Borrowings from Dutch. From Dutch

Holland is one of the closest neighbors of England in territorial terms. Located on the other side of the English Channel, Holland has long had trade, military, economic and cultural ties with England, maintained over a long historical period, which is reflected in the vocabulary of the English language.

Until the 16th century, all English trade was limited to the basin of the Baltic and North Seas. A very lively connection was maintained between the English ports and the ports of the Hanseatic League. A large number of words related to shipbuilding and navigation were borrowed in that period precisely from Dutch. Here are the most famous of them: keel - keel, freight - freight, cargo, hose - hose, skipper - skipper, rover - pirate, deck - deck, buoy - buoy, cruise - cruising, dock - dock, sloop - sloop, yacht - yacht, dogger - fishing boat, lighter - lighter.

Another group of borrowings reflects military relations, both allied and hostile, between these two countries, for example, bulwark - a bastion, hackbush - a gun, plunder - rob.

The most extensive group of borrowings are everyday words and words reflecting trade economic ties between England and the Netherlands, for example, ledger - account book, groat - penny, mart - market, bouse - drink a lot, peg - peg, floite - play the flute, scour - wash, clean, mud - dirt, prop - support, scum - foam, guess - to believe, toy - toy.

Another special group of words is associated with weaving and textile production, for example, spill - bobbin, spool - coil, nap - pile on cloth, rock - spinning wheel, cratch - comb, lake - sheet, lampas - shiny crepe, clack - remove dirt, stripe - stripe.

The 17th century is the heyday of the famous Flemish school of painting. Of course, this area could not but be reflected in vocabulary English in the form of a series of borrowings related to fine arts, for example: easel - easel, (originally - donkey); landscape - landscape; sketch - sketch, to etch - engrave.

A small number of words entered the English language from Afrikaans, the language of the Boers, Dutch peasants who settled in South Africa in the 17th century. For example, kopje, kopie - mound, kraal - native village, veldt - open area, South African steppe, to trek (k) - drag, Hottentot - Hottentots, South African people, scoff - food, food; as well as the names of local animals, for example, antelopes - springbok, hartebeest, wildebeest.

The latest (this is already the 20th century) borrowings from Afrikaans are the words apartheid - racial isolation, apartheid and commandeer - forcibly recruit (into the army).

Borrowings from Italian.

Most strong influence the composition of the English language during the Renaissance was influenced by the Italian language. We know the enormous importance that the literature and art of the Renaissance had for the whole of European culture. England also experienced this influence. Italy was an advanced country in the field of economy, politics, culture, so acquaintance with the richest Italian literature of this period, traveling to Italy, studying magnificent examples of Italian painting, sculpture and architecture, interest in Italian music, in the country itself, was reflected in a number of borrowings. from Italian.

It should be noted that, due to the widespread use of Italian borrowings in European languages, some Italian words were borrowed into English not directly, but through other languages. For example, barouche (Italian word baroccio - baroque); cohl-rabi (it. cavoli rape - kohlrabi) are borrowed from Italian through German. Majority Italian words until the 16th century it was borrowed through French. And only from the 16th century "pure" borrowings appear - directly from the Italian language.

The earliest (XIV-XV centuries) borrowings relate to trade and military affairs. So, from the field of trade, accounting and finance, the words were borrowed: ducat - ducat (coin), million - million, lombard - pawnshop, bank - bank.

Words came from the field of military affairs and navigation: alarm - alarm, brigand - bandit, bark - barque, colonel - colonel, squadron - squadron, sentinel - guard, pistol - pistol.

In the 16th century, economic ties with Italy brought new borrowings: carat - carat, traffic - traffic, porcelain - porcelain, contraband - smuggling, bankrupt - bankrupt, soldo - soldo, battalion - battalion, citadel - citadel, fortress.

However, the largest number of words borrowed from the Italian language is naturally associated with the field of art, namely, with literature, painting, music, theater and architecture. Well, for example, canto is a song, sonnet is a sonnet, stanza is a stanza, motto is an epigraph, a motto, model is a model, miniature is a miniature, madonna is a Madonna, fresco is a fresco, mezzotinto (a way to reproduce engravings), studio is a studio, artist's workshop, balcony - balcony, cornice - cornice, mezzanine - mezzanine, mezzanine, stucco - plaster.

