Revitalization of industrial zones for parks. Territory revitalization

September 14, 2015, 22:52

Russia is obliged to "retreat", because Zhelyabov and this vile Sonya, his mistress from the generals, "united" against her. Excuse me: why should Russia retreat? Russia - 100,000,000 people, arable fields of a billion acres, apple orchards, cherry orchards, vegetable gardens with cabbage, carrots, and beets. With potatoes. Why should all this "turn to another point" for the sake of Sonya and Zhelyabkn (what a vile surname - and, according to the portrait, a self-satisfied mug of a peasant who has finally "learned") - Why? Why? For God's sake - why?

V.V. Rozanov. Fleeting.

Terrorist ideas appear in the Russian revolutionary movement in the 1860s and were then implemented in the form of terrorist acts.

Women played an active role in the Social Revolutionary terrorist organizations, quite in the spirit of Narodnaya Volya traditions. True, they rarely played a "leading" role, but the number of women among the direct perpetrators of terrorist attacks has increased markedly. According to the American researcher Amy Knight, who devoted a special article to female terrorists in the Socialist Revolutionary Party, among the 78 members of the BO who were part of it from 1902 to 1910. there were 25 women. In total, she managed to identify the names of 44 terrorists who acted as part of various SR combat organizations. Apparently, their number was somewhat higher, but it is hardly possible to identify all of them now.
Motivations for women's participation in freedom movement late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, in general, are understandable. To the social and political reasons, specific "sex" ones were added - women did not have the opportunity to enter universities, their professional career was limited only to the sphere of teaching and medicine, and even then not in full. However, what pushed some women to take up bombs and revolvers? Why, having joined the revolutionary movement, they found themselves in literally the words “in the line of fire”, after all, were there other forms of participation in anti-government activities? Apparently, only social reasons this cannot be explained. Each case, of course, is individual, but the answer must, apparently, be sought in the field of psychology rather than sociology. Although some sociological insights can undoubtedly be useful in understanding the phenomenon of "female terrorism", Amy Knight analyzed the biographical data of 44 SR terrorists and came to the conclusion that they are distinguished by a higher social background and a higher educational level than their male counterparts. So, out of 40 terrorists, whose social origins could be established, 15 were noblewomen or daughters of merchants, 4 came from among commoners, 11 from bourgeois, one was the daughter of a priest, and 9 were born into peasant families. Socialist-Revolutionary terrorists Spiridonova, Bitsenko, Fialka, Shkolnik, Izmailovich follow through railway station Omsk to Nerchinsk penal servitude.

A group of anarchists from the Maltsev prison.

In practice social status many of them was higher than it should have been "by birth". So, the peasant woman Anastasia Bitsenko and the daughter of a soldier Zinaida Konoplyannikova received special education and became teachers. In reality, most of them belonged to that stratum of Russian society, which is usually defined by the term "intelligentsia". Belonging to this sometimes praised, sometimes blasphemed “order” united the daughter of the Yakut vice-governor Tatyana Leokteva or the daughters of the general Alexandra and Ekaterina Izmailovich with the peasant and soldier daughters mentioned above.

In the "Memorial Book of a Socialist-Revolutionary" in 1914 was published statistical summary terrorist acts carried out by the Social Revolutionaries from 1902 to 1911. 20 of the 27 women who took part in these attacks are classified by the compiler as "intellectuals". For comparison: out of 131 male terrorists mentioned in this report, 95 were workers and peasants by occupation. The educational level of terrorists was also high - 11 had higher education, 23 - secondary, 6 more - home, which could well be quite a decent level, and only 3 - initial; one called herself self-taught. Among the terrorists there were 9 teachers and 8 students and only 4 unskilled workers*. Average age in 1906 was 22 years old.

Convicts in Akatui prison - postcard.

The national composition of the Socialist-Revolutionary terrorists is curious - Russians (22) and Jews (13) prevailed.

A high percentage - almost a third - of Jewish women among female terrorists cannot be explained only in general active participation Jews in the Russian revolutionary movement. As historians show, largest number Jews numbered among the Social Democrats. According to Leonardo Shapiro, the Jews were attracted by the internationalist doctrine of Marxism. Significantly fewer Jews joined the Social Revolutionaries, a more nationally oriented party of the Russian peasantry, than the RSDLP. The number of Jewish women among the terrorists did not correlate with the overall percentage of Jews in the AKP. Amy Knight made the plausible suggestion that for a Jewish woman, whose role in the family was tightly regulated, the break with religious and family traditions required much more effort than for a man, occurred at a deeper level. Perhaps that is why, having set foot on the path of revolutionary struggle, they chose its most extreme forms, suggesting, among other things, a readiness for self-sacrifice and a total break with society.
Socialist-Revolutionary terrorists, killers of executive authorities, drink tea in the Maltsev women's hard labor prison (near the village of Akatuya). Russian empire. About 1909.

1. Izmailovich Alexandra Adolfovna. In 1906, in Minsk, together with Ivan Pulikhov, she participated in the assassination attempt on Governor Kurlov. She was sentenced to death, which was replaced by indefinite hard labor.
2. Bitsenko Anastasia Alekseevna. On November 2, 1905, she killed Adjutant General V.V. Sakharov. She was sentenced to death, which was replaced by indefinite hard labor.
3. Ezerskaya Lidia Pavlovna, dentist. Eserka. Participated in assassination attempts on Russian statesmen Minister V.K. Plehve and N. M. Klinberg.
4. Spiridonova Maria Alexandrovna. Eserka. In 1906 she killed gendarmerie colonel G. N. Luzhenovsky. Sentenced to death, replaced by eternal hard labor.
5. Schoolboy Maria Markovna. Eserka. On January 1, 1906, together with A. Shpaizman, she participated in the assassination attempt on the Chernigov governor A.A. Khvostov, who was wounded at the same time. The accomplice was executed, and as a woman, the death penalty was replaced by life imprisonment. In 1911 she was able to escape and get to America.
6. Violet Reveka Moiseevna. Member of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. A seamstress by profession. In 1905, for possession of explosives and the manufacture of bombs intended for terrorist acts, she was sentenced to 15 years of hard labor.

