in the message, weigh and evaluate the stylistic effect, etc. But the translator cannot stop there: he chooses one solution; in some cases he achieves this so quickly that he has the impression of a sudden and simultaneous decision. Reading in the source language almost automatically triggers a message in the target language; he only needs to check the source text again to make sure that none of the elements of the source language is forgotten, after which the translation process is completed” [Komissarov 2001: 132-140].

It is this process that is discussed in this chapter.

Transformations, with the help of which it is possible to carry out the transition from original units to translation units in the indicated sense, are called translation (interlingual) transformations. Since translation transformations are carried out with linguistic units that have both a content plane and an expression plane, they are of a formal semantic nature, transforming both the form and the meaning of the original units [Komissarov 2001: 140].

It is important to note that we are talking about transformations from the standpoint of the transformational theory existing in linguistics. We consider it necessary to briefly mention its main provisions and compare it with other translation theories.

In the book by L.S. Barkhudarov "Language and Translation" mentions three theories of translation: denotative, semantic and transformation theory.

Denotative (situational) theory of translation is the most common model of translation. It proceeds from the fact that the content of all linguistic signs reflects some objects, phenomena, relations of reality. These elements of reality, reflected in the signs of the language, are usually called denotations. The messages (speech segments) created using the language code also contain information about a certain situation, i.e. about some denotations put in a certain relation to each other [Barkhudarov 1975: 6].

The semantic theory of translation bases translation equivalence on the presence of common semes (components of the meaning of a word) in the content of the original and the translation. At the same time, commonality does not exist between a set of semes assigned to some units of different languages (such a commonality is fundamentally impossible due to linguistic selectivity), but only between individual elements of meaning. The task of the translator is to reproduce in the translation exactly those elementary meanings that are communicatively relevant in the original. The loss of all other semes contained in the meaning of translated units is considered insignificant during translation [Barkhudarov 1975: 7].

In the denotative theory of translation, the main attention is paid to the identity of two situations described with the help of FL (foreign language) and TL (translating language). When establishing a connection between these situations, the units of the original and the translation are assigned only the role of intermediate intermediaries. On the other hand, the translation process itself can be presented in another way: the translator receives the original, performs some operations related to the original, and as a result creates the translation text. The translator's actions in this case can be considered as the work of a certain system, the "input" of which is the original, and the "output" is the translation. In other words, the basis of translation activity will be a kind of transformation or transformation of the original into the translated text.

It is from this conception of translation activity that the transformational theory of translation proceeds. The emergence of this theory is associated with the ideas of a linguistic doctrine known as "transformational grammar". Transformational grammar considers the rules for generating syntactic structures that are characterized by common lexemes and basic logical-syntactic connections, for example: "The boy threw a stone", "The stone was thrown by the boy", "The stone thrown by the boy", "The throwing of the stone by the boy". Similar structures can be obtained from one another according to the corresponding transformation rules. Differing in the form of their constituent units, they have a significant, although not absolute, commonality (in other words, "invariance") of the content plan [Barkhudarov 1975: 9].

To date, the transformational theory seems to be the most consistent. The key for it is the concept of transformation, the definition of which, given by V.N. Komisarov, we have already cited earlier, but we will repeat it in the words of another researcher: “Transformation is the basis of most translation techniques. It consists in changing the formal (lexical or grammatical transformations) or semantic (semantic transformations) components of the source text while preserving the information intended for transmission" [Retzker 1980: 73].

The main goal of translation is to achieve adequacy. An adequate, or as it is also called, equivalent translation is a translation that is carried out at a level necessary and sufficient to convey an unchanged content plan while observing the corresponding expression plan, i.e. standards of the target language.

By definition, A.V. Fedorov, adequacy is "an exhaustive transfer of the semantic content of the original and full functional and stylistic compliance with it" [Breus 2000: 13].

The main task of the translator in achieving adequacy is to skillfully perform various translation transformations so that the translated text conveys all the information contained in the original text as accurately as possible, while observing the relevant norms of the target language.

There are many classifications translation transformations.

Most linguists divide all translation transformations into lexical, grammatical and mixed (or complex).

Fiterman A. M. and Levitskaya T. R. distinguish three types of translation transformations:

Grammatical transformations (permutations, deletions and additions, restructuring and replacement of sentences).

Stylistic transformations (synonymous substitutions and descriptive translation, compensation and other types of substitutions).

Lexical transformations (addition, concretization and generalization of sentences, omission) [Fiterman, Levitskaya 2012]

HELL. Schweitzer proposes to divide transformations into four groups according to levels: component (various substitutions), referential (concretization and generalization), pragmatic (compensation, explanatory translation) and stylistic (compression and expansion). [Schweitzer 2012]

ME AND. Retzker, on the contrary, names only two types of transformations:

Grammatical transformations in the form of replacement of parts of speech or members of a sentence.

Lexical transformations consist in concretization, generalization, differentiation of meanings, antonymic translation, compensation for losses arising in the process of translation, as well as in semantic development and holistic transformation [Retzker 1980]

Almost all researchers note the same set of methods for implementing the transformations of the translation plan (for example, substitutions - grammatical, realities, etc., generalization and compensation).

There are other points of view. For example, R.K. Minyar-Beloruchev named three types of transformations - lexical, grammatical, semantic. The first type included the methods of generalization and concretization; to the second - passivation, replacement of parts of speech and members of a sentence, unification of sentences or their articulation; to the third - metaphorical, synonymous, metaphorical substitutions, logical development of concepts, antonymic translation and method of compensation [Minyar-Beloruchev 2012].

The concept of Komissarov V.N. is reduced to such types of transformations as lexical and grammatical, as well as complex. Speaking of lexical transformations, he names transliteration, translation transcription, tracing, some lexico-semantic substitutions. For example, modulation, instantiation and generalization. The grammatical transformations are literal translation (or syntactic assimilation), grammatical substitutions (replacements of sentence members, word forms, parts of speech) and sentence division. Complex transformations can also be called lexico-grammatical. This includes explication (in other words, descriptive translation), antonymic translation and compensation [Komissarov 2001: 152]

L.S. Barkhudarov named four types of transformations (transformations) that take place in the course of work on the translation. These are permutations, substitutions, omissions and additions [Barkhudarov 2012].

In general, each of the scientists, classifying translation transformations, dividing them into types in his opinion, deals with the same phenomena.

lexical transformations, to which they refer such methods as compensation, antonymic translation, concretization, replacement of cause by effect and generalization.

grammatical transformations, to which they include omissions, permutations, additions and transpositions [Serov, Shevnin 1980].

In contrast to them, L. K. Latyshev distinguishes six types of translation transformations:

Lexical transformations (replacement of lexemes with synonyms depending on the context).

Stylistic transformations (transformation stylistic coloring the word to be translated).

Morphological transformations (converting one part of speech to another or replacing it with several parts of speech).

Syntactic transformations (transformation of syntactic constructions (words, phrases and sentences), changing the type of subordinate clauses, changing the type syntactic connection, transformation of sentences into phrases and permutation accessory parts in complex and complex sentences).

Semantic transformations. In textbooks and monographs on the theory of translation, this phenomenon is also referred to as "semantic development". In this column, Latyshev L. K. enters the replacement of feature details.

Mixed transformations are conversion transformation and antonymic translation [Latyshev 2012].

Shchetinkin V.E., like many others, distinguishes lexical, stylistic and grammatical. [Shchetinkin 2012].

Obviously, there is no single classification of types of translation transformations in modern linguistic science. It should also be noted that the creation of a unified classification is complicated by the fact that different linguists distinguish a different number of translation transformation techniques.

In our analysis, we will rely on the classification of translation transformations created by V.N. Komissarov:

“Depending on the nature of the foreign language units, which are considered as initial in the transformation operation, translation transformations are divided into lexical and grammatical. In addition, there are also complex lexico-grammatical transformations, where transformations either affect simultaneously the lexical and grammatical units of the original, or are interlevel, i.e. make the transition from lexical units to grammatical ones and vice versa” [Komissarov 2001: 150-151].