Especially a lot of borrowings came from the field of music, for example:

Names of musical instruments: cello - cello, piano - piano, violin - violin, piccolo - small flute;

Names of musical works: opera - opera, sonata - sonata, aria - aria.

Other borrowings of this period are represented by rather heterogeneous words: bandit - bandit, mustachio - mustache, lottery - lottery, bravo - bravo, well done, duel - duel, cavalcade - cavalcade, escort - escort, artichoke - artichoke, gondola - gondola, grotto - grotto , casino - gambling house, umbrella - umbrella, volcano - volcano, manage - manage, isolate - separate.

In the 17th century, the number of borrowings related to public life, trade, as well as art and music, is greatly increasing. For example: manifesto - manifesto, intrigue - intrigue, bulletin - bulletin, risk - risk, corridor - corridor, pedal - pedal, lever, solo - solo, vivace - lively, piano - quiet, largo - wide, allegro - fun, cascade - cascade.

In the 18th century, the continuing fascination with Italian musical culture caused a new influx of musical terms from the Italian language. During this period, such words as falsetto - falsetto, viola - viola, cantata - cantata, mandolin - mandolin, trombone - trombone, trio - trio, fantasia - fantasy, tempo - tempo, crescendo - crescendo (growing), andante - andante.

Words were borrowed from the field of other types of art: picturesque - picturesque, costume - costume, terracotta - terracotta, dilettante - amateur, dilettante.

In the 19th century, some Italian words reflecting political struggle are borrowed, such as carbonary and cammorra. The group of borrowings related to science is increasing, however, the largest number of borrowed words, as in the previous two centuries, came from the field of music and art. Examples include the following: cavatina - cavantina, legato - legato, prima donna - prima donna, diva - diva, fiasco - failure, fiasco, replica - reproduction.

From the borrowings of the beginning of the 20th century, it can be noted: autostrada - freeway, duce - Duce and fascist - fascist. The last word associated with Latin word fasces - the name of the emblem of the executive power in ancient Rome (which is nothing more than a bunch of birch twigs with an ax stuck in the middle).

It should be noted that in English language, as in a number of other European languages, not only individual Italian words are used, but even entire phraseological combinations, for example, sotto voce - in a whisper, in an undertone.

The Dutch language (sometimes called Dutch) can be called one of the most interesting among Europeans. It belongs to the group of Germanic languages, originating from the Proto-Germanic language of the Indo-European language group. Dutch bears the features of many modern languages, but at the same time remains quite original.

1. About 23 million people speak Dutch. As a result, it occupies the 8th place in terms of prevalence among Europeans and is among the 40 most common in the world. Approximately 17 million native speakers of this language live in the Netherlands. And the rest - in other European countries, as well as Suriname, the Antilles and Aruba. Communities of people who speak Dutch can be found in the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and other countries.

2. Dutch is characterized by the presence of hundreds of dialects. The same language used for education, media and business correspondence is the "standard" or "exemplary" language (Standaardnederlands). Its development is monitored by the Dutch Language Union (Nederlandse Taalunie). However, in Flanders the influence of local dialects is so great that standard language here is markedly different from that used in other areas. Sometimes it is even called the Flemish language.

3. The structure of the Dutch language is well described by a playful proverb, according to which "Dutch appeared when a drunken German began to speak English." And indeed, a lot of words resemble English, others -. Even the grammar seems to have been taken by parts from these languages. At the same time, there are many distinguishing features. For example, double vowels are extremely common in Dutch: gemeente, vaal, gaan, doorn.

4. Due to its similarity with other languages, the Dutch language was even put forward once for the role. However, the theory, as not having any scientific facts as its basis, was quickly rejected.

5. Nevertheless, at one time the Dutch language had the opportunity to become global, as English is today. After all, the colonies of the little Netherlands in the seventeenth century occupied vast territories. Plus, this country traded literally with the whole world. There are still people living in Indonesia who use the Dutch language.

6. The result of this prevalence was that Dutch became the basis for many languages. Thus, the Afrikaans used today in South Africa and Namibia (about 10 million speakers) is its direct successor, and until 1925 it was even considered a dialect. Also in Asian countries, for some time Creole languages ​​were used, which were based on the Dutch language. Most of them have already died out.