In many female terrorists, sacrificial motives can be traced especially clearly. A classic example is BO member Maria Benevskaya, a Christian believer who made bombs and was injured in an accidental explosion; she found justification for her activities in the Bible rather than in party programs^ Evdokia Rogozhinnikova, who shot the head of the Main Prison Department A. M. Maksimovsky, wrote before her execution that she had embarked on the path of terrorism out of a sense of duty and love for people. Dora Brilliant was eager to go out with a bomb on Plehve or led. book. Sergei Alexandrovich; and in fact, in both cases, death was almost inevitable.

It is interesting to compare the attitude towards the moral side of terrorism of the revolutionaries of two generations - the Narodnaya Volya and the Socialist-Revolutionaries. The legendary Vera Figner survived a 20-year imprisonment in Shlisselburg, went to the settlement and eventually moved abroad, where she became close to the Socialist-Revolutionaries. "Bow" to her came Boris Savinkov. Figner and Savinkov, on the initiative of the latter, led discussions about the value of life, about responsibility for murder and about self-sacrifice, about the similarities and differences in the approach to these problems of the Narodnaya Volya and the Socialist-Revolutionaries. Figner these problems seemed far-fetched. “If you take someone else’s life, give your own easily and freely... We didn’t talk about the value of life, never talked about it, but went to give it away, or were always ready to give it away, somehow simply, without any assessment of what we give or are ready to give.”

Konoplyannikova Zinaida Vasilievna (1878-1906)
The assassin of General Georgy Mina, known as the leader of the brutal suppression of the armed uprising in Moscow in December 1905,

Not so much is known about the biography of Zinaida Konoplyannikova. Born in St. Petersburg in 1878, in 1899 she graduated from the women's teacher's seminary (1899). Getting a woman's education, although it was no longer regarded as nonsense, nevertheless remained quite rare at that time. Most likely, it was during her studies that Zinaida got acquainted with revolutionary ideas, about which there was a lot of talk among young students. In 1900-1903, Zinaida taught at a school in the village. Hotels of the Peterhof district. According to the Okhrana, she kept anti-religious literature in her house, did not go to church, and openly declared that there was no God. With the wording "for revolutionary propaganda among the peasants," she was arrested, imprisoned in the Trubetskoy Bastion, and then in the House of Preliminary Detention. In April 1904, Zinaida was released, and she joined the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. Whether the conclusion influenced her or her inner convictions finally took shape, but in the following years Zinaida is engaged in frankly subversive and underground activities. In 1905, she is arrested with luggage of chemicals and components for a homemade bomb, but is still released. Since 1906, she has been a member of the Flying Combat Detachment of the Northern Region. On August 13, 1906, at the Novy Peterhof station, she approached the carriage in which Major General Ming was sitting with his wife and daughter and shot him four times in the back. The wound received by the general turned out to be fatal. The terrorist was captured and sentenced to death. Last words Zinaida before the execution began: "Comrade, believe, she will rise, the star of captivating happiness." She became the first woman to be hanged in Russia in the 20th century.

Bitsenko Anastasia Alekseevna (1875-?).

Since 1902 - a member of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. Conducted organizational and propaganda work, was a member of the Moscow Committee of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. In November 1905, she killed General Sakharov, who was pacifying peasant unrest in the Volga region. Sentenced to indefinite hard labor. Liberated by the February Revolution of 1917, she joined the left, internationalist wing of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. After October revolution worked in the Moscow City Council, was a member of the Central Committee of the Left Socialist-Revolutionary Party, a member of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. She took part in the negotiations in Brest-Litovsk. In 1918, she left the Left Socialist-Revolutionary Party and joined the RCP(b). In the future, on Soviet work. Arrested in 1938 on charges of belonging to a Socialist-Revolutionary terrorist organization, shot by the verdict of the Military Collegium Supreme Court THE USSR....

Anna Mikhailovna Shulyatikova (December 6, 1874 Novy Usolsk, Perm province - February 17, 1908, old style) Rasputin's last name is her husband.

Anna's father, Mikhail Ivanovich Shulyatikov, was in police affairs, as a member of the "Kazan circle", and the so-called "Kazan conspiracy" of 1861-1863 in support of the Polish uprising, was arrested. In 1863, for distributing proclamations and attempting to organize peasant army in the Vyatka province, exiled to the city of Glazov to his parents for three years, then to the Perm province. Anna was born in Perm province during the exile of M.I. Shulyatikov. In 1882, the Shulyatikov family moved to Moscow. Anna successfully graduated from the 4th Moscow Women's Gymnasium with a silver medal (1892), the Higher Women's (Bestuzhev) Courses in St. Petersburg (1896). Since 1894, she was a member of the Narodnaya Volya Group, participated in the creation of the illegal "Lakhta Printing House", storage and distribution of the printing house's publications. In July 1896, after the destruction of the printing house, Anna hid with her brother V. M. Shulyatikov and sister Olga in the city of Cherepovets. In Cherepovets, she organized a circle for high school students of the women's gymnasium. In December 1896, she was arrested and imprisoned in a house of preliminary detention, then in the Peter and Paul Fortress. In January 1898 she was sent to Eastern Siberia for 5 years. Rasputin(Shulyatikova) Anna Mikhailovna with her daughters Katya and Natasha.

She married the political exile Rasputin Ivan Spiridonovich, whom she met while going into exile on August 19, 1998 (married in the prison church of the transit prison in Yakutsk). In Nizhne-Kolymsk, their daughter Katya was born (06/18/99), and then Natasha in Yakutsk, 07/13/1902. In the summer of 1903, Anna Shulyatikova (Rasputina) returned from Siberia and settled in the estate of her uncle, Charushnikov A.P., in the Maloyaroslavsky district of the Kaluga province. In November 1904 she left for St. Petersburg without permission. Since 1906, a member of the Flying Combat Detachment of the Northern Region of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, led by Trauberg A.D. participated in the preparation of assassination attempts on the head of the St. Petersburg prison, Colonel Ivanov, the prosecutor of the Main Military Court, General Pavlov, the head of the Main Prison Directorate Maksimovsky, the suppressor of the Moscow uprising in Krasnaya Presnya, General Min. Anna Rasputina - the organizer of the assassination attempt on the Minister of Justice Shcheglovitov. As a result of the provocative activities of Azef E.F. arrested on February 7, 1908. together with his comrades, imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress. Petersburg Military District Court sentenced to death. She was hanged on February 17, 1908 on Lisy Nos, near St. Petersburg...