The main types of lexical transformations used in the process of translation include the following translation techniques: translation transcription and transliteration, tracing and lexico-semantic substitutions (concretization, generalization, modulation). The most common grammatical transformations include: syntactic assimilation (literal translation), division of a sentence, union of sentences, grammatical substitutions (forms of a word, part of speech or member of a sentence). Complex lexico-grammatical transformations include antonymic translation, explication (descriptive translation) and compensation [Komissarov 2001: 153].

The typology of translation transformations of the text can and should be built on the same foundations on which the category of translation equivalence was singled out and described. In this case, translation transformations receive the necessary rationale. Indeed, an equivalent translation is one in which all transformations of the meanings contained in the original message are of a rational nature and do not directly depend on the will of the translator. A translator seeking to achieve equivalence does not assume the right to change what can be transmitted unchanged. One should not forget about the properties of integrity and hierarchy inherent in translation as an interpretive system. This means that individual elements of the text, which at first glance have exact correspondences in the target language, can be translated by more distant forms in meaning. Their choice will be determined by the semantic structure of the speech work as a whole. Therefore, when analyzing one or another operation to transform the original system of meanings created by the author of the original speech work, one must proceed from " presumptions of the inevitability of changes" and try to find the reasons that caused these or those changes. We examined the erroneous actions of translators and the circumstances that give rise to them in the last chapter of the previous part.

We have established that the semiotic categories of pragmatics, semantics and syntactics can serve as the basis for distinguishing between the adequacy and equivalence of translation. Existing types semiotic relations (the relationship of signs to the participants in communication, to the objects they designate and to each other in the flow of speech) underlie the translation transformations of the text. Accordingly, three groups of translation operations can be distinguished to transform the system of meanings of the source text: pragmatic, semantic and syntactic.

If we recognize that the pragmatic level dominates in speech over the other two, we will also have to recognize that in translation it is the "marginal level of permissibility" of transformations. This means that with a strict view of things in translation, it is necessary to always keep pragmatic meanings unchanged, since when the pragmatics of the original speech work changes, the translation ceases to be a translation and turns out to be some other means of interlingual mediation. It follows from this that no pragmatic transformations are possible.

However, the real practice of translation shows that such types of interlingual mediation are also called translation, in the process of which speech works are born that differ from the source texts in their communicative effect. One can once again give an example when legislative documents that perform a regulatory public function, having got into another culture, into another language community as a result of translation, retain only an informative function. Thus, when preparing the law on the Russian language, the laws on languages existing in other countries were translated in order only to get acquainted with their content and, possibly, to borrow some ideas. These texts were in most cases semantically and syntactically equivalent to the original texts. But their “foreignness” and unfamiliar structure, imposed on the corresponding expectations of the recipients of translated messages, who were mainly interested in the semantic side of the messages, partially or completely changed their pragmatics.

One can also recall the examples of formally equivalent translations given by Yu. Naida. Formally equivalent translations are not always able to maintain a similar communicative effect, i.e. be pragmatically equivalent. To determine the pragmatic correspondence of the translated text to the original text, the categories of the “image of the addressee”, as well as the so-called “knowledge fund of the interlocutors”, are especially interesting, which often lead to transformations of the semantics and syntactics of the original text, subordinating them to pragmatic

aspirations. It was these categories that underlay the "pragmatic gag" of J. Amyot. They also gave rise to the category of dynamic equivalence by J. Naida and many facts of exclusively free translation, when pragmatically similar texts turned out to be non-equivalent at the semantic and syntactic levels. Such translations, the pragmatic similarity of which does not imply semantic and syntactic equivalence of messages, were proposed to qualify as adequate.

The semantic level, due to the well-known asymmetry of "linguistic pictures of the world", seems to be the most extensive field for translation transformations of the different nature. The interpretation of the original text as a sign given by means of another sign system inevitably involves a number of different transformational operations. Some of them imitate semiotic transformations often applied unconsciously in the history of cultures. Thus, the translation operation, called functional substitution, is related to functional substitutions applied to other, non-linguistic signs, when the new and unknown was interpreted through the understandable and known. For example, in some rituals of nomads who initially did not know horses, horses disguised themselves as deer, known earlier. The first cars also originally looked like carriages, disguised as carriages without any technical need.

Semantics, operating with categories of meaning, makes it possible to reveal the essence of most translation transformations, relying on the conceptual structure of signs, since the logical-semantic aspect of the reference is directly related to the types of relationships between the volumes of concepts.

Syntactics, which, by definition, is “the relationship between signs, mainly in the speech chain and in general in the temporal sequence” 1, involves translation transformations throughout the entire speech chain that constitutes a complete speech work. It includes an integral part of syntagmatics, the relationship between the signs of the language in their direct combination with each other. It is the asymmetry of the norms of semantic and grammatical compatibility adopted in a particular language that often causes the need for transformations affecting a higher semantic level.

Thus, the overall process of translation as an interpretive system can be in general terms presented in the form of a table, where the translator's actions for saving are shown on the left

Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary M., 1990. S. 441.

similar equivalence on successive semiotic levels, and on the right are possible transformations that can be justified by various factors of interlingual and intercultural asymmetry.

Before proceeding to consider the typology of translation transformations and the causes that cause them, it is also necessary to remember that translation is a holistic system process interpretation. Therefore, all transformations due to the most diverse variants of semiotic relations should be considered in the system of the whole.

Let's try to look at translation transformations through the prism of translation equivalence and establish which levels of equivalence correspond to certain types of transformations.

1. Basic translation transformations.

2. Substitutions are grammatical, lexical and lexico-grammatical.

3. Omissions and additions.

1. "Transformations" are transformations. Translation transformers Mation - techniques that the translator uses to overcome typical translation difficulties: lexical, grammatical, lexico-grammatical.

Lexical transformations describe the formal and meaningful relationships between words and phrases in the original and in translation: transcription, transliteration, tracing.

Transcription reception means that the sound of the original word is reproduced in the translation, and transliteration reception conveys its graphic form. This technique is used when translating proper names, geographical names, company names, publications, terms. In modern translation practice, transcription is mainly used, and many names that were previously transliterated or translated are now transcribed:

For example: Shakespeare was first known in Russia as "Shakespeare". Newton was first known as "Neuton". On the map of the United States was the city of Salt Lake, now - "Salt Lake City". Sometimes there are no corresponding sounds or letters in the target language. For example, the letter combination "th" is voiced as "d" or V, and voiceless as V or "s" (Warner Brothers=yopHep Brothers, Smith=Smith). "W"-"y".

In some words, elements of transliteration are preserved: it is voiced as "p" unpronounceable "r" (Daily Worker -Daily Worker).

Racket names are usually transcribed: "Hawk" - "Hawk", "Faulkon" - "Falcon".

But the American Tomahawk rocket is not Tomahawk, but Tomahawk, the Hercules rocket is not Hercules, but Hercules, the capital of Scotland, not Edinburgh, but Edinburgh, the name is Charles.

Tracing- translation of the constituent elements of a word or phrase and the combination of the translated parts into a single whole:

For example: superpower - superpower, International Monetary Fund - International Monetary Fund. Sometimes the order of the components changes (permutation): United Nations Organization - United Nations, first - strike weapon - first strike weapon. Sometimes part of the word is transcribed, and the other is translated: miniskirt - miniskirt, petrodollars - petrodollars.

2. Lexical substitutions: concretization, generalization, modulation.

Specification- the translator chooses a word with a more specific meaning in the target language: meal - meal, in Russian - breakfast, lunch, dinner.

Russian word for "float" English language you need to make a choice between more specific verbs, for this you need to find out who swims and how swims “swim, sail, float, drift (slowly move with the flow).

In the novel by Charles Dickens "David Copperfield" there is such an episode: "A woman is sitting in a dim room, deep in thought. Suddenly, an eccentric aunt bursts into the room with a noise, frightening the woman. The boy describes this situation: "My mother had left her chair in agitation and gone behind it in the corner." The unacceptability of the translation: "The excited mother left her chair and went behind it into the corner" is obvious. The equivalence of the translation can be ensured by concretizing the verbs "leave" and "go": "The excited mother jumped up from her chair and hid in the corner behind him."