7. Dutch began to take shape around the 5th century AD. The oldest text found to date, written in one of the oldest dialects of this language, dates back to 1100. It is absolutely impossible for a modern carrier to read it. First literary works in Dutch began to appear in the 13th century. At about the same time, this language began to displace French and French in the territories where the Netherlands is located. latin languages. Teaching in Dutch began in 1797 at the University of Leiden.

8. In English Dutch will be "Dutch". Because of this, other translators often confuse, translating this word as "Danish". Despite the fact that correct name Danish language - "Danish". Such a mistake, unfortunately, can often be seen in many modern books.

9. The most commonly used sound is "X", as in the Russian word "spit". The degree of its expression depends on the dialect, the further south, the softer pronunciation. Not only the letter "H" is read this way, but also "G" and "CH". An excellent example of the prevalence of the sound "X" is the phrase "achtentachtig prachtige grachten" ( "eighty-eight wonderful channels") - it reads approximately like "akhtentakhtekh prakhtihe khrahten".

10. There is no "Y" in the modern Dutch alphabet. It is perfectly replaced by the digraph "ij", which is read as a cross between "ay" and "yay". As for the letter "y", it can only be found in borrowings and obsolete spellings. Also, in some cases, "ij" is changed to "y" deliberately to make it easier for foreigners to read. Classic example- the name of the automobile company Spyker, which was founded by Dutch entrepreneurs with the surname Spijker.

11. Many students of the Dutch language are surprised by the abundance of diminutives that the inhabitants of the Netherlands use in everyday speech (and not only in it). There is a theory according to which this is done in order to simplify. The fact is that in Dutch there are two articles - "het" and "de" - the rules for using which are rather vague and confusing. In the case of diminutives, the article is always the same - “het”. Naturally, for literary or business language this approach does not work.

12. There are a lot of borrowings from Dutch in Russian. Typical examples: stoel - chair; broek - trousers ( diphthong "oe" reads like "y"); oester - oyster. A lot of words also came from maritime theme: yacht, clipper, admiral, sailor, raid, hold and many others. Most of these borrowings came into the Russian language during the time of Peter I.

P.S. Although the territory of the Netherlands is small and is 41,526 sq. km (132nd place in the world), in this country there was enough space for several languages. In addition to Dutch, the state also includes Frisian, which is widespread in the province of Friesland, where about 450,000 people speak it, using it mainly in everyday life.

“Take care of the purity of the language, like a shrine! Never use foreign words. The Russian language is so rich and flexible that we have nothing to take from those who are poorer than us”, I. S. Turgenev.

This patriotic and, at first glance, very justified statement of the Russian writer will seem less convincing if we understand the reasons for the appearance of words of Dutch origin in the Russian language.

Article prepared in Prima Vista Moscow

Widespread deep transformations of Russia began to occur with the advent of supreme power Peter I. Under his leadership, such large-scale changes were carried out that new crafts appeared in the country, there was a significant development of the sphere of Russian art, and the very approach to governing the state by the tsar changed in many respects.

As is known, National language not static. Changes in it, as in a mirror, reflect all significant changes in the life of society. If we trace the historical connection between the development of the language and the society that speaks it, we can clearly determine that any major reforms, inventions, industrial or cultural introductions are accompanied by the appearance in the language of new words, expressions or the transformation of existing lexical units.

This happened in the era of the reign of Peter. His great merits in rebuilding not only outside life, but also the thinking of a Russian person led to the fact that Church Slavonic pretty soon it was forced out, the primordially Russian religious perception of the world was replaced by the thinking of a secular person.

When Peter the Great is mentioned, shipbuilding and navigation come to mind. He encouraged and supported in every possible way the development of this activity in a renewed Russia. The king owed much of his vast experience and knowledge in this area to the Dutch. Peter went or sent other people to Holland more than once in order to get acquainted in detail with the Dutch methods of conducting shipbuilding business and learn from experience. And, since it was during the Petrine era that navigation in Russia reached previously unknown heights, it is quite natural that the 18th century. became a period of borrowing from the Dutch language. Basically, a lot of nautical terms were taken:

and many others.