Klimova Natalya Sergeevna (1885-1918)

Revolutionary, Socialist-Revolutionary Maximalist, terrorist. Daughter of a Ryazan landowner, barrister, chairman of the Ryazan department of the "Union of October 17", member of the State Council from the Ryazan Zemstvo Sergei Klimov. According to Varlam Shalamov, the mother of Natalya Sergeevna Klimova was the first Russian female doctor.

1903 - graduated from the Ryazan women's gymnasium with a gold medal
1903 - entered the Lokhvitskaya-Skalon courses in St. Petersburg
1906 - was with her father on the Riviera, where she met the Socialist-Revolutionaries
1906 - in May she joined the Maximalist Socialist-Revolutionary Party, became the wife of the head of the underground Fighting Organization of the Maximalist Socialist-Revolutionaries Mikhail Sokolov (ps. "Medved").
1906 - On November 30, she was arrested for participating in the assassination attempt on Russian Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin (an explosion on Aptekarsky Island). Bombs that were being prepared to assassinate the king were seized from her. In the casemates of the St. Petersburg House of Preliminary Detention, Natalya Klimova wrote the famous letter “To Ryazan Friends” (“Letter before the Execution”), which was published in the fall of 1908 in the journal “Education” next to Marcel Prevost’s novel. Later, for children, Klimova wrote the story “ Red Flower. 1907 - sentenced by a court-martial to death, replaced by indefinite hard labor.

1909 - on the night of June 30 to July 1, thirteen watered convicts, including Natalya Klimova, escaped from the Moscow Provincial Women's Prison (Novinsky Women's Prison).
On camels through the Gobi Desert, on a steamboat across the ocean, Klimova reached Tokyo. From Japan by boat to Italy. From there to Paris. In exile, Natalya Klimova is a member of the Combat Organization of the AKP, an associate of Boris Savinkov. 1911 - Natalya Sergeevna meets a social revolutionary, a militant who fled from the Chita penal servitude. This is a fellow countryman of Mikhail Sokolov, "The Bear". A quick romance, a hasty marriage. 1912 - withdrew from revolutionary activities. Passionate nature, she is completely given to motherhood. First child. Second child. Girls ..1917 - a revolution in Russia and the revolutionaries organize a steamer to Russia, but the children caught a cold, the steamer left. In September, Klimova gave birth to a third child, also a girl, who did not live long. In 1918, Natalya Sergeevna made her last attempt to leave for Russia. Bought boat tickets. But - both girls Natalya Sergeevna, Natasha and Katya, fall ill with the flu. While caring for them, Klimova herself falls ill. But this is not just the flu, it is the flu of 1918 - the world pestilence, the “Spanish flu”. Klimova dies, and the children are brought up by Natalya Sergeevna's friends. Due to which, according to legend, the phrase appeared in Russian: "See Paris and die." The father - he is already in Russia - will meet with the children only five years later, in 1923. In 1934, Klimova's daughter Natalya, who moved to Soviet Union, visited Nadezhda Terentyeva, mother's accomplice on Aptekarsky Island. “She doesn’t look like her mother, she doesn’t look like her,” Terentyeva told the new Natasha. The NKVD arrested Klimova’s husband, who disappeared in the Gulag “without the right to correspond.” Then daughter Natalya was sentenced to 10 years in camps on a trumped-up political charge. She finished her term in the camps of Kazakhstan. Natalya Klimova became the prototype of Natalya Kalymova, the main actor in the novel by Mikhail Osorgin "Sivtsev Vrazhek". He wrote a poignant story about Natalya Klimova " Golden medal Varlam Tikhonovich Shalamov. He helped her daughter Natalya, who had been released from the Gulag, collect materials about her mother.

Rogozinnikov Eustolia Pavlovna (born 1886-1907)

T-terrorist, participant revolutionary movement early twentieth century in the Russian Empire. She was a member of the Northern Fighting Flying Detachment of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. She killed the head of the main prison department, Alexander Mikhailovich Maksimovsky, who introduced corporal punishment for political prisoners in prisons. Evstoliya Rogozinnikova was born in big family, brother - Vyacheslav Pavlovich Rogozinnikov, also participated in revolutionary terror; in the winter of 1908, in Krasnoufimsk, he killed the prosecutor Sviridov S.A. Evstoliya studied at the St. Petersburg Conservatory in the piano class and sang well, she was preparing a trip abroad. Krasnoufimsky doctor Matvey Ivanovich Mizerov. In St. Petersburg, Evstoliya Rogozinnikova got in touch with the revolutionary movement. She took part in the preparation of the assassination attempt on Stolypin, as a result of which she was arrested in the summer of 1907. In the pre-trial detention cell, she feigned insanity, depicting a riot. Doctors-experts who examined the prisoner found her mentally ill, after which she was transferred to a hospital. Evstoliya, with the help of her husband Matvey, who visited, was preparing to escape, which she committed after almost a month in the hospital, on the evening of September 7, 1907. Soon the escape was discovered, and they began to search for Rogozinnikova. For two weeks, Evstoliya hid with the writer Emilia Pimenova, who sympathized with the revolutionaries and often offered shelter to people who found themselves in an illegal situation. Relatives and her husband offered Evstoliya to leave for Milan, but she chose to continue her revolutionary activities and contacted the Northern Combat Flying Detachment.

Newspaper "Russian Word":

PETERSBURG, 17, H. Maksimovsky, head of the main prison department, was mortally wounded in his office. Shot in a row 7 times from a revolver by a woman dressed all in black, quite an intelligent look. Rumors are circulating that the attempt was made by order of the S.-R.