Generalization– replacement of a unit with a narrower meaning by a unit with a broader meaning due to the absence of the necessary word in the target language:

For example: the differences between the Russians "mother-in-law and mother-in-law" or "brother-in-law and brother-in-law" are summarized in English translations: "mother-in-low" and "brother-in-low".

English sentence: "I saw a man 6 feet 2 inches tall" can be translated: "I saw a tall guy"", because. in works of art in Russian it is not customary to indicate the exact height, weight of the characters. A generalized translation is given here taking into account stylistic features.

Modulation (meaning development)- replacement of a word or phrase of a Foreign Language with a unit of the Translating Language, the meaning of which is logically derived from the value of the original unit:

For example:"Manson climbed into the gig behind a tall horse". Contextual substitution cannot be avoided here, because one cannot say: "He sat in the cart behind the horse (as if the horse was also in the cart)." A good translation would be: "Manson climbed into a carriage pulled by a large horse." Another example: "Wouldn't cheer up somehow, begin to laugh again, and draw skeletons allover his slate, before his eves were dry". Translation: "He again cheered up, began to laugh and drew various figures on his slate board, although his eyes were still full of tears." Option: "before his eyes go dry" would be less successful.

Grammar transformations:

1) literal translation;

2) division of proposals;

3) association of proposals;

4) grammatical substitutions.

Literal translation (zero transformation)- the transfer of the original word for word, without distorting the meaning and without violating the norms of the target language, as in a literal translation.

Division of the proposal- one sentence of the original is divided into 2-3 sentences in the translation. In English newspapers there are brief reports containing a large amount of information:

For example:"Both engine crews leaped to safety from a collision between a parcels train and a freight train, near Morris Cowley, Oxfordshire". In the Russian translation, you first need to say about the event, and then about its consequences: “Near Oxfordshire station, a mail and freight train collided. Members of both train crews escaped unscathed after jumping off the train." Another example (weather report from an English newspaper): "Mist covered a calm sea in the Straits of Dover yesterday". A literal translation would be too poetic for a simple weather report: "Fog enveloped the calm sea yesterday in the Pas de Calais." It is better to use the division technique: "Yesterday there was fog in the Pas de Calais. The sea was calm."

Reception of combining proposals- two or three sentences of the original correspond to one sentence in the translation. The use of this technique may be forced due to the incompleteness of one of the proposals:

For example:"The marchers did not intend to go to Parliament. Nor to petition their MPs". Translation: "The demonstrators had no intention of going to the parliament or petitioning their deputies."

Another reason for using this technique is stylistic. Scientific and technical texts in English are characterized by the predominance of simple sentences, which is less typical of the Russian style:

For example:"This condition, however, changes at certain critical energies of the electrons. At these critical energies the gas atoms do absorb energy". Translation: "However, this condition is violated at certain critical energies of electrons, when gas atoms absorb energy"

Acceptance of grammatical substitutions: categories, parts of speech, members of a sentence of a certain type.

Category replacement: the singular form corresponds to the plural form: "money - money", "outskirts - outskirts". Sometimes this technique is used for reasons of style or usage: "They left the room with their heads held high" - "They left the room with their heads held high."

Part of speech substitution: noun - verb, adjective - noun, and so on:

For example:"It is our hope that an agreement will be reached by Friday" - "We hope that an agreement will be reached by Friday." "Australian prosperity was followed by a slump" - "The economic prosperity of Australia was followed by a crisis." "The crush killed 20 people" - "The crash killed 20 people."

Lexico-grammatical transformations: Both the vocabulary and syntactic structures of the original are converted.

Antonymic translation- replacement of the affirmative form in the original with the negative form in the translation and vice versa:

For example:"Nothing changed in my home town" - "Everything remains the same in my home town." "She is not unworthy of your attention" - "She is quite worthy of your attention." "The railroad unions excluded negroes from their membership". The literal translation "excluded" is not logical. That's right: "did not turn on, did not accept." "The unions didn't accept blacks into their ranks."

Descriptive translation- lexico-grammatical transformation, when the unit of foreign language is replaced by:

For example: conservationist - a supporter of environmental protection; whistle-stop speech - a candidate's speech during an election campaign trip; a shuttle service - the organization of shuttle transportation between some points.

Compensation- a method of translation in which elements of meaning lost in translation are transmitted in the translation text by some other means, and not necessarily in the same place in the text as in the original: "You could tell he was very ashamed of his parents and all Because they said "he don"t and she don"t" and stuff like that." "You could see he was embarrassed by his parents because they said 'want' and 'want' and stuff like that."

3. Linguists also distinguish such transformations as: omissions and additions.

Omission- this is the elimination, the abolition of components:

For example: The first translator of Hamlet, Sumarokov, excluded the scene with the gravediggers from the text, since the conversational nature of their dialogue did not correspond to the style of the tragedy of that time, thus deliberately deforming the text.

Another reason forcing the translator to deform the original text, deliberately impoverishing and worsening it, is the impossibility of conveying fragments of the original text containing the so-called "play on words" by means of the target language. Such omissions, although they impoverish the text, do not distort it as a whole, that is, they do not create a misconception about the original text.

Additions, deforming the text of the original, may have other reasons: the desire of the translator to create a text that corresponds to the dogma in artistic creativity or the tastes of the public. Sumarokov, when translating Hamlet, introduced several additional characters: for example, Ophelia has a “mother”, heroes and heroines have “confidantes” and “confidantes”, and so on, as this corresponded to the norms of classicism of the 17th-18th centuries.

So, the translator deliberately deforms the original text, acts in accordance with the chosen translation strategy, which is based on the idea of compliance, either with the translator's ideas about belles-lettres, or with an understanding of the reader's needs and his ability to understand the translation, or with the norms literary creativity and literary tastes prevailing during the period of his work on the translation. This technique should not be confused with translation errors.

Introduction

1.1 Translation process

1.2 The concept of a translation unit

1.4 Types of transformations

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

In the twentieth century, there are attempts to create a classification of correspondences. One of the first we can consider is the classification of "regular correspondences" proposed in 1950 by Ya.I. Retzker. Retzker distinguishes 3 categories of regular correspondences:

) equivalents;

) analogues;

In this course work, we adhered to the concept of translation transformations by V.N. Komissarov.

The main types of lexical transformations used in the process of translation involving various FL and TL include the following translation techniques: translation transcription and transliteration, tracing and lexico-semantic substitutions (concretization, generalization, modulation). The most common grammatical transformations include: syntactic assimilation (literal translation), division of a sentence, union of sentences, grammatical substitutions (forms of a word, part of speech or member of a sentence). Complex lexico-grammatical transformations include antonymic translation, explication (descriptive translation) and compensation.

Object of studyof this work are the types of translation transformations.

Subject of studyare the concepts of translation transformations in the works of domestic linguists.

Relevanceof this work lies in the need for modern research in the field of translation theory, which is due to the complex nature of translation transformations.

Scientific noveltyresearch consists in the analysis of the concepts of translation transformations.

Purpose of the studyis to study the problem of types of transformations in the works of domestic scientists.

The purpose of the study predetermined the following tasks:

1) study the scientific literature based on the research materials

) analysis of the types of translation transformations based on the story of S. Maugham "Louise" (translated from English by A. Baliuri).

Theoretical and practical significance work consists in identifying the features of translation transformations, as well as in applying the results of the analysis in practice.

Research materialis the story of S. Maugham "Louise" (translated from English by A. Baliuri).

The theoretical basis of the study is the work of V.N. Komissarov, L.S. Barkhudarova, T.A. Kazakova, A. Parshina, V.S. Vinogradov.

Research methods:

) research

) descriptive

) complex analysis method

translation transformation linguist lexical

This work consists of an introduction, two parts (theoretical and practical) and a conclusion.

In the first part, we examined the concept of a translation unit, types of translation transformations, the translation process, ideas about transformations in modern translation theory.

In the second part of the study, we presented an analysis of the types of translation transformations based on S. Maugham's story "Louise" (translated from English by A. Baliuri) and conclusions.

In conclusion, the results and conclusions of this research work regarding the problem of translation transformations are presented.