Also from the Dutch came such firmly settled words in the Russian language as

So after all, was I. S. Turgenev right when he said that we have absolutely no need to adopt words from other peoples? Do historically determined borrowings from Dutch prove that sometimes the use of foreign words is justified? One way or another, the terms of Dutch origin emphasize the important role of the Netherlands in the development of technological thought in Russia.

Although the Dutch are often quite proficient in foreign languages ​​(English, German and French), being able to speak Dutch will open your way to the heart, mind and culture of Dutch speakers in the Netherlands and anywhere else in the world. Dutch is not the best simple languages, since this language contains many sounds and grammatical structures alien to the Russian language. However, these difficulties will only increase the taste of victory in learning this language. Feel free to read Step 1, which will be the starting point of your linguistic journey.

Steps

Some information about Dutch

1. Let's follow the development of the Dutch language. In the classification of languages, Dutch occupies a place in the West Germanic group and is closely related to other languages ​​of this branch, including German, English and West Frisian.

   • The Dutch language was developed from the Low Franconian dialect of Low German. But even though Dutch began its development from German roots, he did not undergo the High German consonant shift, which means he does not have such a grammatical marker as an umlaut.
   • In addition, the original case system was eventually abolished in Dutch, and the language underwent morphological alignment.
   • On the other hand, the vocabulary of the Dutch language has largely retained its Germanic roots (although it contains more borrowings from the Romance languages). The word order also remained in its original form (subject - predicate - object in the main sentences and subject - object - predicate - in subordinate ones).

2. Know where in the world Dutch is spoken. Dutch is spoken by approximately 20 million people, mainly in the Netherlands and Belgium. Dutch is used as a second language by about 5 million people.

   • In addition to the Netherlands and Belgium, Dutch is also spoken in northern France, Germany, the Republic of Surinam and Indonesia. It is also the official language in the Netherlands Antilles in the Caribbean.
   • The dialects of Dutch spoken in Belgium are collectively known as Flemish. Flemish differs from Dutch in several ways, including pronunciation, vocabulary, and intonation.
   • Afrikaans, which is spoken by about 10 million people in South Africa and Namibia, is descended from Dutch. It is believed that the speakers of these languages ​​can understand each other quite well.

3. Start with the alphabet and pronunciation. In learning any language, it's always good to start with the alphabet.

   • A(a) B(be) C(se) D(de) E(uh) F(ef) G(heh) H(gha) I(and) J(yeah) K(ka) L(el) M(Em) N(en) O(about) P(ne) Q(kyu) R(er) S(es) T(those) U(Yu) V(ve) W(yeah) X(X) Y(i-Greek) Z(zet).
   • However, there are many more sounds in Dutch than letters, and their pronunciation does not always coincide with Russian.
   • The best way to learn the pronunciation of unusual consonants and vowels is to listen and repeat them. The following summary is not exhaustive, but will help you get started:
     • Vowels: " a(as in the word "cancer"), e(as in "this") i(as in the word "beat"), o(as in the word "cat"), oe(like the "y" in the word "fog"), u(like the "a" in "acrylic") and y(as "and" in the word "world").
     • Consonants: Some consonants have a completely different pronunciation from Russian. Sounds ch, sch and g are deeply guttural. The Dutch "r" can be either rolled or guttural. And here is the Dutch j similar to the Russian ""y"".

4. Learn about gender division in the language. There are two genders in Dutch: common (words in de) and middle (words in het). This is much easier than in German, where there are 3 genders.

   • By appearance words can be difficult to understand to what gender it belongs. Therefore, it is better to memorize the generic division separately for each word.
   • The common gender is the combined form of masculine and female, which are no longer used. As a result, about 2/3 of all nouns are of the same gender.
   • Therefore, the best method is to learn all neuter nouns. Then you will be sure that most of the nouns you have not learned belong to the common gender.
   • You can also identify neuter nouns by learning a set of rules. For example, all diminutive nouns(ending in je), as well as all infinitives used as nouns, are neuter. The neuter gender also includes words in -um, -aat, -sel and -isme, as well as most words starting with ge-, be- and ver-. Words for colors, cardinal points, and metals are also neuter.

5. Learn some common present tense verbs. As you progress in learning Dutch, it will be helpful to memorize some common present tense verbs. You will need them to build sentences.