At two o'clock in the afternoon on Monday, October 15, 1907, Rogozinnikova came to the reception room of the Main Prison Directorate. The head of department Maksimovsky had a reception day. Having achieved a personal reception, the terrorist entered the office and fired several shots at Maksimovsky from a revolver almost point-blank. At the sound of shots, everyone who was nearby ran into the office: employees, watchmen, couriers. Rogozinnikova was seized and another revolver fell out of her pocket. During an immediate search, it turned out that the body of the terrorist from the neck to the waist was encircled by a bra, sewn specifically to carry explosives in it. It contained more than 5 kg of extra-dynamite and two detonators connected by a cord. To mask the smell of explosives, Evstoliya heavily perfumed herself with perfume. The cord was located under the jacket so that it could be pulled with your teeth. The explosion was supposed to be done in the secret police, where she was to be interrogated by gendarmes in the presence of high officials. According to experts, the amount of explosives would have destroyed not only those present, but the entire building. They called in a former artilleryman, Lieutenant Colonel Komissarov, assistant chief of security, who, while Rogozinnikova was being held, cut off the cords from the detonators.

The military trial of Rogozinnikova took place the day after the murder of Maksimovsky and sentenced the terrorist to death by hanging. According to eyewitnesses, she met the verdict calmly and with a smile, she refused the last word.

An excerpt from Evstoli's last letter to her family:

I don’t know if you will receive my two letters written after the trial - just in case, I am writing again, believing that it will reach. Once again I tell you, my beloved, that I am not afraid. Believe that it is easy for me to die. Only the highest duty made me go where I went. No, not even duty, love, big, big love for people. For her sake, I sacrificed everything that I had ... - "Hard labor and exile", ed. F.Ya. Kona, Moscow, 1929.

Brilliant Dora Vladimirovna (Vulfovna) 1879-1907) - S.R., terrorist.

She was born into a Jewish merchant family in Kherson. She graduated from obstetric courses. In 1902 she joined the S.-R. In 1904 she joined the Combat Organization of the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries and took a prominent part in carrying out the largest terrorist acts carried out by the Combat Organization - against Plehve (July 1904) and led. book. Sergei Alexandrovich (February 1905). In 1904 she worked in a dynamite workshop created by the Combat Organization in Geneva. For some time she was a member of the Committee of the Combat Organization. At the end of 1905 she was arrested in a secret chemical laboratory in St. Petersburg. Savinkov described Dora as "silent, modest and shy, who lived only by her belief in terror." However, according to his own recollections, after the death of the prince and Plehve, Dora was tormented by remorse. She was arrested in 1905 during a raid on the secret chemical laboratory of the Social Revolutionaries in St. Petersburg. For participation in the assassination attempts, Dora was imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress, where she went crazy and died in October 1909.

Volkenstein Lyudmila Alexandrovna, 1857 - 1906.

Born September 18, 1857 in a noble family. Her father, Alexander Petrovich Alexandrov, the son of a small estate nobleman, was the chief forester in the state forestry in Kiev. Mother - Evdokia Karpovna was quite rich, she owned several houses in Kiev. A year after graduating from the gymnasium L.A. married Alexander Alexandrovich Volkenshtein, a young zemstvo doctor. In the summer of 1877 he was arrested for propaganda activities. This fact became a turning point in the further fate of Lyudmila Alexandrovna. She abandoned the deceased family life and irrevocably joined the selfless revolutionary activity. She participated in the preparation of the assassination attempt on the Kharkov governor, Prince Kropotkin, known for his cruelty and despotism. After the successful execution of the terrorist act, she was forced to go abroad, although her participation in the act consisted only in the fact that she kept a safe house where a plan to kill Kropotkin was being developed. For several years, under the name of Anna Andreevna Pavlova, she spent in Switzerland, France, Italy , Bulgaria. According to the denunciation of the arrest. Oct 26 1883 in St. Petersburg. According to the process of 14 24 -28 Sept. 1884 sentenced to death, commuted to hard labor on 15. Served in Shlisselburg. Then she served a link to Sakhalin. She died during the execution of a demonstration in 1906 in Vladivostok.

From the filer's report:

"... Medium height, well built, beautiful oval face, brown eyes, rather large; thin, dark eyebrows; thick, dark chestnut hair; ... forehead high, clean, complexion rather white, ruddy; in general type little Russian girl.

Maria Alexandrovna Spiridonova (1884-1941)

One of the leaders of the Left Socialist-Revolutionary Party, a terrorist, a participant in the October Revolution. Of the 57 years of her life, she spent 34 years in the royal and Soviet prisons, in hard labor and in exile.

Maria was born on October 16, 1884 in Tambov into a wealthy noble family of the Spiridonovs. Mother led the house and paid all her attention to five children. My father worked as an accountant in a bank and owned a parquet factory. Marusya was a favorite in the family. Kind, sympathetic, generous, independent, who did not tolerate injustice, in the gymnasium she immediately became the best student, although she was known as a rare minx. The patience of the administration was not unlimited. In the eighth grade, Maria was expelled from the gymnasium with such a characteristic that she could not continue her studies. Yes, and the father had died by that time, and the large family quickly became impoverished. The girl got a job in the office of the Tambov noble assembly, showed herself well and was on good terms with her colleagues. Smart, able to easily, beautifully, intelligibly and strongly express her thoughts, she attracted people to her. This ability of Spiridonova was used by comrades in the party of socialist revolutionaries (SRs) when they sent her to workers' circles. She could take anyone with her.

On January 16, 1906, Maria Spiridonova at the Borisoglebsk railway station mortally wounded a civil official of the VI class - an adviser to the Tambov governor G.N. Luzhenovsky, who distinguished himself in suppressing revolutionary uprisings during the Revolution of 1905, Spiridonova was sentenced to death by hanging. She spent sixteen days awaiting execution. Maria was afraid that she would not be able to adequately meet death, she made a little man from a crumb of bread and hung it by a thread, rocked it for hours.
On March 28, Spiridonova was informed of the replacement of the death penalty with indefinite hard labor.
After the February Revolution, Maria Spiridonova was released by order of Kerensky and she began to play one of the main roles among the Left Social Revolutionaries.
In the period April-June 1918, Spiridonova, one of the few who sharply condemned the exit of the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries from the Council of People's Commissars, went over to the camp of political opponents of the Bolsheviks.
On January 22, 1919, Spiridonova was once again arrested by the Moscow Cheka. At the Moscow Revolutionary Tribunal, at which Nikolai Bukharin was a witness for the prosecution, Spiridonova was found guilty of slandering the Soviet government and thereby helping the counter-revolution and isolated from the political and social activities for a year, sent to the Kremlin hospital. In April 1919, she fled from there with the help of the Socialist-Revolutionary Central Committee and was in an illegal position.

