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1. Bank like special type enterprises. Functions of commercial banks.

2. The main operations of commercial banks: economic content and types. Banking products and services.

3. Banking resources and capital.

4. Security sustainable development commercial banks.

1. Bank as a special type of enterprise. Functions of commercial banks

The bank acts as a special type of enterprise, whose activities are aimed at meeting the needs of market participants. It is a credit institution that regulates the payment turnover of economic entities in cash and non-cash forms. creates its own specific product:

Payment means issued at the macro and micro levels. Without money, the products of labor cannot be exchanged, the reproduction process cannot be continued. The issuance of cash is a monopoly of the bank, it is produced only by the bank, making it a specific product banking system;

Accumulated free resources, which are transformed from temporarily unused into working ones;

Loans provided to bank customers as capital;

Various services.

Modern commercial banks are the main link in the banking system, providing direct services to enterprises and the public. Regardless of the form of ownership, they are independent subjects of the economy, their relations with customers are built on a commercial basis.

According to Russian banking legislation, a bank is a credit institution that has the right to raise funds from individuals and legal entities, place them on their own behalf and at their own expense on the terms of repayment, payment, urgency and carry out settlement operations on behalf of clients. Non-bank credit organizations carry out only individual banking operations.

Thus, commercial banks, unlike special credit financial institutions provide comprehensive customer service, are credit institutions of a universal type, performing a wide range of financial transactions and services. Unlike financial dealers and brokers, CBs are characterized by a double exchange of promissory notes; unlike investment companies and funds, they assume unconditional credit obligations, mainly with a fixed amount of debt.

CBs act as specific credit institutions, which, on the one hand, attract temporarily free funds from the economy; on the other hand, they satisfy various financial needs of enterprises, organizations and the population at the expense of these borrowed funds. The economic basis of the bank's activities for the accumulation and placement of credit resources is the movement of funds.

The functions of a commercial bank include:

— accumulation (attraction) of funds in deposits;

- their placement;

- settlement and cash services.

CBs organize the process of cash flow, implement the monetary policy of the Central Bank, regulate the overall liquidity of the economy, and make payments and settlements.

Type of commercial bank (universal, sectoral, special purpose, regional, etc.) is determined along with the content of its activities, as well as the degree of development of the country's economy, credit relations, money and financial markets.

2. The main operations of commercial banks: economic content and types. Banking products and services

The operations of a commercial bank are a concrete manifestation of banking functions in practice. According to Russian legislation, the main banking operations include:

1) attracting funds from legal entities and individuals in demand deposits and for a specified period;

2) granting loans on its own behalf at the expense of its own and borrowed funds;

3) opening and maintaining accounts of individuals and legal entities;

4) making settlements on behalf of clients, including correspondent banks;

5) collection of funds, bills of exchange, payment and settlement documents and cash services for customers;

6) management of funds under an agreement with the owner or manager of funds;

7) purchase from legal entities and individuals and sale to them of foreign currency in cash and non-cash forms;

8) carrying out operations with precious metals in accordance with the current legislation;

9) issuance of bank guarantees.

Non-bank credit institutions are entitled to carry out banking operations, except for the operations provided for in paragraphs 1, 2, 3 and 9. Permissible combinations of other banking operations for non-bank credit institutions are established by the Bank of Russia.

commercial banks, in addition to the banking operations listed above, are entitled to carry out the following transactions:

Issuance of guarantees for third parties, providing for the fulfillment of obligations in cash;

Acquisition of the right to claim the fulfillment of obligations from third parties in cash;

Provision of consulting and information services;

Leasing to individuals and legal entities of special premises or safes located in them for storing documents and valuables;

Leasing operations and other transactions in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.

All banking operations and transactions are carried out in rubles, and in the presence of an appropriate license from the Bank of Russia and in foreign currency.

A credit organization (including commercial banks) is prohibited from engaging in production, trade and insurance activities.

All operations of a commercial bank can be divided into three main groups:

Passive operations - operations to raise funds in banks, the formation of the resources of the latter;

Active operations - operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal to generate profits and maintain liquidity;

Active-passive operations - commission, intermediary operations performed by banks on behalf of customers for a fee - a commission.

The passive operations of the bank include:

— attraction of funds to settlement and current accounts of legal entities and individuals;

— opening urgent accounts of citizens, enterprises and organizations;

— issue of securities; loans received from other banks, etc.

All passive bank operations related to raising funds, depending on their economic content, are divided into:

Deposit, including obtaining interbank loans;

Issuance (placement of shares or securities of the bank).

The active operations of the bank include:

— short-term and long-term lending to industrial, social, investment and scientific activity enterprises and organizations;

— provision of consumer loans to the population;

— acquisition of securities;

— leasing;

— factoring;

— innovative financing and lending;

— share bank funds in economic activity enterprises;

- loans to other banks.