   • Zijn: The present tense of the verb "to be" is pronounced "zain".
     • Ik ben: I am (pronounced "ik ban")
     • jij/u bent: You are (pronounced "yey/wee bent")
     • Hij/zij / het is: He/she/it is (pronounced "hey/zey/at from)
     • Wijzijn: We are (pronounced "wei zain")
     • Julie Zijn: You are (pronounced "yuli zane")
     • Zij zijn: They are (pronounced "zay zayn")
   • Hebben: The present tense of the verb "to have" is pronounced "heh-bang".
     • Ik heb: I have (pronounced "ik hap")
     • Jij/u hebt: Do you have (pronounced "yey/yu hapt")
     • Hij/zij/het heft: He/she/him (inanimate object) has (pronounced "hey/zay/at heift")
     • Wij hebben: We have (pronounced "wei heh-ban )
     • Julie hebben: Do you have (pronounced "yu-li heh-bang")
     • Zijhebben: They have (pronounced "zay heh-bang")

   Learn basic words and expressions

   1. • een: one (pronounced "eyn")
      • Twee: two (pronounced "twei")
      • Drie: three (pronounced "dri")
      • vier: Four (pronounced "vir")
      • Wijf: Five (pronounced "weif")
      • Zes: Six (pronounced "zes")
      • Zeven: Seven (pronounced "jei-wen")
      • Acht: Eight (pronounced "aht")
      • Negen: Nine (pronounced "nei-hen")
      • Tien: Ten (pronounced "ting")
      • Elf: Eleven (pronounced "elf")
      • Twaalf: Twelve (pronounced "twalf")
      • Dertien: Thirteen (pronounced "der tin")
      • Veertien: Fourteen (pronounced "veir-tin")
      • Wijftien: Fifteen (pronounced "weif-tin")
      • Zestien: Sixteen (pronounced "zes-ting")
      • Zeventien: Seventeen (pronounced "zhey-weh-tin")
      • Achtien: Eighteen (pronounced "ah-tin")
      • Negative: Nineteen (pronounced "nei-heng-ting")
      • Twintig: Twenty (pronounced "twin-tah")

   2. Learn the days of the week and months. Other useful vocabulary includes the names of the days of the week and months.

      • Days of the week:
        • Monday = Maandag(pronounced "man-dah")
        • Tuesday = Dinsdag(pronounced "dins-dah")
        • Wednesday = Woensdag(pronounced "uuns-dah")
        • Thursday = Donderdag(pronounced "don-dar-dah")
        • Friday = Vrijdag(pronounced "vrey-dah")
        • Saturday = Zaterdag(pronounced "zah-tur-dah")
        • Sunday = Zondag(pronounced "zon-dah")
      • Months
        • January = January(pronounced "jen-u-a-ri")
        • February = February(pronounced "fei-bru-ari"),
        • March = Maart(pronounced "March")
        • April = April(pronounced April)
        • May = Mei(pronounced "mei")
        • June = Juni(pronounced "June")
        • July = Julie(pronounced "July")
        • August = Augustus(pronounced "oh-gus-tus"),
        • September = September(pronounced "sep-tember"),
        • October = Oktober(pronounced "ok-tou-ber"),
        • November = October(pronounced "but-wem-ber"),
        • December = December(pronounced "day-sem-ber").

   3. Learn the names of colors. By learning the names of colors in Dutch, you can greatly expand your descriptive vocabulary.

      • Red = rood(pronounced "mouth")
      • Orange = oranje(pronounced "oh-ran-yu")
      • Yellow = Geel(pronounced "gale")
      • Green = Groen(pronounced "gron")
      • Blue = blauw(pronounced "blow")
      • Purple = paars(pronounced "pars") or purple(pronounced "pur-par")
      • Pink = Rose(pronounced "rou-za")
      • White = wit(pronounced "wit")
      • Black = zwart(pronounced "zvart")
      • Brown = bruin(pronounced "bruin")
      • Gray = Grijs(pronounced "grace")
      • Silver = silver(pronounced "zil-fer")
      • Golden = goud(pronounced "hout")