In 1937 she was again arrested in Ufa. Military College The Supreme Court of the USSR finds her guilty of the fact that Spiridonova "before the day of her arrest, she was part of the united Socialist-Revolutionary center and, in order to deploy broad counter-revolutionary terrorist activities, organized terrorist and sabotage groups in Ufa, Gorky, Tobolsk, Kuibyshev and other cities ...".
The military collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR sentenced her to 25 years in prison. She served time in the Yaroslavl and Oryol prisons. On September 11, 1941, she was shot by the NKVD in the Medvedev forest near Orel, along with other 153 political prisoners of the Oryol prison.

GIRLS AND DEATH. FEMALE TERRORISM IN RUSSIA HAS A CENTURY HISTORY
Russian terrorists Spiridonova, Bitsenko, Violet, Shkolnik, Izmailovich
Omsk, 1906. Photograph from the family archive of the descendants of the St. Petersburg merchant Sergei Terentyevich Semenov (1840-1909).

The photo is from 1906. Russian terrorists leave the building at the Omsk station to be sent to hard labor to their place of detention.

All women, except for Riveka Fialka, were sentenced in 1906 to capital punishment, but then they were pardoned and sent to Akatui hard labor prison.

Maria Alexandrovna Spiridonova, born in 1884, mortally wounded the provincial councilor Luzhenovsky in Tambov in 1906 (five bullets point-blank). Subsequently, the leader of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party.
After her release, she enthusiastically accepted the revolution, having colossal authority, and got involved in the work. But, already at 18, she realized that the Bolsheviks betrayed the ideals of the revolution, to which she devoted her life. In the cellars of the Cheka, she finally undermined her already wasted health. Maria almost completely lost her sight, could not move independently. She was not broken mentally, but physically broken. And again the link, already Bolshevik. But, and this was not enough. In 1937, absolutely ill, having exchanged her sixth decade, the honored revolutionary terrorist again
arrested. And in 41 they were shot.

Alexandra Adolfovna Izmailovich, born in 1878 In 1906, a noblewoman, the daughter of a Russian general, made an attempt on the life of the Minsk governor Norov. The bullet pierced the collar, but he himself remained unharmed. After her release in February 1917, she worked in the Chernihiv province as a party propagandist and organizer. Since 1919, she was repeatedly arrested and exiled, since 1923 she was in exile. In 1937, the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR was sentenced to 10 years in prison on charges
in belonging to a terrorist organization, and September 8, 1941 sentenced to death.

Lidia Pavlovna Yezerskaya, born in 1866 former dentist. In 1905, the daughter of a wealthy landowner, Lydia Yezerskaya, appeared at the reception of the Mogilev governor Klingenberg under her mother's maiden name, Baroness Meyendorff, fired from a Browning, injuring him. Lydia suffered from a severe form of tuberculosis. In 1909, Yezerskaya was released and exiled to the Trans-Baikal region, and then, in 1912, she was transferred to the Yakut region. Died October 1, 1915 from bronchial
asthma.

Maria Markovna Shkolnik, born in 1885 participated in the assassination attempt on the Chernigov governor A. A. Khvostov on the Red Bridge in 1906. She managed to avoid the fate of her colleagues in hard labor, and she died in 1955 as a personal pensioner of allied significance.

Anastasia Alekseevna Bitsenko, born in 1875 In 1905, she killed Adjutant General V. V. Sakharov of Saratov right in Stolypin's house, in 1938 on February 8, she was arrested on charges of belonging to a Socialist-Revolutionary terrorist organization and on June 16, 1938 was sentenced by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR to capital punishment - execution.

Revekka Moiseevna Violet, born in 1888 former dressmaker. In 1905, for possession of explosives and the manufacture of bombs intended for terrorist acts, she was sentenced to 15 years of hard labor. The youngest of the terrorists, lived until 1975.
They were sentenced to 20 years of hard labor, but Fialka, as a minor, had a third of the term reduced and the final sentence was 13 years and several months. In January 1906, Violet was sent to penal servitude. In the Butyrka transit prison, where she stayed until July, Fialka met five well-known female terrorists sentenced to death, replaced by indefinite hard labor: Maria Spiridonova, Lydia Yezerskaya, Alexandra Izmailovich, Maria Shkolnik and Anastasia Bitsenko.

In August 1906, the terrorists arrived at the Akatuev hard labor prison. Initially, the regime for keeping political prisoners was rather mild, but after several escapes in the winter of 1907, it was decided to transfer six terrorists to the Maltsev prison, where mostly women convicted of criminal offenses were kept. The treatment of Violet and her comrades by the prison authorities was tough, which encouraged the revolutionaries to fight for their rights (the ability to read books, correspond with relatives, and so on).

GIRLS AND DEATH. FEMALE TERRORISM IN RUSSIA HAS A CENTURY HISTORY

A hundred years ago, one of the main problems of the government of the Russian Empire was the problem of terrorism. Narodnaya Volya, “maximalists”, “right-wing” terrorists from the Union of the Russian People… Headache security department there were Socialist-Revolutionaries (Socialist-Revolutionaries) - this party officially, from the day of its inception in early 1902, declared terror one of the main tasks. Under the party, a special Combat Organization with strict discipline and conspiracy was created to carry out terrorist attacks - even the leaders of the Socialist-Revolutionaries knew only two or three people who represented the interests of the BO in the Socialist-Revolutionary Central Committee, and knew only by party pseudonyms. And - remarkably - about a quarter, if not more, of this organization were young women. It was they who often carried out the death sentences of the BOs.

The Seven Hanged

At the end of 1907, the Security Department became aware that an attempt was being prepared on the New Year's days on the uncle of the tsar, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich, and on the Minister of Justice Shcheglovitov. Both of them had to sit at home for the whole holiday so as not to be in danger, but the terrorists knew how to wait and did not abandon their plans.