1. Translation transformations

1.1 Translation process

The word "translation" has several different meanings. So, in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D.N. Ushakov points out that this word has five meanings,1 most of which, of course, are not related to the problem of interest to us (for example, "transfer of the head to another position", "mail order", etc.). But even when the word "translation" is used in the sense of "translation from one language to another", it still has two different meanings in this case:

) "Translation as a result of a certain process", that is, the designation of the translated text itself (for example, in sentences: "This is very good translation novel by Dickens", "Recently published new translation Byron's poem "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" into Russian", "He read this author in translation", etc.

) "Translation as a process itself", that is, as an action from the verb translate, as a result of which the translation text appears in the first meaning.

The subject of the linguistic theory of translation is the scientific description of the translation process as an interlingual transformation, that is, the transformation of a text in one language into an equivalent text in another language.

Translation is a type of linguistic mediation in which a text is created in another language, intended to fully replace the original as a communicative equivalent to the latter.

Any speech work, in addition to the language in which it is built, also implies the presence of certain extralinguistic factors, such as: the topic (subject) of the message, participants in the speech act who have certain linguistic and extralinguistic information, and the environment (situation) of communication. Extralinguistic, that is, nonlinguistic factors of speech do not represent a kind of "superlinguistic residue", as A.I. Smirnitsky, they are integral parts of the very process of speech (communicative act), without which speech is unthinkable.

Translation is a type of language mediation, which is entirely focused on a foreign language original. Translation is considered as a foreign language form of existence of the message contained in the original. Interlingual communication, carried out through translation, to the greatest extent reproduces the process of direct verbal communication, in which communicants use the same language.

The study of the process of translation (procedural translatology) has traditionally been inextricably linked with its teaching and was originally mainly carried out for the purpose of teaching translation, although in recent times in different countries a number of experiments are carried out with purely research purposes. But so far, we know far from everything about the translation process.

Perhaps, none of the scientists denies that the process of translation consists of the stage of perception of the text and the stage of its reproduction.D. Seleskovich, building his conclusions on observations of the process of simultaneous translation, understands the stage of perception as the extraction of meaning, bypassing the linguistic content; reproduction, according to D. Seleskovich, consists of operations on ideas, and not on linguistic signs.D. Seleskovich denies the analysis stage in interpreting and casts doubt on the results of written translation, because, while analyzing the text, the translator may lose sight of the main meaning of the text.

Researchers of the process of written translation (for example, H. Krings) see 3 stages in it: perception, reproduction and control of the finished text; a set of specific actions of a translator at each stage is called translation strategies.

The most researched stage is the reproduction stage, i.e. the translation itself, and the specific means by which it is carried out: units of translation, as well as varieties of correlations of language means that are established in the process of translation.

The process of translation, no matter how quickly it may be carried out in individual, especially favorable or simply easy cases, inevitably breaks up into two stages. In order to translate, it is necessary, first of all, to understand, to accurately understand, to interpret to oneself what is being translated (with the help of language images, that is, already with elements of translation), to mentally analyze (if the original presents this or that complexity), to critically evaluate it.

Further, in order to translate, you need to find, select the appropriate means of expression in the TL (words, phrases, grammatical forms). Thus, the process of translation involves the conscious establishment of relationships between the given FL and TL. This is the premise for him.

Any interpretation of the original, correct or incorrect, and the attitude towards it on the part of the translator, positive or negative, results in - in the course of translation - the selection of speech means from the composition of the TL.

1.2 The concept of a translation unit

One of the most problematic issues translation theory is the definition of the unit of translation. Unit - the minimum independent structure as part of the whole, which does not distort the meaning of this whole.

Translation units are the minimum units to be translated, or translation equivalence units, i.e. FL units that have an equivalent in the TL text. The term "translation unit" itself was proposed by J. Vine and J. Darbelnay. In discussions about the size of this unit and its nature, scientists came to the conclusion that the size of this unit is not stable, they can vary widely, and the unit itself is operational. Researchers emphasize the psycholinguistic nature of the translation unit. In particular, O.I. Borodovich believes that "the locus of this unit is not in either of the two texts, but in the brain of the translator" .

Since the task of translation is to convey the information contained in the text, it is probably more logical to consider units of information rather than language units as the unit of translation. And here we come to the conclusion that the unit of translation depends on the type of text being translated. Texts with predominant information of the first kind convey logical information, i.e. the thoughts of the author, therefore, the unit of this type of texts can be considered a complete thought.

Translation problems are mainly problems of analysis, understanding and construction of the text. It is no coincidence that many translators consider the text as the main unit of translation (TU). There are several reasons for this. First, since the text is a single semantic whole, the meanings of all its elements are interconnected and subordinate to this whole. Thus, the text is the unit within which the question of the contextual meaning of all language means is decided. Secondly, when assessing the significance of inevitable losses in translation, the principle of the predominance of the whole over the part applies. Thirdly, the ultimate goal of the translator is to create a text that meets the requirements of cohesion and coherence, and all decisions of the translator are made taking these requirements into account. Of course, the recognition of the text as the main unit of translation does not solve the problems associated with the transfer of individual elements of its content, but it emphasizes the importance of textological aspects of translation.

V.N. Komissarov in his work "Modern Translation Studies" proposes to consider the whole text as a unit of translation. But in this case, the distinction between the part and the whole is erased, which is methodologically unacceptable.

It is assumed that in the process of translation all elementary content units and their components are singled out in the original text, and units equivalent or similar in content are selected for them in the target language. Thus, translation is reduced to the analysis of the content components of the source text, and the synthesis of meaning in the material of the target language. Regular content any speech unit is considered as a unity consisting of a set of elementary semantic, stylistic, stylistic, etc. characteristics, which is matched in the target language. With this interpretation, the translation process is carried out not so much at the level of words and sentences, but at the level of elementary content components. The higher the degree of coincidence of such elementary meanings in the source language and the target language, the more adequate the translation.

Even a significant word, not to mention auxiliary words, is not a permanent independent unit of translation. The meaning of a word is not autonomous, it depends on the context both in the original and in the translation, it becomes clear in the context (sometimes quite wide), and this is always taken into account by an experienced and attentive translator.

But a much larger and formally completed segment of the text, such as a sentence, cannot be recognized as a permanent independent unit of translation. The meaning of a sentence is not always completely autonomous, but often depends on the content of the surrounding sentences, the whole paragraph, and sometimes on neighboring paragraphs. Strictly speaking, not only a word, not only a sentence, but sometimes a larger segment of the text (a chain of sentences or even a paragraph) cannot be considered permanent unit translation, because the semantic relations between all these segments of the text (and not only in a work of fiction) are too variable. Thus, every word and even every sentence, both in the original and in the translation, correlates with a huge mass of other elements of the text, and therefore, even speaking about the translation of a single word, one always has to take into account the role of the environment, the context, which in certain cases can require the search for a new option.

The basis of a translation unit can be not only a word, but any language unit: from a phoneme to a superphrasal unity. The main condition for the correctness of determining the source unit to be translated is the identification of the text function of a particular source unit. The inadequacy of word-for-word translation is due precisely to the incorrect assessment of the textual functions of language units: getting into one or another speech (oral or written) situation, the word as a language unit turns out to be connected by systemic relations with other words of the given text/statement, that is, it falls into a situational dependence or a series of dependencies from the terms of the text. These dependencies, as already mentioned, are systemic in nature and constitute a hierarchy of contexts, from the minimum (neighboring word) to the maximum (of the entire text or even supertext links).

The most difficult cases in determining the translation unit are associated with the group of maximum contextual dependencies, when the sign function of a separate language unit is determined outside the sentence, and sometimes even outside the whole text.

A sentence does not necessarily constitute an independent unit of text: it can be included in more complex superphrasal units, the linguistic characteristics of which depend to some extent on the whole, and this dependence requires different language solutions in different languages.

1.3 Ideas about transformations in modern translation theory

The fact that when translating for individual fragments of the text there are correspondences in the form of well-defined words, translators noticed a very long time ago. This is evidenced, for example, by the ancient Sumerian-Akkadian dictionaries (parallel lists of expressions), which were used as an aid to translation.