   4. Learn other useful words. By adding some words to your Dutch vocabulary, you can greatly improve your speech.

      • Hello = hallo(pronounced "ha-lo")
      • Goodbye = Tot ziens(pronounced "that sins")
      • Please = Alstublieft(pronounced "al-stu-blift")
      • Thanks = Dank u well(formal, pronounced "dank-yu-vel") or dank je wel(colloquial, pronounced "dank-e-vel")
      • Yes = Ja(pronounced "ya")
      • No = Nee(pronounced "ney")
      • Help = Help(pronounced "halp")
      • Now = Nu(pronounced "nu")
      • Later = Later(pronounced "la-tar")
      • Today = Vandaag(pronounced "van-dag")
      • Tomorrow = Morgen(pronounced "mor-gan")
      • Left = Links(pronounced "lynx")
      • Right = Rechts(pronounced "rahts")
      • Straight = Rechtdoor(pronounced "reh-dor")

   5. Learn some useful expressions. Now let's move on to something more practical and learn a few phrases that will help you in daily communication.

      • How are you? = Hoe maakt u het?(formal, pronounced "hu makt u khat") or Hoe gaat het?(informal, pronounced "hoo gat hat?")
      • ok thanks = Goed, dank u(formal, pronounced "goth dunk yo") or Goed, dank je(pronounced "goth dank e")
      • Nice to meet you = Aangenaam kennis te maken(pronounced "an-ga-nam ke-nis ta ma-kan")
      • I don't speak Dutch well = Ik spreek niet gone Nederlands(pronounced "ik spray nit gut tey-dar-lants")
      • Do you speak English? = Spreekt and Engels?(pronounced "spreikt yu engals")
      • I don't understand = Ik begrijp het niet(pronounced "ik bah-grape hat nit")
      • Not at all = Graag gedaan(pronounced "grag ga-dan")
      • How much is it? = Hoeveel cost dit?(pronounced "hoo-vale cost dit")

   We speak fluently

   1. Get language learning materials. Go to your local library or online bookstore. You will find a range of publications to study foreign languages, as well as computer programs eg Rosetta Stone.

      • You will also need a good bilingual dictionary to study. Look up the Russian-Dutch dictionary.
      • As you learn, you will gradually want to add to your library of books in Dutch. You can start with children's books, small puzzle books, and gradually move on to novels, poetry, magazines, etc. Reading is an unavoidable source of language knowledge that will help you improve your language skills and also force you to face real natural Dutch. When you reach this stage in the study, you will also need to purchase dictionary Dutch.
   2. Flemish is a specific offshoot of Dutch spoken in Flanders, but is not a separate language from Dutch. Both the Dutch and the Flemings speak, read and write the same language, with only slight differences in vocabulary, slang, grammar and pronunciation.
   3. When your dutch reaches enough good level, you will be able to watch the famous TV show Tien voor Taal, in which Dutch and Flemish native speakers compete in Dutch language competitions, solving various puzzles and cryptograms.
   4. One very famous Dutch speaker was the actress Audrey Hepburn (1929 - 1993). She grew up in the Netherlands during World War II and made her first film appearance in a Dutch series called Nederlands in Zeven Lessen (Dutch in Seven Lessons) which was released in 1948.
   5. Dutch (Netherlands) is the official language of the Netherlands and Belgium (Flanders), Suriname, Aruba, Curaçao and Saint Martin, as well as institutions such as the European Union, the Benelux and the Union of South American Nations. It is also the language of territorial minorities in the northwest of France (French Flanders).
   6. Dutch is a West Germanic language and is very close to Afrikaans and Low German, and a little further away from Frisian, English, High German and Yiddish.

   Warnings

   • Don't be offended if native Dutch speakers answer you in English at first when you try to speak to them in Dutch. They just want to avoid the language barrier and make you understand them better. do not forget that in any case they deeply appreciate your efforts and attempts to speak Dutch.
   • Remember that polite forms of address are most common in Flanders, while in the Netherlands they are used only to address older people. However, while you're still learning a language, it's best to always stick to polite forms treatment, so that there is no risk of offending someone.

The vocabulary of the English language reflects the close trade, military and economic ties between England and the Netherlands, maintained over a long historical period. All trade in England until the 16th century was limited to the Baltic and North seas. A lively connection was maintained between the English ports and the ports of the Hanseatic League. A large number of words related to shipbuilding, navigation, trade were borrowed from the Dutch language at that time.