Five weeks have passed. The Grand Duke and Shcheglovitov lived like in a besieged fortress, almost never leaving their homes, and the Security Department could not figure out the members of the terrorist group. Finally, one surname became known - Rasputin. Anna Rasputina has already been in prison several times, was in Siberian exile, and now she has settled in St. Petersburg. Every morning she came to the Kazan Cathedral, put a candle in front of the image and plunged into prayer. At first, the agents were perplexed by such a zealous prayer zeal of the terrorist, but then they noticed that the same men and women were constantly and just as fervently praying next to her. The worshipers were placed under surveillance, and on February 20 the police arrested nine people - almost all of them were taken from the street and heavily armed. During the arrest of two terrorists, portraying lovers, the girl grabbed a revolver and fired (the young man did not show any resistance). The girl's name was Lydia Sture, she was 22 years old, and she looked very young. One of the terrorists during the arrest shouted: “Caution! I'm covered in dynamite. If I explode, the whole street will be destroyed.” Another was taken near the palace of the Grand Duke with a flower pot in which a bomb was hidden. A suicide bomber, lined with dynamite, Vsevolod Lebedintsev, was supposed to throw himself under Shcheglovitov's carriage and die along with the minister. During a search of the apartments of the terrorists, sets of police uniforms and a plan of the meeting room of the State Council were found. On the plan, the location of the benches of the right-wing members of the council is marked with a cross - it was supposed to throw a bomb precisely in this sector of the hall, since ministers and ministerial candidates were sitting there.

All nine terrorists were brought to court martial. Seven, including Rasputin, Sture and Lebedintsev, were sentenced to death by hanging, the rest received years of hard labor. The prosecutor, who was officially present at the execution of the terrorists, then told the head of the St. Petersburg Security Department, General Gerasimov: “How these people died ... No sigh, no regret, no requests, no signs of weakness ... With a smile on their lips, they went to the execution. They were real heroes." “They were no exception in this respect,” Gerasimov wrote in 1934 in his memoirs. - All terrorists died with great courage and dignity. Especially women. I still clearly remember the story of how Zinaida Konoplyannikova died, hanged for the murder of the commander of the Semenovsky regiment, General Min, who in December 1905 crushed the uprising in Moscow. She ascended the scaffold, reciting Pushkin's lines: "Comrade, believe ...".

Maid of honor-terrorist

In the early days of April 1905, an unknown person brought a suitcase to the St. Petersburg house of a very high-ranking person and asked him to hand it over to the niece of the owner of the house. Since the police were watching the unknown, the suitcase was seized, and it was found to be chock-full of bombs. The owner's niece had to be arrested. This girl - Tatyana Leontyeva, daughter of the Yakut vice-governor, 20 years old, brought up at the Institute for Noble Maidens, rich and beautiful, without five minutes the queen's maid of honor - turned out to be a member of the Fighting Organization of the Socialist-Revolutionaries.

She was instructed to kill Nicholas II - in retaliation for the recent " bloody sunday". At the masquerade ball, dressed as a flower seller, Tatyana was supposed to shoot the tsar with a revolver hidden in a bouquet. The plan failed only because the court balls were canceled - precisely because of "Bloody Sunday".

After several months of solitary confinement in the Peter and Paul Fortress, Tatyana Leontyeva became slightly mentally impaired, and the family managed to transfer her from prison, first to a private hospital, and then send her to Switzerland. Leontieva asked the Combat Organization to use her again in terror, but Boris Savinkov advised her to rest and heal. However, the girl did not heed the advice and joined another revolutionary group. Tatyana Leontieva settled in Interlaken at the Jungfrau Hotel. A certain Charles Muller, a seventy-year-old rentier from Paris, came to this hotel every year to improve his health. And then one day, during dinner, Leontieva came close to Muller and fired several shots at him from a Browning - she mistook the old rentier for the former Russian Minister of the Interior Durnovo (Mueller not only looked like him, but also bore the name that Durnovo usually used on overseas trips).

In March 1907, Tatyana Leontyeva was sentenced by the Tunsky court to many years in prison.

stolen lives

In the summer of 1906, six young women "deprived of all rights of fortune" were transported in a prison car hitched to an eastbound train. They were taken to Siberia - they were all members of the Fighting Organization of the Socialist-Revolutionaries, all participated in terrorist acts, and four out of six were "eternity", that is, the death penalty was replaced by eternal penal servitude. The oldest of the "vechnitsy", Anastasia Bitsenko, was 26, the youngest, Mane Shkolnik, was 19. Maria Spiridonova and Alexandra Izmailovich were 21 years old.

Anastasia Bitsenko, the wife of a Samara merchant (whom she, however, left for the sake of the revolution), killed General Sakharov in Saratov, one of the five generals who suppressed peasant uprisings in the Volga region. Alexandra Izmailovich, herself the daughter of a general who fought in Manchuria, participated in a terrorist attack against the governor of Minsk. Maria Shkolnik, a teacher, made an attempt on the life of the Chernihiv governor. Maria Spiridonova shot the adviser Luzhenovsky, who pacified the peasants Tambov province. Two other passengers of the prison car - Lydia Ezerskaya, convicted of attempting to assassinate the governor of Mogilev, and Rebekah Fialka, who set up a bomb laboratory in Odessa - although they were not “forever”, they had such solid terms that it was almost impossible for them to return to the European part of the country. did not threaten.

They spent 11 years in hard labor - until the February Revolution of 1917. But of these six descendants, only the name of Maria Spiridonova is known - which, in fact, is not very fair, since the fates of the girls were similar, and it is impossible to determine who suffered more. But Spiridonova played a significant role in the subsequent, already Soviet history, becoming one of the leaders of the Left Socialist-Revolutionary Party and leading a rebellion against the Bolsheviks on July 6, 1918. For a long time in Soviet textbooks - and in Soviet mythology - she appeared as an “iron woman” and an implacable ideological enemy, cruel and ruthless (this is how Alla played her Demidov in famous movie"Sixth of July"). Spiridonova was allegedly imbued with the idea of ​​terror almost from the cradle and did not cheat on her all her life.

In fact, until the age of 18, no traces of revolutionary activity are found in the biography of Maria Spiridonova. The youngest daughter of a personal nobleman, a girl from a quite prosperous family, graduated from the Tambov gymnasium and entered an additional class to get the profession of a home teacher. But her father died, and her mother and younger brother remained in the hands of Mary - she had to quit her studies and go to work as a typist. The social circle has changed, Maria met a young lawyer, Mikhail Volsky, who is very popular among Tambov intellectuals, commoners and young ladies, and his older brother Vladimir. Vladimir was expelled from Kyiv University for his revolutionary activities and exiled to his homeland, to Tambov. Between Spiridonova and Volsky Sr. romantic relationship- True, Vladimir was married, but his wife ran away with a visiting officer, so he considered Mary to be his bride.