) equivalents;

) analogues;

) are adequate substitutions. In a number of works, analogues were called variant correspondences, and adequate replacements were called transformations.

The very term "transformation" began to be interpreted more and more widely, which led to its ambiguous use. He began to take another place sometimes in the classifications of correspondences. So, T.R. Levitskaya and A.M. Fiterman divide all correspondences into equivalents and transformations and understand by equivalents not only lexical, but also grammatical correspondences. The authors call transformations correspondences that appear in translation in cases where there is no equivalent; they distinguish between grammatical, lexical and stylistic transformations.

In Western translation studies, the term "transformation" is extremely rare; for the most part, the concept of "compliance" is used. In particular, W. Kohler offers a quantitative parameter for distinguishing correspondences: one - one (Eins-zu-eins-Entsprechung), one - many (Eins-zu-viele-Entsprechung), many - one (Viele-zu-eins-Entsprechung ), one is zero (Eins-zu-Null-Entsprechung) and one is part (Eins-zu-Teil-Entsprechung) .

In the process of dividing the source text and determining the translation units, two types of text units to be translated are distinguished: units with a standard dependence on the context and units with a non-standard dependence. Converting units with a standard dependence, or, according to V.N. Komissarov, typologically equivalent units, as a rule, are relatively easy to carry out at the level of lexical and grammatical correspondences, taking into account the typological characteristics of the two languages. These units make up the majority in any regular text and determine the basis of the translation. At the same time, transformations of initial units of this type are also of a standard nature and are reduced to interlingual correspondences.

Units with a non-standard dependency require a special translation technology, since their structure and functions can differ significantly in two languages and under different socio-cultural traditions, as well as the individual experience of the source text author, translator and recipient of the translated text. When translating these units, special transformation techniques are required, and it is important to take into account a combination of such factors as linguistic, cultural and psychological.

The language factor is expressed in the fact that the translator uses one or another type of transformation of certain elements of the source text: transliteration, tracing, modification, replacement, translation commentary, etc.

The culturological factor is expressed in determining the degree of information orderliness of the translated element within and outside the source text based on the ideas about the socio-cultural tradition associated with the use of this element in general and in this particular text in particular.

The psychological factor is expressed in the translation assessment of the degree of information orderliness of a given element based on personal experience and assumptions about the experience of the author of the source text and/or the recipient of the translated text.

From a linguistic point of view, for the translation of such units of the source text for which standard correspondences are not suitable, the translator has three main groups of techniques at his disposal: lexical, grammatical and stylistic.

Lexical techniques are applicable when a non-standard linguistic unit at the word level occurs in the source text, for example, some proper name inherent in the source language culture and absent in the target language; a term in a particular professional field; words denoting objects, phenomena and concepts that are characteristic of the original culture or for the traditional naming of elements of a third culture, but which are absent or have a different structural and functional order in the translating culture. Such words occupy a very important place in the translation process, since, being relatively independent of the context, they nevertheless give the translated text a different direction, depending on the choice of the translator. Thus, Russian names of Slavic origin such as Lyudmila or Svetlana, being rendered in English using the traditional transliteration technique as Ludmila or Svetlana, will play the role of an intratext name, but will certainly lose extratext associations: in particular, it is impossible to translate in this way without loss or comment such expressions as Lyudmila - dear to people, Svetlana - bright, etc.

The most common methods of translating non-standard lexical elements of the source text are: transliteration / transcription, tracing, semantic modification, description, commentary, mixed (parallel) translation.

Grammatical techniques are applicable when the object of translation, burdened with non-standard dependencies, is one or another grammatical structure of the source text, from a morpheme to a superphrasal unity. Compared to lexical problems, this type of problem is less difficult for a translator, but it has its own specifics and requires certain techniques. For example, absolute participial phrases, often used in English, require the transformation of the grammatical structure of the sentence when translated into Russian:

The work having been done, everybody felt a great relief.

When the deed was done, everyone felt great relief.

Or: After completing the work, everyone felt a great relief.

Transformations can affect any grammatical forms, including those that may have a direct correspondence in other contexts. When translating from English into Russian, there is often a discrepancy between the functions of verb forms, nominal phrases and other grammatical units, due not so much to typological differences as to differences in cultural and speech traditions regarding this type of context. For example, in the tradition of English culinary recipes, the imperative is predominantly used as a form of representing a culinary action, while in Russian the same function is usually performed by the indefinite personal form of the verb, which coincides with the form of the third person, singular + particle - sya:

Bake the buns till light golden,

The buns are baked until golden brown.

This type of transformation is one of the grammatical substitutions, which consist in changing the nature of the grammatical form if the original form is either absent in the target language or performs other functions.

In addition to functional replacement and addition, the most common techniques include grammatical transformations, antonymic translation, zero translation, and a number of others.

1.4 Types of transformations

I.S. Alekseeva in her work "Introduction to Translation Studies" understands transformations as interlingual transformations that require restructuring at the lexical, grammatical and textual levels. In the process of translation, there are transformations of 4 elementary types:

) permutations;

) additions;

) omissions.

Let's consider the main types of translation transformations. All of them can be linguistic (objective) and speech (contextual).

Permutation. This is a change in the translation of the location (order) of the language elements corresponding to the language elements of the original. Words, phrases, parts of a complex sentence, elementary sentences within a complex one, independent sentences in the system of a whole text can be subjected to permutations. The most frequent permutations of the members of the sentence - a change in the order of words.

I ll 1come 2late 3today 4. - Today 4I 1I will come 2 late 3.

The rearrangement in the subordinate clause is associated with objective differences in the patterns of word order in Russian and English.

Replacement. This is the most common type of translation transformations.

) Substitutions of word forms often depend on differences in the grammatical structure of languages. Such substitutions are objective: beans (singular) - beans (plural). Case substitutions - with a difference in management.

) Substitutions of parts of speech: popular protest - protest of the population (adj. + noun - noun + noun); Latin American peoples - the people of Latin America (adj. + adj. + n. - n. + adj. + n.).

Phrases of this kind, although they are decomposable, gradually acquire a clichéd character in speech; then the choice becomes redundant, and the substitution transformation approaches a one-to-one equivalent.

) Substitutions of members of a sentence - are necessary when a restructuring of the syntactic structure occurs: replacement of members of a sentence, replacement of an English passive with an active voice when translating into Russian.

) Syntactic substitutions in a complex sentence:

Replacing a complex sentence with a simple one; replacing a simple sentence with a complex one; replacing a compound sentence with a complex one; replacement of an allied connection in a complex Russian sentence with an allied one in English.

) Lexical substitutions. Among the cases of lexical substitutions, perhaps, four are the most common: partial change in the seme composition of the original lexeme, redistribution of the seme composition of the original lexeme, concretization and generalization.

Partial change in the seed composition of the original system. The use of this kind of lexical substitution is due to the context, both wide, including situational, and narrow - compatibility within the literary norm of the TL.

Redistribution of the seme composition of the original lexeme. Such a redistribution is necessary if the original lexeme contains semes that cannot be conveyed by a single TL lexeme, and also if there is a danger of violating the rules of compatibility.

Concretization is usually called the replacement of a word or phrase in the FL with a broader referential meaning by a word or phrase in the TL with a narrower referential meaning. Specification can be linguistic and contextual.

Generalization is a replacement, the opposite of concretization, when a word appears in the translation with a wider referential meaning than the word FL.

Additions. They represent an extension of the original text, associated with the need for the completeness of the transfer of its content, as well as differences in the grammatical structure.

Omissions. Often they are the inverse of additions when it comes to objective differences between languages. Contextual omissions are associated with the type of translation (in consecutive and simultaneous interpretation they are associated with test compression and do not affect only invariant correspondences).

Antonymic translation. It is used when a direct route is impossible or undesirable. This is a complex lexical and grammatical substitution, which consists in the transformation of an affirmative construction into a negative one.

Compensation. Refers to the types of transformation. There are positional and multi-level (or qualitative) compensation.

Descriptive translation. Represents lexical substitution with generalization, accompanied by lexical additions and built on the principle of defining a concept.