Another group of borrowings reflects military relations, both allied and hostile, between these two countries.

The most extensive group of borrowings are words reflecting economic ties between England and the Netherlands. Some words were borrowed from the first Dutch settlers in North America. A number of borrowings are associated with colonization South Africa the Dutch. With colonial conquests also associated with the borrowing of a number of words from the languages ​​of the population of the colonies, which entered the composition English vocabulary through Dutch. Finally, a small group of borrowings belongs to the field of art.

The earliest borrowing from the Dutch language is the word pack (bale, package) - 1225.

The largest number of borrowings from the Dutch language entered the English vocabulary during the 14th-17th centuries. Of these, the most famous are the following: bulwark (bastion); ledger (account book); keel (keel); freight (freight); hose (hose); skipper (skipper); rover (pirate); deck (deck); spool (coil); nap (pile on cloth).

The 17th century is the heyday of the famous Flemish school of painting. This is reflected in the vocabulary of the English language in the form of a number of borrowings related to art, for example: easel(easel); landscape (landscape); sketch (sketch).

2.8. Borrowings from Italian

Economic and political ties between England and Italy began to develop intensively from the XIV century. The English economy was linked to Italian manufacture, which could not exist without English wool. Preparations for the Hundred Years' War were carried out by Edward III with the money of Florentine bankers. These economic and political ties are reflected in the vocabulary of the English language, which, starting from the 14th century, borrows Italian words related to trade, manufacture and military affairs.

However, the Italian language had its strongest influence during the Renaissance. England also experienced this influence. Acquaintance with the Italian literature of this period, travels to Italy, the study of its painting, sculpture and architecture, interest in Italian music, in the country itself, all this was reflected in a number of borrowings from the Italian language.

It should be noted that, due to the wide spread of Italian borrowings in European languages, some Italian words were borrowed into English not directly, but through other languages. For example, barouche (Italian word baroccio - baroque); cohl-rabi (it. cavoli rape - kohlrabi) are borrowed from German. Most Italian words before the 16th century were borrowed through French, and only from the 15th century did borrowings appear directly from Italian.

The earliest (XIV-XV centuries) borrowings relate to trade and military affairs. So the words were borrowed from the field of trade and finance: ducat, million, lombard. From the field of military affairs and navigation: alarm (alarm), brigand (bandit), bark (barque).

In the 16th century, economic ties with Italy caused new borrowings: carat (carat), traffic (traffic), porcelain (porcelain), contraband (smuggling), bankrupt (bankrupt), soldo (soldo), battalion, squadron, citadel, pistol.

However, the largest number of words borrowed from the Italian language is associated with the field of art (literature, painting, music, architecture). For example: sonnet, stanza, motto, model, miniature, madonna, fresco.

Other borrowings from this period: bandit, biretta, mustachio, lottery, bravo, duel, cavalcade, escort, artichoke, gondola.

In the 17th century, the number of borrowings related to public life, trade, as well as art and music increases, for example: manifesto, intrigue, bulletin, risk, umbrella, balcony, corridor, pedal, solo, opera, vivace, piano, largo, allegro, grotto volcano, cascade.

In the 18th century, the continued fascination with Italian musical culture caused a new influx of musical terms from the Italian language of this period, such words as soprano, falsetto, viola, cantata, mandolin, trombone, trio, fantasia, aria, tempo, obligate, crescendo, andante appeared.

Words were borrowed from the field of other types of art: picturesque, costume, terracotta, dilettante.

In the 19th century, some words are borrowed that reflect the political struggle in Italy. For example, carbonary, cammorra. The group of borrowings related to science is increasing, however, the largest number of borrowings, as in the previous two centuries, came from the field of music and art. Examples include the following words: sonatina, cavatina, legato, prima donna, diva, fiasco, studio, replica.

From the borrowings of the beginning of the 20th century, one can note: autostrada, duce and fascist.

The last word is associated with the Latin word fasces - the name of the emblem of the executive branch in Ancient Rome(a bundle of birch twigs with an ax stuck in the middle).

It should be noted that in English, as in a number of other European languages, some Italian phraseological combinations are used, for example, sotto voce (in a whisper, in an undertone), traditori and others.