Whole nature, prone to exaltation, Maria Spiridonova went to the end in everything. Fascinated by the ideas taught by the Volsky brothers, she made sure that she was included in the Combat Organization. After the terrorist attack, she expected to die beautifully for a "just cause", but it did not work out. “My death seemed to me so socially valuable, and I was so looking forward to it, that the abolition of the sentence and its replacement with eternal hard labor had a very bad effect on me: I’m not feeling well ... I’ll say more - it’s hard for me! I hate autocracy so much that I don’t want any favors from it,” she wrote from prison. Perhaps death would have been the best outcome for Spiridonova - a severe mental illness that began after her arrest in 1906 did not let her go for the rest of her life, spent in prisons, hard labor and exile, first royal, then Soviet - after her arrest in 1918 ( Spiridonova was shot on September 11, 1941, she was 56 years old.)

The fate of Alexandra Izmailovich was exactly the same. She joined the Socialist-Revolutionary Party under the influence of her older sister Ekaterina, and after her got into the Combat Organization. The attack, in which Alexandra was involved, failed, but its participants were still sentenced to death. For some (including Alexandra), the execution was replaced by hard labor. On the way to Siberia, Izmailovich met Spiridonova and since then has been her constant companion in all the vicissitudes of life, she went through all the arrests and exiles with her already in Soviet times.

But unlike Spiridonova, who nevertheless married (in 1924, Ilya Mayorov, a former member of the Central Committee of the Left Socialist-Revolutionary Party), personal life Alexandra ended with the first arrest, barely begun. Once in prison after the terrorist attack, Alexandra began to tap the walls of the cell with Morse code. It turned out that an old acquaintance, a young man named Karl, an old admirer of Ekaterina Izmailovich, was sitting above her. They started chatting and talking for hours. A few days later, news came through the prison mail that Catherine had been executed (she had tried to kill Admiral Chukhnin). The common grief brought Alexandra and Karl closer together. Previously, death was perceived abstractly, but now, when a loved one has passed away, everything appears in a different light. Death is non-existence, nothing, and it is still too early for them, twenty years old, to pass into this nothingness. About a month later, Karl and Alexandra realized that they loved each other, explained themselves, got engaged - and then she was sent to penal servitude in Akatuy, and he was sent into exile to the North. For life.

A similar story happened with Manya Shkolnik. After the failed terrorist attack and arrest, she spent six days in solitary confinement, on death row, waiting every night for the sentence to be carried out at night. On the seventh day, she heard a knock on the wall - her partner in the attack, Kolya Shpaizman, was placed nearby. That's right, in Morse code, Kolya confessed his love to her - and on the same night he was shot. “He was taken to the yard,” Maria later recalled, “he came to my door and said: “Farewell, my beloved. Farewell, my dear." I screamed: "Kolya, Kolya!" But he didn't seem to hear me. Then I leaned against the wall through which Kolya was talking. It's so strange and scary - he was no longer there. He was nowhere to be found…”

confusing

When you read the memoirs of former terrorists (and many of them left memoirs published in Russia in the 20s of the 20th century), you cannot get rid of the impression: when embarking on the path of terror, these girls did not realize that they really expects. They longed to die for freedom - in the world, as you know, even death is red - but in ordinary, "law-abiding" life, nothing bright and outstanding was foreseen. There were few opportunities for realization in any other sphere, except for the family, for women then. They could not legally participate in public and political life - until the February Revolution of 1917, women were deprived of the right to vote. Business, according to civil law, could not be engaged either. Higher education for most women was almost inaccessible. In the sphere of culture and art, things were somewhat better, but artistic talent is a rather rare phenomenon, Chekhov's Arkadina will not work out of everyone, and the fate of Nina Zarechnaya is very unenviable. And if in the capitals a young woman could still, having shown extraordinary perseverance, find an application for her forces, then in the provinces it was almost impossible to do this. Revolutionary circle - practically the only way out. And work in a revolutionary circle made it possible to see a lot that aroused compassion and a desire to help in young women: the fierce poverty of peasant families, hungry children (by the way, it was not in vain that a wave of popular riots swept through the empire at the beginning of the last century, it was not in vain that Stolypin insisted on the need for land reforms - the situation of the peasants was really catastrophic). So the cause of the revolution - terror against the authorities - seemed both good and the only way for a woman with a social temperament.

They were preparing to die beautifully and did not think at all about what awaits them if they fail to die. And waiting for them was hard and monotonous work in hard labor, and then a boring and hopeless life in a settlement, somewhere in an abandoned taiga village. The biography ended with the verdict of the court, and many years of vegetation began. Many after the terrorist attack cracked, began mental illness, as in Leontieva and Spiridonova, is a natural consequence of the suppression of normal human instincts: fear of death and desire to live.

“I was born under the most unlucky star,” said Maria Spiridonova at the end of her life. “For the first, but not the last time, I had to see a young life born for happiness, doomed to eternal torment due to involvement in the revolution,” General Gerasimov wrote about Tatyana Leontyeva in his memoirs.

female suicide bomber terrorism islamic

For the most detailed study of the task, it is necessary to define the interpretation of terrorism. One of the possible definitions is offered by M. Odessky and D. Feldman. They define terror as "a way of controlling society through preventive deterrence." Terrorism, in their opinion, is a negative social phenomenon. The methods used by terrorists are violent and aimed at achieving the set goals, which are based on the "principle of intimidation" and the focus on influencing the current political, socio-economic and ideological situation. This definition implies that one of the goals of terrorist actions is to generate fear among the population and further use this fear to change various areas of public life.

A wave of terrorist attacks swept the United States of America (the explosion of the buildings of the World Trade Center in New York on September 11, 2001), Europe (a series of explosions in trains on railway stations Madrid (Spain) March 11, 2004; a series of explosions at underground stations and city buses in London (UK) July 7, 2005), Central and Southeast Asia(a series of terrorist attacks in Indonesia in 2002) and the Middle East (a suicide attack on a quarter in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia) on May 13, 2003; the capture and release of hostages in Khobar (Saudi Arabia) on May 30, 2004). Russia also appeared on the list of countries that experienced the consequences of terrorist activities.