The active operations of the bank according to the economic content are divided into:

Loan - operations for the provision (issuance) of funds to the borrower on the basis of urgency, repayment and payment. Loan transactions related to the purchase (accounting) of promissory notes or the acceptance of promissory notes as collateral are accounting (accounting and loan) transactions;

Settlement - operations for crediting and debiting funds from customer accounts, including for paying their obligations to counterparties;

Cash - operations for receiving and issuing cash; more broadly - operations related to the movement of cash, as well as the formation, placement and use of funds on various active bank accounts (including the Cashier account and correspondent accounts with other banks) and accounts of commercial bank customers;

Investment and stock. Investment operations - operations by the bank investing its funds in securities and shares of non-banking structures for the purpose of joint economic and financial and commercial activities, as well as placed in the form of term deposits in other credit institutions. A feature of the investment operations of a commercial bank from credit operations is that the initiative for the first comes from the bank itself, and not its client. This is the investment activity of the bank itself. Stock transactions - transactions with securities (other than investment).

Stock transactions include:

Operations with bills of exchange (accounting and re-discounting operations, protest operations of bills, collection, domiciliation, acceptance, endorsement of bills, issuance of bill of exchange orders, storage of bills, their sale at auction);

Operations with securities listed on stock exchanges.

Warranty. operations for the issuance by the bank of a guarantee (surety) of payment of the client's debt to a third party upon the occurrence of certain conditions; also generate income for banks in the form of commissions.

In addition, the active operations of banks are divided depending on:

Degrees of riskiness - risky and risk-neutral,

The nature (directions) of the placement of funds - for primary (operations related to the placement of funds on a correspondent account, at the cash desk, with the issuance of loans to customers, other banks, some other operations), secondary (operations related to the allocation of funds to the reserve and insurance funds) and investment (operations on investing the bank's funds in its own portfolio of securities, in fixed assets, on participation in the economic activities of other enterprises and organizations);

The level of profitability - for operations that generate income (high-yield and low-yield, generating stable or unstable income), and not generating income (the latter include cash transactions, on a correspondent account, on the deduction of funds to the reserve fund of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, the issuance of interest-free loans, prolongation and deferral of loans, when interest on loans is not paid).

Active-passive operations of banks are often called services. There are settlement services related to the implementation of domestic and international settlements, trust services for the sale and purchase by a bank on behalf of clients of securities, foreign exchange, precious metals, mediation in the placement of shares and bonds, accounting and consulting services for clients, and others.

Commission operations - operations carried out by banks on behalf of, on behalf of and at the expense of customers; generate income for banks in the form of fees.

These include:

Accounts receivable collection operations (receipt of money on behalf of clients on the basis of various monetary documents);

Transfer operations;

Trade and commission (trade and intermediary) operations (purchase and sale of securities, precious metals for clients; factoring, leasing, etc.);

Trust (trust) operations;

Operations to provide clients with legal and other services.

All bank operations are divided into:

Liquid and illiquid:

Operations in ruble and currency terms;

Regular (committed by the bank periodically, constantly reproduced by it) and irregular (carrying for the bank a random, episodic character);

Balance and off-balance. The term "off-balance-sheet transactions" refers to a wide range of transactions, which, as a rule, are not reflected in officially published bank balance sheets or are given below the line in the "contra-accounts" ("off-balance sheet" accounts) section. Off-balance sheet operations can be carried out by banks both for the purpose of raising funds (passive operations) and their placement (active). In addition, if banks conduct off-balance sheet operations for a certain fee (commission) on behalf of the client, then they are classified as active-passive operations or banking services.

Quite often there is an identification of the concepts of banking operations, a banking product and a banking service.

A service, unlike embodied goods, is always a process during which its producer and consumer interact. We can talk about banking services only within the framework of the “client-bank” relationship. A banking service is one or more bank operations that satisfy a specific customer need. In addition, the services of commercial banks can be defined as banking operations on behalf of the client in favor of the latter for a fee.

The main characteristics of banking services include:

— intangible essence of services:

- services do not accumulate, but banks create reserves of funds that are managed by the banker:

- the provision of banking services is regulated by law:

- the sales system (providing banking operations and services is exclusive and integrated, since all branches of one bank perform the same set of banking operations and services.

A banking product is a set of banking financial transactions to solve any customer's needs, which can be positioned as a new banking service or a combination of traditional banking services, built into a technological chain that allows solving a specific customer problem and satisfying his demand in complex services.

For example, a banking product - a "salary project" can consist of three operations:

– issuance by the bank of plastic cards for employees of the enterprise;

- setting a limit on credit on plastic cards in the amount of 1-2 salaries of an employee;

- installation of an ATM at the enterprise.

3. Banking resources and capital

The bank's resources consist of borrowed funds and equity. Equity is funds owned directly by the bank, as opposed to borrowed funds, which the bank has attracted for a while. The peculiarity of the bank's own capital in comparison with the capital of other enterprises is that the banks' own capital is approximately 10%, and in enterprises about 50%. Despite the small specific gravity, the bank's equity performs several vital functions.