Transformations, with the help of which it is possible to carry out the transition from original units to translation units in the indicated sense, are called translation (interlingual) transformations. Since translation transformations are carried out with linguistic units that have both a content plan and an expression plan, they are of a formal semantic nature, transforming both the form and the meaning of the original units.

As part of the description of the translation process, translation transformations are considered not statically as a means of analyzing the relationship between foreign language units and their dictionary correspondences, but dynamically as translation methods that a translator can use when translating various originals in cases where there is no or no dictionary correspondence. can be used according to the context. Depending on the nature of the foreign language units, which are considered as initial in the transformation operation, translation transformations are divided into lexical and grammatical. In addition, there are also complex lexico-grammatical transformations, where transformations either affect simultaneously the lexical and grammatical units of the original, or are interlevel, i.e. carry out the transition from lexical units to grammatical ones and vice versa.

Transcription and transliteration are ways of translating the lexical unit of the original by recreating its form using the letters PY. When transcribed, it reproduces sound form foreign word, and when transliterating its graphic form (letter composition). The leading method in modern translation practice is transcription with the preservation of some elements of transliteration. Since the phonetic and graphic systems of languages differ significantly from each other, the transmission of the form of the word FL in the target language is always somewhat arbitrary and approximate: absurdist - an absurdist (author of a work of absurdity), kleptocracy - kleptocracy (thieves' elite), skateboarding - skateboarding (skating on a skateboard ). For each pair of languages, rules for the transmission of the sound composition of the word FL are developed, cases of preserving transliteration elements and traditional exceptions to the rules currently accepted are indicated.

Tracing is a way of translating a lexical unit of the original by replacing its constituent parts - morphemes or words (in the case of stable phrases) with their lexical counterparts in the TL. The essence of tracing is the creation of a new word or stable combination in the TL, copying the structure of the original lexical unit. This is exactly what the translator does when translating superpower as "superpower", mass culture as " Mass culture", green revolution as a "green revolution". In some cases, the use of the tracing method is accompanied by a change in the order of the tracing elements: first-strike weapon - first strike weapon, land-based missile - ground-based missile, Rapid Deployment Force - rapid deployment forces.

Lexico-semantic substitutions is a way of translating original lexical units by using TL units in the translation, the meaning of which does not coincide with the values of the original units, but can be derived from them using a certain type of logical transformations. The main types of such substitutions are concretization, generalization and modulation (semantic development) of the meaning of the original unit.

Concretization is the replacement of a word or phrase FL with a broader subject-logical meaning by a word and a phrase TL with a narrower meaning. As a result of applying this transformation, the created correspondence and the original lexical unit find themselves in logical inclusion relations: the FL unit expresses the generic concept, and the TL unit expresses the species concept included in it:

Dinny waited in a corridor which smelled of disinfectant. Dinny was waiting in the corridor, which smelled of carbolic acid. Was not at the ceremony. He attended the ceremony.

In some cases, the use of concretization is due to the fact that the TL does not have a word with such a broad meaning. So, the English noun thing has a very abstract meaning (an entity of any kind) and is always translated into Russian by concretization: "thing, object, case, fact, case, being", etc.

Concretization is often used when there is a word in the TL with an equally broad meaning and corresponding connotation, since such words may have varying degrees of usage in FL and TL. When translating such words, concretization is a very common way of translation. In Charles Dickens' novel "David Copperfield", the behavior of the hero's mother, frightened by the sudden appearance of the formidable Miss Betsy, is described as follows:

My mother had left her chair in her agitation, and gone behind it in the corner. The excited mother jumped up from her chair and huddled in the corner behind him.

Generalization is the replacement of an IL unit, which has a narrower meaning, with a TL unit with a broader meaning, i.e. transformation inverse of instantiation. The created correspondence expresses a generic concept, including the original specific one:

Doesn't visits me practically every weekend. He visits me almost every week.

The use of a word with a more general meaning relieves the translator of the need to specify whether the author means Saturday or Sunday when he speaks of "weekend".

Sometimes the specific name of an item does not tell the Translation Receptor anything or is irrelevant in the given context:

Jane used to drive to market with her mother in their La Salle convertible.

Jane went with her mother to the market in their car.

The method of generalization can also be used to create regular correspondences to units of the foreign language: foot - leg, wrist watch - wristwatch, etc.

Modulation or semantic development is the replacement of a word or phrase FL with a TL unit, the meaning of which is logically derived from the value of the original unit. The most common values related words in the original and the translation, they turn out to be connected by causal relationships: I don "t blame them. - I understand them. (The reason is replaced by the effect: I don't blame them because I understand them). He" s dead now. - He died. (He died, so he is now dead.) When using the modulation method, the cause-and-effect relationship is often broader, but the logical connection between the two names is always preserved:

Manson slung his bag up and climbed into the battered gig behind a tall, angular black horse. (A. Cronin)

Manson set down his suitcase and climbed into a rickety buggy drawn by a large, bony black horse.

Syntactic assimilation (literal translation) is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure of the original is transformed into a similar structure of the TL. This type of "zero" transformation is used in cases where there are parallel syntactic structures in FL and TL. Syntactic assimilation can lead to a complete correspondence between the number of language units and the order of their location in the original and translation: I always remember his words - I always remember his words.

Sentence segmentation is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure of a sentence in the original is transformed into two or more predicative structures of the TL. Articulation transformation leads either to the transformation of a simple sentence of FL into a complex sentence of TL, or to the transformation of a simple or complex sentence of FL into two or more independent sentences in TL:

The annual surveys of the Labor Government were not discussed with the workers at any stage, but only with the employers.

The annual reviews of the Labor government were not discussed among the workers at any stage. They were discussed only with entrepreneurs.

Sentence aggregation is a translation method in which the syntactic structure in the original is transformed by combining two simple sentences into one complex one. This transformation is the reverse of the previous one:

That was a long time ago. It seemed like fifty years ago.

It was a long time ago - it seemed like fifty years had passed.

Grammar substitutions are a translation method in which a grammatical unit in the original is converted into a TL unit with a different grammatical meaning. A grammatical unit of a foreign language of any level can be replaced: a word form, a part of speech, a sentence member, a sentence of a certain type. It is clear that when translating, the forms of the FL are always replaced by the forms of the TL. Grammar substitution as a special way of translation implies not only the use of TL forms in translation, but the rejection of the use of TL forms similar to the original ones, the replacement of such forms with others that differ from them in the expressed content ( grammatical meaning). So, in English and Russian there are singular and plural forms, and, as a rule, the correlated nouns in the original and in the translation are used in the same number, except for cases when the singular form in English corresponds to the plural form in Russian ( money - money, ink - ink, etc.) or vice versa, the English plural corresponds to the Russian singular (struggles - struggle, outskirts - outskirts, etc.).

A very common type of grammatical replacement in the translation process is the replacement of a part of speech. For English-Russian translations, the most typical are the replacements of a noun by a verb and an adjective by a noun. In English, the names of figures (usually with the suffix - er) are widely used not only to designate persons of a certain profession (cf. Russian names "writer, artist, singer, dancer", etc.), but also to characterize the actions of "non-professionals". The meanings of such nouns are regularly translated using Russian verbs:

Not is a poor swimmer. - He doesn't swim well. She is no good as a letter writer. She can't write letters.

Changing the type of a sentence results in a syntactic rearrangement similar to transformations when using an articulation or union transformation. In the process of translation, a complex sentence can be replaced by a simple one (It was so dark that I could not see her. - I could not see her in such darkness.); the main clause can be replaced by a subordinate clause and vice versa (While I was eating my eggs, these two nuns with suitcases came in. - I ate fried eggs when these two nuns came in with suitcases.); a complex sentence can be replaced by a compound one and vice versa (I didn't sleep too long, because I think it was only around ten o'clock when I woke up. I felt pretty hungry as soon as I had a cigarette. - I didn't sleep long, it was ten o'clock when I woke up).