Protective function - means the possibility of paying compensation to depositors in the event of the liquidation of the bank. A significant share of the bank's assets is financed by depositors. Therefore, the main function of the bank's equity capital and equivalent funds is to protect the interests of depositors. Equity allows you to maintain the solvency of the bank by creating a reserve of assets that allow the bank to function, despite the threat of losses. It is important to keep in mind that most of The bank's losses are covered not by capital, but by current assets. Unlike most firms, the bank's solvency is maintained by part of its own capital. A bank is considered solvent as long as its share capital remains intact, that is, as long as the value of its assets equals the sum of its liabilities, minus its unsecured liabilities plus its share capital.

operational function. To start successful work, the bank needs start-up capital, which is used to purchase land, buildings, equipment, as well as create financial reserves in case of unforeseen losses. Equity capital is also used for these purposes.

regulatory function. In addition to providing a financial basis for the operation and protecting the interests of depositors, banks' own funds also perform a regulatory function, which is associated with a special public interest in the successful functioning of banks, as well as with laws and regulations that allow government bodies control the operations.

The structure of banking resources of individual commercial banks depends on the degree of their specialization or, conversely, universalization, the characteristics of their activities, the state of the market for loan resources, etc.

The structure of the bank's own funds is heterogeneous in terms of quality and changes throughout the year depending on a number of factors, in particular, on the nature of the use of the profit received by the bank.

The bank's own funds consist of the authorized capital and profit. The bank's own capital is the basis for increasing the volume of its active operations. Therefore, it is extremely important for each bank to find sources of its increase. They can be: retained earnings of previous years, including bank reserves; placement of additional issues of securities or attraction of new shareholders.

Wealth management plays important role in ensuring the stability of liabilities and profitability of banks. One of the ways to manage the bank's own capital is the dividend policy. In conditions of financial instability and underdevelopment of the stock market, many Russian banks ensure the growth of their own capital by accumulating profits. Large banks widely use the issuance of shares as an effective way to raise funds.

The authorized capital of Russian banks is formed at the expense of share contributions (share bank) or funds received as payment for shares (joint stock bank).

The bank's reserves are formed at the expense of the bank's profit and include:

The reserve fund, which, in accordance with Russian legislation is created in the amount established in the charter of the bank, in relation to the authorized capital, but not less than 10% for banks that accept deposits from the population. The fund is designed to cover large losses;

The reserve fund for the depreciation of securities is intended to cover losses arising from a fall in the price of securities;

The loan allowance is used to cover potential loan losses and is charged to the bank's expenses;

Fund economic development is formed in the amount established at the meeting of shareholders and is intended for the development of the bank (acquisition of real estate for the bank, equipment, incentives for employees, etc.).

Additional capital is formed due to the difference between the selling rates of common and preferred shares and their face value.

Retained earnings - the accumulated amount of profit that remains at the disposal of the bank. At the end of the period (year, quarter), the sum of all the effective accounts of the bank is credited to the profit and loss account. Part of these funds is directed to the payment of dividends, taxes, and the formation of reserve funds. The remaining part - retained earnings - is a cash fund managed by the bank's management and the meeting of shareholders.

Attracted funds occupy a predominant place in the structure of banking resources. In world banking practice, all attracted funds are divided into deposits and other attracted funds according to the method of their accumulation. The main part of the attracted funds of commercial banks are deposits. Deposits are accepted only by banks that have such a right in accordance with the license of the Bank of Russia.

Other borrowed funds are resources that the bank receives in the form of loans or by selling its own debt obligations on the money market. They differ from deposits in that they are purchased on the market on a competitive basis. The initiative to attract them belongs to the bank itself. They are predominantly used big banks. Usually these are significant amounts, due to which the corresponding transactions are considered wholesale.

4. Ensuring sustainable development of commercial banks

Sustainable development of the banking system is the most important condition for its effectiveness.

The stability of the bank is its dynamic state, which provides the necessary degree of protection against adverse impact external and internal factors. The economic stability of the bank is largely determined by the financial results of its activities, the ratio of risk, liquidity and profitability.

The term "liquidity" (from Latin liquidus - liquid, flowing) in literally words means ease of implementation, sale of the transformation of material values and other assets into cash. Bank liquidity implies the ability to sell liquid assets, acquire funds from the central bank and issue shares, bonds, certificates of deposit and savings, and other debt instruments. This is the bank's ability to ensure timely fulfillment of its liabilities in cash. The bank's liquidity is determined by the balance of assets and liabilities of the bank's balance sheet, the degree of correspondence between the terms of the placed assets and the liabilities attracted by the bank. The bank's liquidity norms are usually set as the ratio of various items of balance sheet assets to the total amount or to certain items of liabilities or, conversely, liabilities to assets.

There are two approaches to characterizing liquidity. Liquidity can be understood as a "stock" or as a "flow". "Stock" characterizes the bank's liquidity at a certain point in time, its ability to meet its current obligations, especially on demand accounts. As a "flow" liquidity is estimated for a certain period of time or for the future. To assess the total liquidity of a commercial bank, it is necessary to consider stationary liquidity (“stock”), current liquidity (“flow”) and prospective liquidity (“forecast”) in the system.

The liquidity of the bank's balance implies a momentary assessment of the state of the bank on a certain date, therefore, the liquidity of the balance is component bank liquidity. At the same time, the balance sheet of a commercial bank must ensure the presentation of analytical and synthetic accounting data in a form acceptable for calculating the total liquidity of the bank. If the second condition is not met, a situation may arise when, having a sufficiently liquid balance sheet on a certain date, the bank is nevertheless completely or partially illiquid.

The liquidity of a bank underlies its solvency. Solvency is the ability of the bank in due time and in full amount meet its obligations (to depositors for the payment of deposits, shareholders - for the payment of dividends, the state - for the payment of taxes, personnel - for the payment of wages).

The liquidity and solvency of a commercial bank is influenced by a number of factors that can be divided into macroeconomic and microeconomic ones.

The main macroeconomic factors that determine the liquidity and solvency of a commercial bank include: the geopolitical and macroeconomic situation in the country; a set of legislative, legal and legal norms of banking activities; the structure and stability of the banking system; the state of the money market and the securities market, etc.

The main microeconomic factors include: resource base commercial bank, the quality of investments, the level of management, as well as functional structure and motivation of the bank.

In foreign practice, the general liquidity reserve is divided into primary and secondary. The primary liquidity reserve is considered as the main source of the bank's liquidity. At the same time, assets included in the item “cash and debts of other banks” appear in the balance sheets as primary reserves, which include funds on the accounts of required reserves, funds on correspondent accounts (deposits) in other commercial banks, cash in a safe and checks, as well as other payment documents in the process of collection. The share of primary reserves is estimated by the ratio of cash assets to the sum of deposits or to the sum of all assets. Secondary liquidity reserves are highly liquid earning assets that can be turned into cash with minimal delay and negligible risk of loss. These include assets that typically comprise a portfolio of government securities and, in some cases, funds held in loan accounts. The main purpose of secondary reserves is to serve as a source of replenishment of primary reserves.

The total liquidity reserve of a commercial bank depends on the required reserve ratio established by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and the level of liquidity reserve determined by the bank independently for itself. Each commercial bank seeks to create a minimum reserve of liquid funds and ensure the maximum credit potential, based on its liquidity, reliability, and profitability. Liquidity is closely related to the profitability of the bank, but in most cases, achieving high liquidity is contrary to ensuring higher profitability. The most rational policy of a commercial bank in the field of liquidity management is to ensure the optimal combination of liquidity and profitability.

Banking activity is constantly accompanied by risk. Risks in banking practice are the danger (possibility) of losses in the event of certain events. Risks can be both purely banking (internal), associated with the functioning of a credit institution, and external, or general. The most common financial risks are: the risk of insolvency of the borrower, credit risk, interest rate risk, currency risk, unbalanced liquidity risk. The most important way to overcome or minimize risks is their regulation, i.e. maintaining optimal ratios of liquidity and solvency of the bank in the process of managing its assets and liabilities.

A significant increase in the risks associated with banking puts the problem of "risk - liquidity" in the center of banking operations management.

The analysis of liquidity, profitability and the level of risk of the bank should be carried out in a complex. A high level of profitability, as a rule, is associated with high-risk operations. Potential to obtain the maximum possible benefit increases as the degree of risk increases. The higher the liquidity of the bank, the lower the profitability and vice versa: the lower the liquidity, the higher the expected profit and necessarily the risk.

The main method for managing the liquidity and solvency of Russian commercial banks (in terms of internal and external audit) is their compliance with the economic standards of the Bank of Russia. Currently, in order to ensure the economic conditions for the stable functioning of the banking system, the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, in accordance with Instruction No. 110-I, establishes a number of economic standards for the activities of commercial banks:

The minimum amount of authorized capital for newly created and the minimum amount of own funds (capital) for existing banks;

Capital adequacy ratios;

Liquidity ratios;

The maximum amount of risk per borrower or group of related borrowers;

Maximum size of large credit risks;

The maximum amount of risk per one creditor (depositor);

The maximum amount of loans, guarantees and guarantees provided by a credit institution to its participants (shareholders, shareholders) and insiders;

The maximum amount of attracted cash deposits (deposits) of the population;

Standards for the use of own funds of credit institutions for the acquisition of shares (shares) of other legal entities.

An analysis of the bank's income and expenses makes it possible to study the results of a commercial bank's activities, and, consequently, to evaluate its effectiveness as a commercial enterprise. Banking performance analysis begins with an analysis of income and expenses, and ends with a profit study.

Gross income of the bank is usually divided into interest and non-interest. The stable and rhythmic growth of the bank's income testifies to its normal operation and qualified management. Bank interest income is the accrued and received interest on loans and securities. Non-interest income - income from investment activities (dividends, income from participation in joint activities enterprises and organizations, etc.); income from foreign exchange transactions; income from commissions and fines received; Other income. The analysis of the bank's expenses is carried out according to the same scheme as the analysis of its income.

The bank's gross expenses are also divided into interest and non-interest. The bank's gross expenses include: a) operating expenses (paid commissions on services and correspondent relations; expenses on operations with securities; expenses on operations in the foreign exchange market); b) expenses for ensuring the functioning of the bank (expenses for the maintenance of the administrative apparatus; business expenses); c) other expenses (fines, penalties, forfeits paid; interest and commissions of previous years, etc.).