Antonymic translation is a lexico-grammatical transformation in which the replacement of an affirmative form in the original with a negative form in translation or, conversely, a negative one with an affirmative one, is accompanied by the replacement of a FL lexical unit with a TL unit with the opposite meaning:

Nothing changed in my hometown.

Everything remained the same in my hometown.

Explication or descriptive translation is a lexico-grammatical transformation in which the lexical unit of a foreign language is replaced by a phrase that explicates its meaning, i.e. giving a more or less complete explanation or definition of this meaning in TL. With the help of the explication, it is possible to convey the meaning of any non-equivalent word in the original: conservationist - a supporter of environmental protection, whistle-stop speech - a candidate's speech during an election campaign trip. Therefore, this method of translation is most successfully used in those cases where it is possible to manage relatively brief explanation:

Car owners from the midway towns ran a shuttle service for parents visiting the children injured in the accident.

Car owners from the cities between these two points were constantly bringing and dropping parents who were visiting their children who were injured during the crash.

Compensation is a method of translation in which the elements of meaning lost during the translation of the FL unit in the original are transmitted in the translation text by some other means, and not necessarily in the same place in the text as in the original. Thus, the lost meaning is replenished ("compensated"), and, in general, the content of the original is reproduced with greater completeness. At the same time, grammatical means of the original are often replaced by lexical ones and vice versa. The heroine of W. Thackeray's novel "Vanity Fair" describes the ignorance of her master, Sir Pitt Crawley as follows:

"Serve him right," said Sir Pitt; "him and his family has been cheating me on that farm these hundred and fifty years". Sir Pitt might have said, "he and Ms family to be sure; but rich baronets do not need to be careful about grammar as poor governesses must be.

"He and his family swindled me on this farm for a hundred and fifty years!" Sir Pitt could, of course, have expressed himself more delicately, but rich baronets do not have to be especially shy in expressions, not like us poor governesses.

In all cases, some means is searched for in the target language that conveys the lost element of the original content.

We formulate the main conclusions on the theoretical part of the course work:

During the translation process, certain relationships are established between two texts in different languages (the original text and the translated text). Comparing such texts, one can reveal internal mechanism translation, to identify equivalent units, as well as to detect changes in form and content that occur when the original unit is replaced by an equivalent unit of the translated text.

Translation units are the minimum units to be translated, or translation equivalence units, i.e. FL units that have an equivalent in the TL text.

2. Types of translation transformations based on the material of the story

S. Maugham "Louise" (translated from English by A. Baliuri)

In this part of the course work, we present an analysis of translation transformations based on the story of W.S. Maugham "Louise", translated from English by A. Baliuri ( Louise by Somerset Maugham).

Table 1 - analysis of translation transformations

OriginalTranslationTranslation transformationsI could never understand 1Why Louise 2bothered with me 3. She disliked me and 4I knew that behind my back 5, in that gentle way of hers 6, she seldom lost the opportunity of saying 7a disagreeable thing about me 8. She had too much delicacy 9ever to make a direct statement 10, but with a hint and a sigh and a little flutter of her beautiful hands 11she was able to make her meaning plain 12. She was a mistress of cold praise 13. Never could understand 1that Louise 2need from me 3. She didn't like me and 4she rarely missed an opportunity to say 7(with its inherent softness 6) some dirty trick about me 8behind my back 5. She had enough tact 9don't do it directly 10, but with a hint, a sign or a barely perceptible movement of the hands of graceful hands 11she was able to express her judgment very clearly 12. In terms of cold compliments, Louise was a real craftswoman. 13. 1 grammatical replacement, replacement of sentence type 2 transcription with preservation of transliteration elements 3 modulation 4 literal translation 5 concretization, grammatical replacement, change of word order in a sentence 6 generalization 7 tracing 8 concretization 9 grammatical replacement, replacement of sentence type 10 antonymic translation, compensation 11 modulation, grammatical replacement, replacement of sentence type 12 compensation 13 grammatical replacement, change of word order in a sentence, generalization It was true that 1we had known one another almost intimately 2, for five-and-twenty years 3, but it was impossible for me to believe that 4she could be affected by the claims of the old association 5. She thought me 6a coarse, brutal, cynic, and vulgar fellow 7. I was puzzled at her not taking the obvious course and dropping me 8. She did nothing of the kind 9; Indeed, she wouldn't leave me alone 10; she was constantly asking me to lunch and dine with her 11and once or twice a year invited me to spend a week-end at her house in the country 12. And although 1we knew each other pretty well 2, it's hard to believe that 4my reminders of our 25 year friendship 3would have an effect and stop the gossip 5. In her eyes I was 6disgusting, cynical and heartless brute 7. So I wondered why she wouldn't leave me alone, which would be natural 8. But she didn't think 9; on the contrary, did not avoid me at all 10and I regularly received invitations from her for lunch and dinner 11, and once or twice a year - an invitation to spend the weekend in her country house 12. 1 Sentence type substitution, compensation 2 Literal translation 3 Modulation 4 Sentence type substitution, tracing 5 Sentence type substitution, compensation 6 Modulation 7 Tracing 8 Sentence type substitution, reordering of words in a sentence, antonymic translation, tracing 9 Modulation 10 Sentence type substitution, modulation 11 combination of sentences, generalization 12 replacement of the type of sentence, replacement of a part of speech (verb with a noun), tracing At last I thought 1that I had discovered her motive 2. She had an uneasy suspicion 3that I did not believe in her 4; and if that was why she did not like me 5, it was also why she sought my acquaintance 6: it galled her that I alone should look upon her as a comic figure 7and she could not rest 8till I acknowledged 9myself mistaken 10and defeated 11. Finally, it seemed to me 1that I figured it out 2: Louise was tormented by a heavy suspicion 3that I don't believe her 4. That's why she didn't complain to me 5and that's why she supported our acquaintance 6; she was angry that I was the only one who looked at her as a comedian 7and she made a vow to herself not to stop 8until I admit 9being wrong 10and I will not be put to shame 11. 1 sentence type substitution, tracing 2 concretization 3 modulation 4 literal translation, sentence type substitution 5 syntactic connection type substitution, tracing 6 sentence type substitution, part of speech substitution, sentence unification, tracing 7 compensation 8 generalization 9 literal translation 10 part of speech substitution 11 concretization Perhaps she had an inkling 1that I saw the face behind the mask and because I alone held out 2was determined that sooner or later I too should take the mask for the face 3. I was never quite certain that she was a complete humbug 4. I wondered 5whether she fooled herself as thoroughly 6as she fooled the world 7or whether there was some spark of humor at the bottom of her heart 8. If there was it might be that she was attracted to me 9, as a pair of crooks might be attracted to one another, by the knowledge 11that we shared a secret that was hidden from everybody else 12. But maybe she guessed 1that only I can see her true face through her mask 2and hoped that sooner or later I would take this mask for a real face 3. I was not completely sure that Louise was a complete liar. 4and asked myself 5Is she fooling herself just as thoroughly 6like everyone else 7, or in the depths of his soul chuckles at his draw 8. If so, then maybe Louise could even win my sympathy. 9how two swindlers penetrate it to each other, realizing 11who keep a secret hidden from others 12. 1 tracing 2 modulation 3 tracing 4 sentence combining, part of speech substitution, tracing 5 sentence type substitution, explication 6 literal translation 7 concretization, sentence type substitution 8 sentence type substitution, modulation 9 modulation 10 generalization, change of word order in a sentence 11 part of speech substitution 12 tracing I knew Louise before 1she married 2. She was then a frail, delicate girl with large and melancholy eyes 3. Her father and mother worshiped her with an anxious adoration 4, for some illness, scarlet fever I think 5left her with a weak heart 6and she had to take the greatest care of herself 7. When Tom Maitland proposed to her 8they were dismayed 9, for they were convinced 10that she was much too delicate for the strenuous state of marriage 11. I met Louise 1before her marriage 2. At that time she was a fragile, sickly girl with big sad eyes. 3. Her father and mother adored and protected her 4, because some kind of ailment (I suspect that scarlet fever 5) weakened her heart 6and henceforth she had to watch her health very carefully 7. And when Tom Maitland proposed to Louise 8, parents were seriously alarmed 9because they thought 10that she is too painful for such a hectic business as marriage 11. 1 modulation 2 substitution of a part of speech 3 reordering of words in a sentence, literal translation 4 generalization, substitution of the type of a sentence 5 substitution of the type of a sentence, reordering of words in a sentence, tracing 6 modulation 7 concretization 8 tracing 9 generalization 10 substitution of the type of a sentence 11 compensation But they were not too well off and Tom Maitland was rich 1. He promised to do everything in the world for Louise and finally 2they 3entrusted her to him as a sacred charge 4. Tom Maitland was a big, husky fellow, very good-looking 5, and a fine athlete 6. He doted on Louise 7. With her weak heart he could not hope to keep her with him long

Translation transformations are the essence of the translation process.