Profit is main indicator bank performance. Quantitative and qualitative assessments of profitability are made in order to determine the financial stability of the bank. The amount of profit in itself is far from being an exhaustive indicator. It must be compared with other indicators characterizing the bank's activities. The analysis of the financial activity of the bank is carried out simultaneously with the analysis of the liquidity of the bank's balance sheet, and on the basis of the results obtained, a conclusion is made regarding the reliability of the bank.

The bank's financial condition is complex concept, which is characterized by a system of indicators reflecting the availability, placement and use of financial resources.

The internal audit of the bank involves the assessment, control and analysis of the main activities of the bank by the bank itself, its ideas about the efficiency of work, the feasibility of conducting certain banking operations and services, their profitability, and so on. An external audit is carried out by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, other commercial banks, tax authorities, audit firms and other organizations, as well as clients (actual and potential) of a commercial bank.

Important for the bank's activities is not only internal analysis its activities, but also a comparison of the results of work with other banks. In a market economy, it is also important to trace the trends in the development of the banking system as a whole at the national level. Today in Russia there is a shortage of analytical information about the work of commercial banks. Therefore, the rating of banks is important as a basis for studying their activities.

The rating of banks is a system for assessing their performance, based on the financial performance and balance sheet data of the bank. The rating of the bank as a whole consists in the derivation of a free assessment in all areas that have been analyzed. The rating assessment can be made by a special rating agency on the basis of an agreement with the bank.

In world banking practice, two approaches to assessing the activities of commercial banks prevail based on:

Analysis of the system of indicators of a particular bank and comparing them with similar indicators of first-class banks;

Passive Operations

Passive operations are the activities of the bank to accumulate its own and borrowed funds for the purpose of their placement.

The purpose of the operations of a commercial bank is as follows:

provision of resources for the bank's activities;
formation of additional sources of funds for productive use in the economy;
increase in income of individuals and legal entities receiving bank interest on deposits;
growth of the bank's own capital;
creation of reserve funds for insurance of banking operations.

Passive Operations- operations to raise funds, namely: attracting deposits (deposit, savings), obtaining loans from other banks, issuing own securities. The funds received as a result of passive operations are the basis of direct banking activities. Active operations - operations for the placement of funds. As a result of active operations, banks receive debit interest, which should be higher than the credit interest paid by the bank on passive operations. The difference between debit and credit interest (margin) is one of the most important traditional items of bank income (banking profit is also formed from commission fees for banking services).

Basic passive operations commercial bank - deposit.

Deposit operations These are term and termless investments of the bank's customers. Funds held on demand accounts (termless deposits) are intended for making current payments - in cash or through a bank using checks, credit cards or letters of credit. Another type of deposits is term deposits (with certain deadlines repayment). These deposits typically pay out more than high interest, depending on the term of the deposit, since banks can dispose of the depositor's funds for a longer time and have the opportunity to reinvest them. Most often, special-purpose funds are placed in urgent accounts, for example, amounts intended by an entrepreneur for the purchase of equipment in 6 months.

Passive operations also include various savings operations. Savings deposits are used to accumulate the client's funds, about which the client is issued a certificate (savings book).

The passive operations of a commercial bank include:

creation and increase of own capital at the expense of deductions from profit;
issue of securities and their placement on the open market;
deposit operations;
interbank loans in the domestic and foreign markets (Fig. 74).

Among deposit operations distinguish the following groups:

demand deposits;
term and savings deposits.

Rice. 74. Attracted funds from a commercial bank

Active Operations

Active operations are operations for the placement of attracted and own funds of a commercial bank in order to generate income and create conditions for banking operations.

Active operations of a commercial bank are primarily credit operations, investment operations, operations property formation jar, settlement and cash operations, commission and intermediary(, forfating, etc.). All credit transactions can be grouped as follows (Fig. 75):

Rice. 75. Classification of credit transactions

Active operations of banks- These are operations for the issuance (placement) of various kinds of loans. The most common type of credit issued by banks is a short-term loan to economic agents, usually to finance the purchase of inventory items. This loan can be issued with or without real security, but in any case, to obtain it, it is necessary to have accounting financial documents characterizing the financial position of the borrower, so that the bank can at any time assess the likelihood of timely repayment of the loan.

1. The content and classification of active operations of the bank

2. Structure and quality of assets of a commercial bank

3. Liquid Assets and Factors Affecting the Bank's Liquidity

4. Estimation and indicators of liquidity of a commercial bank

8.1. The content and classification of active operations of the bank

Active operations of banks are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal to generate profit and maintain their liquidity, and, consequently, to ensure financial stability. Active operations include operations to allocate resources.

Active operations are secondary to passive ones. This is primarily due to the fact that a commercial bank can place only those resources that it attracted as a result of passive operations, and these are borrowed funds, and the bank must form its active operations in such a way that the timing of the return of money to the bank corresponds to the timing of their return to customers. In this case, the bank will be solvent, financially stable, which, undoubtedly, will additionally attract customers to it.

There are many classifications of active operations according to one principle or another. The most common classification of active operations by economic content, which consists of:

Loan operations;

settlement operations;

cash transactions;

Investment and stock transactions;

currency transactions;

Warranty Operations.

Loan operations are operations to provide funds to a borrower for a specified period and for a specified fee. Settlement transactions - operations for crediting and debiting funds from clients' accounts, including for payment of their obligations to counterparties.

Cash transactions are operations for receiving and issuing cash.

Investment and stock operations are operations for the bank to invest its funds in securities and shares of non-bank structures for the purpose of joint economic, financial and commercial activities, as well as the placement of funds in the form of time deposits in other credit institutions.

Currency transactions are transactions for the purchase and sale of foreign currency and other currency values, including precious metals in coins and bullion.

Guarantee operations are operations after the issuance by the bank of a guarantee (guarantee) of payment of the client's debt to a third party upon the occurrence of certain conditions (may be in the form of a commission).

Commercial banks carry out active operations within the available resources, that is, within the limits of cash balances on the correspondent account and on hand.

A general description of the active operations of a commercial bank is given in the following table:

Cash	Accumulation of funds on a correspondent account; Accumulation of funds in cash; Placement of funds on correspondent accounts in other banks; Placement of funds on deposits in other banks.
Loan portfolio	Providing loans to legal entities in national and foreign currencies (including overdue and prolonged ones); Providing loans in national currency to individuals (including overdue and prolonged ones); Provision of interbank loans in national and foreign currencies (including overdue and prolonged ones).
Securities for sale	Investments in government and corporate securities for sale.
Investment portfolio	Investments in government and corporate securities for investment; Investments in the authorized capital of enterprises and organizations.
Property and intangible assets	Investments in fixed assets; Investments in inventory items; Investments in intangible assets.

Thus, the active operations of banks are mainly operations for the issuance (placement) of various types of loans. The most common type of credit issued by banks is a short-term loan to economic agents, usually to finance the purchase of inventory items. This loan can be issued with or without real security, but in any case, to obtain it, it is necessary to have accounting financial documents characterizing the financial position of the borrower, so that the bank can at any time assess the likelihood of timely repayment of the loan.

8.2. Structure and quality of assets of a commercial bank

The structure of assets is understood as the ratio of items of the bank's balance sheet asset of different quality. The quality of a bank's assets is determined by the appropriate structure of its assets, diversification of active operations, the volume of risky assets, the volume of critical and defective assets, and signs of asset volatility.

There are different approaches to determining the structure of bank assets. Basically, the assets of commercial banks are divided into four = categories:

Cash on hand and equivalent funds;

Investments in securities;

Loans;

Buildings and constructions.

The first component of banking assets is “Cash and cash equivalents”. Banks are required by regulators to hold part of the funds in cash or in the form of demand deposits in accounts with other banks. In addition, cash on hand is needed to change money, return deposits, meet loan requests, and cover various operating expenses, including staff salaries, various materials and services. The article "Cash and funds equivalent to them" includes funds on accounts with the Central Bank and other commercial banks, banknotes and coins, as well as payment documents in the collection process. An important reserve is, of course, cash in bank vaults. But the bank's management, of course, seeks to reduce their value to a minimum, determined by security considerations. In addition, in Russia the costs of protecting and insuring cash are very significant, cash does not bring income. Funds on accounts in correspondent banks also practically do not generate income. Therefore, the item "Cash and cash equivalents" is the most liquid for the bank, but the least profitable.

With regard to the article "Securities", today most of all investments in securities account for government securities. Investments in short-term government papers usually generate lower returns, but are highly liquid assets with zero default risk and negligible market rate risk. Long-term securities usually bring high returns over a long period. To increase the bank's income, they usually invest in bonds. public institutions and, to a limited extent, into premium corporate bonds.

The main activity of commercial banks in terms of generating income is the provision of loans. By placing funds in various types of lending operations, the bank's management considers it a priority to obtain a high income while meeting the needs of customers in a loan. The degree, liquidity of a particular credit transaction is not of paramount importance.

The quality of assets is determined by their liquidity, the volume of risky assets, the share of critical and defective assets, the volume of income-generating assets. To ensure the daily ability of the bank to meet its obligations, the structure of the assets of a commercial bank must comply with the qualitative requirements of liquidity. For this purpose, all assets of the bank are divided into groups according to the degree of liquidity, depending on the maturity. The bank's assets are divided into highly liquid assets (i.e. assets that provide instant liquidity); liquid assets, long-term liquidity assets.

Instant liquidity assets (highly liquid) include: cash and cash equivalents, funds on accounts with the Central Bank, government debt obligations, funds on correspondent accounts with non-resident banks of OECD member countries in hard currency, investments in domestic foreign currency loan bonds net of funds received as payment for foreign exchange shares and funds received on the correspondent account of the bank from the sale of securities. These funds are classified as liquid, as they are subject, if necessary, to immediate withdrawal from the bank's circulation.