The main goal of translation is to achieve adequacy. The main task of the translator in achieving adequacy is to skillfully perform various translation transformations so that the translated text conveys as accurately as possible all the information contained in the original text, while observing the relevant norms of the target language.

Transformations, with the help of which the transition from original units to translation units is carried out, are called translation transformations. However, the term "transformation" cannot be taken literally: the original text itself is "not transformed" in the sense that it does not change itself. This text, of course, itself remains unchanged, but along with it and on the basis of it, another text is created in a different language. 1 .

Translation transformations are a special kind of paraphrasing - interlingual, which has significant differences from transformations within the same language. “When we talk about monolingual transformations, we mean phrases that differ from each other in grammatical structure, lexical content, have (practically) the same content and are capable of performing the same communicative function in this context. 2 .

Comparing the source and translating texts, we involuntarily note that some parts of the source text are translated “word for word”, and some with significant deviations from literal correspondences. Particularly striking are those places where the translating text in its own way language means completely different from the original.

1 Barkhudarov L. S. Language and translation. - M.: Int. relations, 1975.p. 6

2 Questions of theory and practice of translation: Collection of material. All-Russian seminar. – Penza, 2002 p.3

Therefore, in our linguistic consciousness there are some interlingual correspondences, deviations from which we perceive as interlingual transformations.

Depending on the nature of the units of the original language, which are considered as initial operations, translation transformations are divided into 1 :

1. stylistic transformations- the essence of which is to change the stylistic coloring of the translated unit.

2. morphological transformationsreplacement of one part of speech by another or several parts of speech.

3. syntactic transformations- the essence of which is to change the syntactic functions of words and phrases. The change in syntactic functions in the process of translation is accompanied by restructuring syntactic constructions: transformations of one type of subordinate clause into another. Syntactic transformations also include the replacement of the English passive construction by the Russian active one.

4. semantic transformations- are carried out on the basis of a variety of causal relationships that exist between the elements of the described situations (He was the kind of guy that hates to answer you right away. - People like him do not immediately answer.)

5. Lexical transformations- representing deviations from direct dictionary correspondences. Lexical transformations are caused mainly by the fact that the volume of meanings of the lexical units of the source and target languages does not match (She wasn`t looking too happy.) - She looked rather unhappy.

1 Latyshev L.K. Equivalence of translation and ways to achieve it. - M .: Intern. relations, 1981.p.96

In the process of translation activity, transformations are most often of a mixed type. As a rule, various kinds of transformations are carried out simultaneously, that is, they are combined with each other - a permutation is accompanied by a replacement, a grammatical transformation is accompanied by a lexical one. It is this complex, complex nature of translation transformations that makes translation such a complex and difficult task.

Morphological transformations practically do not change anything in terms of content. Syntactic transformations affect the original content to a minimum degree.

Semantic transformations are associated with deeper modifications in terms of content. Comparing languages with each other, we find in each such phenomena from them that have no correspondence in the other.

Translation transformations are the essence of the translation process 1 . Having considered the types of translation transformations, we will proceed to consider their classification, proposed by such scientists as L.S. Barkhudarov, V.N. Komissarov and Ya.I. Retzker.

1 Minyar - Beloruchev R.K. How to become a translator.- M .: Stella, 1994, p.47

Classification of translation transformations.

There are many ways to classify translation transformations. Let's dwell on some of them.

One of the classifications of translation transformations proposed by L.S. Barkhudarov. He discerns the following types transformations 1 :

1.permutations; 2.replacement; 3. additions; 4. omissions.

From the very beginning, it should be emphasized that this kind of division is largely approximate and conditional. These four types of elementary translation transformations are rare in practice "in their pure form" - usually they are combined with each other, taking on the character of complex, complex transformations. With these reservations, we proceed to consider the selected L.S. Barkhudarov of four types of transformations carried out in the process of translation.

permutation as a kind of translational transformation, according to L.S. Barkhudarov, is a change in the location of language elements in the translation text compared to the original text. The elements that can be rearranged are words, phrases, parts of a complex sentence and independent sentences in the structure of the text.

The second type of translation transformations that Barkhudarov singles out is replacement . This is the most common and diverse type of translation transformations. In the process of translation, word forms, parts of speech, sentence members can be replaced.

That is, there are grammar and lexical substitutions(concretization, generalization), as well as complexlexical-grammatical substitutions(antonymous translation).

1 Barkhudarov L. S. Language and translation. - M.: Int. relations, 1975.p. 6

The next type of translation transformations is addition . The reason for the need for additions in the target text is what can be called “formal non-expression” of the semantic components of the phrase in the original language. (So what? I said. Cold as hell. - Well, so what? - I ask in an icy voice).

The next type of translation transformations, which L.S. Barkhudarov singles out, is omission . This is the exact opposite of adding. When translating, words that are most often semantically redundant, that is, expressing meanings that can be extracted from the text without their help, are most often omitted (So I paid my check and all. I left the bar and went out where the telephone were. I paid and went to the machines.)

This is the classification of translation transformations proposed by L.S. Barkhudarov.

ME AND. Retzker divides translation transformations into lexical and grammatical transformations 1 .

I. ME AND. Retzker identifies seven varieties lexical t transformations:

1. differentiation of meanings; 2. concretization of values;

3. generalization of values; 4. semantic development;

5. antonymic translation; 6. holistic transformation;

7. compensation for losses in the translation process.

(He ordered a drink.- He ordered whiskey. - differentiation of the meaning of “drink”).

(Have you had your meal? - Have you already had breakfast ? is an example of instantiating values.)

(The treatment turned to be successful and she recovered completely.- Treatment turned out to be successful and she fully recovered - generalization of meanings.

Reception semantic developmentconsists in replacing dictionary correspondence in translation with contextual correspondence logically related to it. This includes various metaphorical and metonymic substitutions. (He gave the horse his head. - He let go of the reins. - a clear metonymic connection is observed here: the head of the horse and the reins are the replacement of the action by its cause.

ME AND. Retzker also highlightsantonymic translation- replacement of any concept expressed in the original with the opposite concept in translation with a corresponding restructuring of the entire statement to maintain an unchanged plan

Reception holistic transformationis also a certain kind of semantic development. The internal form of any segment of the speech chain is transformed - from a single word to a whole sentence. Moreover, it is transformed not by elements, but holistically. (Never mind.- Nothing, don't worry, don't pay attention.) 3

Compensation (or compensation for losses) in the translation should be considered the replacement of an intransmissible element of the original with an element of a different order in accordance with the general ideological and artistic nature of the original and where it is convenient under the conditions of the Russian language. In English: (I`ve brought a Christmas present for Dad” - in a Russian sentence: This is a New Year's present for dad.) 4

II. Grammatical transformations, according to Ya.I. Retsker, consist in the transformation of the sentence structure in the process of translation in accordance with the norms of the target language. The transformation can be full or partial . Usually, when the main members of the sentence are replaced, a complete transformation occurs, but if only minor members sentences, there is a partial transformation. In addition to substitutions of members of a sentence, parts of speech can also be replaced. 5 .

These are the features of the classification of translation transformations proposed by Ya.I. Retsker.

1 Retsker Ya. I. Theory of translation and translation practice. - M: Intern. relations, 1974, p.53

2 Ibid.

3 Retsker Ya. I. Theory of translation and translation practice. - M: Intern. relations, 1974, p.55 4 Ibid 56 5 Ibid 57