Liquid assets include, in addition to the listed highly liquid assets, all loans issued by the credit institution in rubles and foreign currency maturing within the next 30 days (excluding extended at least once and newly issued loans to repay previously issued loans), and as well as other payments in favor of the credit institution to be transferred within the next 30 days (debtors, as well as overpayment amounts to be returned to the credit institution as of the reporting date from the mandatory reserves fund).

Long-term liquidity assets include all loans issued by a credit institution in rubles and foreign currency with a remaining maturity of more than a year, as well as 50% of guarantees and guarantees issued by a bank with a validity of more than a year, loans overdue minus loans guaranteed by the Government, secured securities secured by precious metals. By establishing a rational asset structure, the bank must meet liquidity requirements, and therefore, have a sufficient amount of highly liquid, liquid and long-term liquid funds in relation to liabilities, taking into account their terms, amounts and types, and comply with instant, current and long-term liquidity standards.

The instant liquidity ratio is calculated as the ratio of the sum of the bank's highly liquid assets to the sum of its liabilities on demand accounts. The current liquidity ratio is the ratio of the amount of liquid assets of a credit institution to the amount of its liabilities on demand accounts and for up to 30 days. The long-term liquidity ratio is defined as the ratio of loans issued by a bank with a maturity of over a year to the capital of a credit institution and liabilities over a year.

8.3. Liquid Assets and Factors Affecting the Bank's Liquidity

Taking into account the types of liquid assets used to fulfill the bank's obligations, they distinguish between liquidity accumulated by the bank (cash, highly liquid securities) and purchased, more precisely, newly acquired (attracted interbank loans, issuance of bank bills, deposit and savings certificates). Compliance with these signs of the bank's liquidity (timely fulfillment of obligations and without losses) is due to a variety of internal and external factors that determine the quality of the bank's activities and the state of the external environment.

Internal factors include:

The quality of the bank's assets;

The quality of funds raised;

The conjugation of assets and liabilities by terms;

Competent management;

bank image.

The quality of a bank's assets reflects three properties: liquidity, riskiness, profitability.

Liquidity of assets - the ability of assets to be transformed into cash without loss through their sale or repayment of obligations by the debtor (borrower), while the degree of possible losses is determined by the riskiness of the assets.

The bank's liquidity is also determined by the quality of the funds raised, i.е. liquidity of liabilities, stability of deposits and moderate dependence on external borrowings.

The liquidity of liabilities characterizes the speed of their repayment, and hence the degree of revolving for the bank while maintaining the total volume of attracted funds at a certain level. The liquidity of liabilities reflects their term structure. If a bank's attracted resources are dominated by deposits or loans with short maturities, then the liquidity of liabilities is high, and accordingly, this may create problems with the liquidity of the bank as a whole. In such a situation, the bank must often replace one borrowed funds with others.

A serious impact on the bank's liquidity is exerted by the conjugation of assets and liabilities in terms of amounts and terms. The fulfillment by the bank of its obligations to the client involves the coordination of the terms for which the funds are invested with those for which they were provided by their depositors. Ignoring this rule in the activities of a bank operating primarily on borrowed resources will inevitably lead to the impossibility of timely and complete fulfillment of obligations by the bank to creditors.

The internal factors that determine the degree of liquidity of the bank also include management, i.e. a system for managing the bank's activities in general and liquidity in particular. The quality of bank management is expressed in the presence and content of banking policy; rational organizational structure of the bank, allowing for high level solve strategic and current tasks; in the development of an appropriate mechanism for managing the bank's assets and liabilities; in a clear definition of the content of various procedures, including those related to the adoption of the most responsible decisions.

Among the factors that determine the bank's liquidity is its image. The positive image of the bank in the market conditions allows it to gain an advantage over other banks in attracting resources and thus quickly eliminate the lack of liquidity. It is easier for a bank with a good reputation to ensure the stability of its deposit base. He has more opportunities to establish contacts with financially stable clients, which means he has a higher quality of assets.

The bank's first-class image allows it to develop ties with foreign partners, which also contributes to strengthening its financial condition and liquidity.

Bank liquidity also depends on a number of external factors. These include:

General political and economic situation in the country;

Development of the securities market and the interbank market;

Bank of Russia refinancing system for commercial banks;

Efficiency of supervisory functions of the Bank of Russia.

The general political and economic situation in the country creates the prerequisites for the development of banking operations and the successful functioning of the banking system, ensures the stability of the economic basis for the activities of banks, and strengthens the confidence of domestic and foreign investors in banks. Without these conditions, banks are not able to create a stable deposit base, achieve profitability of operations, improve their tools and management system, and improve the quality of their assets.

The development of the securities market makes it possible to provide an optimal system of liquid funds without loss in profitability, since the fastest way to turn bank assets into cash in most foreign countries associated with the functioning of the stock market.

The development of the interbank market contributes to the rapid redistribution of temporarily free cash resources between banks. From the interbank market, in order to maintain its liquidity, a bank can raise funds for a different period, including for one day. The efficiency of obtaining funds from the interbank market depends on the general financial situation, the organization of the interbank market, and the authority of the bank.

Another factor is closely connected with this factor - the system of refinancing of commercial banks by the Bank of Russia. A credit from the Bank of Russia becomes a source of replenishment of the liquid assets of a commercial bank.

The effectiveness of the supervisory functions of the Bank of Russia determines the degree of interaction between the state supervisory authority and commercial banks in terms of liquidity management. The Bank of Russia has the right to establish certain liquidity ratios, guiding banks to comply with these ratios. The more accurately the established indicators reflect the real state of the bank's liquidity, the more opportunities the bank itself and the supervisory authority have to identify liquidity problems in a timely manner and eliminate them.

8.4. Estimation and indicators of liquidity of a commercial bank

In modern Russian practice, two methods for assessing liquidity are used: by means of coefficients and based on cash flow. The basis of the coefficient method is the estimated liquidity indicators established by the Bank of Russia. There are currently three indicators:

H2- Bank's instant liquidity ratio. Regulates the risk of a bank losing liquidity within one business day. Limit value 15%;

H3- current liquidity ratio of the bank. Regulates the risk of liquidity loss by the bank during the next 30 calendar days. Limit value 50%;

H4- standard of long-term liquidity of the bank. Regulates the risk of a bank losing liquidity as a result of placing funds in long-term assets. Limit value 120%

Along with the state regulation of the liquidity of banks through the establishment of economic standards, Russia is developing an assessment of liquidity based on the calculated liquid position: overall and in the context of different currencies. With this method, liquidity is understood as a flow (with the method of coefficients - as a stock).

The liquid position of the bank reflects the ratio of its monetary claims and liabilities for a certain period. If over the period (by a certain date) claims to customers (assets) exceed the bank's liabilities, there will be an excess of liquidity, if liabilities, meaning cash outflows, exceed claims (receipts), there will be a lack of liquidity.

The state of liquidity is assessed for the current date and all subsequent ones, i.e. for the future. To determine the liquid position, a restructured balance sheet is drawn up, in which assets and liabilities are classified by maturity and demand.

There are two main approaches to asset management.

Common fund method . This method is one of the simplest to use in practice.

The funds that a commercial bank places in the course of its activities come from various sources and have different qualities.

The essence of this method is to combine all available resources into a "common pool" for their further distribution among assets in accordance with the bank's preferences. As long as the placement of funds corresponds to the achievement of the goals set by the bank, when conducting specific active operations, it is not taken into account from which sources of funds they are carried out.

Asset Allocation Method (Conversion of Funds) . The essence of this method is to compare the terms and amounts of assets and liabilities of the bank. To do this, the sources and main directions of placement of funds are grouped and compared in such a way that the funds of a certain group of liabilities are placed in certain groups of assets, taking into account the profitability of investments and maintaining the liquidity of the bank.

As specific intermediaries in the money market, they perform 3 basic (specific) operations that distinguish them from other financial and credit institutions:

attraction of deposits;
granting loans;
making calculations.

Also, in addition to the above operations, commercial banks carry out a number of other operations. Conducted are reflected in the relevant articles. And depending on which side of the balance sheet they are reflected, all banking operations are divided into and.

The structure of commercial bank operations

Passive operations of commercial banks

Passive operations of commercial banks- these are operations through which it is carried out: own, attracted and borrowed.

Operations of commercial banks to form own resources include:

operations for the formation of the authorized capital of the bank;
operations for the formation of the reserve fund of the bank;
operations for the formation of insurance funds of the bank;
operations on the formation of other funds of the special purpose bank, which are formed at the expense of the bank's profit;
operations related to the formation and distribution of bank profits.

Attracted resources of commercial banks are formed by the implementation of deposit passive operations. Being intermediaries, banks mobilize (attract) temporarily free funds of individuals and legal entities, which are the basis for further active operations. Commercial enterprises and non-profit organizations (charitable foundations, religious organizations, political parties etc.), as well as state (budgetary) organizations and other commercial banks.

In order to attract resources, commercial banks open various types of accounts for their clients on a contractual basis: on demand (current, settlement, card, correspondent, budget, etc.) and urgent (deposit, deposit). Tools for attracting resources from commercial banks are also: banking and.

Borrowed resources commercial banks mobilize through passive lending and investment operations. Passive credit operations of commercial banks consist in borrowing loan funds for. Interbank loans are, as a rule, short-term loans: from one day () to 3-6 months. are borrowed from other commercial banks, and in extreme cases - from the country's central bank (as a lender of last resort), including by conducting.

Passive investment operations commercial banks are carried out by issuing and placing their own debt obligations in the form of .

The funds of shareholders (founders), depositors, creditors and investors mobilized in the process of passive operations are accumulated at the bank (in case of non-cash receipts) or in the bank's cash desk (in case of cash receipts). Commercial banks carry out further placement of mobilized resources by conducting active operations.

Active operations of commercial banks

Active operations of commercial banks- these are operations related to the placement of mobilized resources in loans, deposits of other banks, investments, fixed assets and inventory items.

In the structure of active operations of banks, the leading place is occupied by credit and investment operations. Commercial banks provide loans:

individuals (, car loans, etc.);
legal entities (one-time loans, etc., including the so-called off-balance sheet lending operations - provision,