For Russia, the problem of terrorism is not new. Initially, terrorism in Russia appeared as a theoretical doctrine, and only later, in mid-nineteenth century, began to be used as an independent tactic - April 4, 1866 D.V. Karakozov fired at Alexander II. This marked the beginning of the hunt for the "reformer", who did not dare to bring to its logical conclusion the initiated liberal transformations in the Empire.

Women's appeal to terrorist activities in Russia

One of the most interesting features modern terrorist organizations lies in the fact that women began to play an important role in them. AT West Germany, where two-thirds of the terrorists wanted in August 1977 were women, this phenomenon manifested itself most clearly.

In view of the limited participation of women in politics in most countries, the fact that women had influence in the sphere of revolutionary violence is still a mystery that few scholars undertake to explore and explain. But, no matter how confusing it may seem, it is undoubtedly a phenomenon of modern political processes. The trend of female terrorists originates in Russia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. One of the founders of female terrorism is a woman named Vera Zasulich, who in 1878 attacked one of the chiefs of the detective police in St. Petersburg.

An important event in the history of terrorist activities in Russia is the formation of the Russian revolutionary terrorist Narodnaya Volya organization and, in particular, the terrorist faction of Narodnaya Volya (Narodnaya Volya), which used terror as a method of political struggle. 10 out of 31 members of the executive committee of Narodnaya Volya were women (Appendix 1). In the eighties of the nineteenth century, the women of Narodnaya Volya took a direct part in organizing terrorist acts, taking responsibility on an equal basis with their party comrades. When, after about a decade of relative calm, the Socialist Revolutionary Party revived the terrorist movement at the beginning of the twentieth century, party members found many followers and adherents of their ideas among the female radical population of Russia. In the period from 1905 to 1908 there were 11 terrorist attacks by women members of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party.

Most scholars find it pointless to draw a parallel between contemporary female terrorists and their Russian predecessors. While the former are considered irrational and almost insane fanatics, Russian women are in most cases idealized and elevated to the level of heroines who fought bravely against the oppressive tsarist regime. Despite the fact that women at that time were involved in terrorist activities, they were sympathized and supported not only by the liberal layer of their own society, but also by certain sections of Western European and American societies. Nineteenth-century terrorists such as Sofya Perovskaya and Vera Figner have become legends and it is believed that the next generation of female terrorists, of whom there is so little mention in literature, simply followed their traditions.

But still, the female terrorists (most of whom were members of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party) who operated in the period after 1900 in Russia were somewhat different from their predecessors. These differences were in more associated with changes in the political environment in which they had to operate. There were many times more opportunities to convince the state of the need for some indulgences in the field of granting political freedoms, especially after the 1905 revolution.

There was another radical organization - the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP), which, in the process of fighting the regime, resorted not to actions of mass intimidation, but to agitation and propaganda. So, in contrast to the situation that developed in 1881, there were alternative ways to bloodshed and violence to influence the regime and change it. Even the leaders of the Socialist Revolutionary Party realized this when they announced a temporary cessation of the use of terrorist methods in 1905.

Despite this, female members of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party who took part in the commission of terrorist acts often did not recognize such methods as an alternative to terror, perhaps due to the fact that they, like their colleagues, were guided not only by rational political reasons. Memoirs of female terrorists rich in bright details events, testify to the close interaction of emotional, psychological and social factors that underlie their terrorist activities and shed light on the characteristics of female psychology, which was the best suited for a terrorist. It becomes clear that these women were the ideological inspirers of the campaign of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, and without them the developed program would probably never have been implemented.

Although by the 1990s most radical women were ardent opponents of feminism, their memoirs and biographies indicate that their ideas were quite strongly influenced by feminist ideas. Undoubtedly, the desire for personal independence, productivity and purposefulness in matters of career growth, which broke the stereotype of the wife and mother of the family, were only prerequisites against the background of deeper social reasons.

Revolutionary ideas took root in a woman's brain for the same reasons they found refuge in a man's brain - both of them moved in the society of students and interacted with the masses in legal or semi-legal cultural activities - except that women felt inequality and the need to prove its usefulness to society.

The feminist movement achieved some success by 1900, but women inevitably ran into some pretty serious obstacles in their quest to lead a productive life outside the home. They were expelled from the university and, although educational programs higher professional education for women existed, the standards were not identical for the representatives of different sexes, and there were often no educational places for women. As soon as a woman received a secondary, secondary special or higher education, the possibilities of applying the professional skills acquired in the learning process were limited to the sphere of teaching and healthcare. Problems also existed in personal level. Despite the spread of feminist ideas, the old values ​​still prevailed and most parents continued to raise their daughters in the traditional female roles of mother and wife. Because of this, for most young women, making the decision to leave native home and subsequently join radical circles most often meant a break with family members and past life, the rejection of all the values ​​​​that were laid in them from early childhood. In the memoirs of some women, one can find evidence of skirmishes between parents and daughters in the process of emancipation of the latter.

This became an even greater problem for Jewish women - who joined the radical movements in increasing numbers - because they were brought up in even more strict families than Russian women. Many Jewish parents were shocked revolutionary activity their sons. According to Henry Tobias, their daughters' involvement was an even bigger shock.

It is obvious that, in addition to determination, behind such rebellious acts there was also a commitment revolutionary ideas. As soon as women escaped from their families, they poured into terrorist activities with unprecedented zeal. The revolution became their life, led them to struggle for harmony in beliefs and actions. Since the populist period, a deep will to maintain integrity and the highest ethical standards has been feature women's bloc of the revolutionary movement. Men, of course, were also inspired by the idea of ​​devotion, but women's concern for personal and moral aspects the fight was exceptional.

Figure of Russian and international socialist movement, took part in revolutionary circles. Together with other rebels, she tried, with the help of false royal manifestos, to raise peasant uprising under the slogan of equalizing redistribution of land.

She became famous thanks to the assassination attempt on the St. Petersburg mayor Fyodor Trepov - on February 5, 1878, at a reception with an official, she shot him with a revolver, seriously injuring him. However, the jury acquitted Vera Ivanovna.

The next day after her release, the sentence was protested, and the police issued an order to capture Zasulich, but she managed to hide in a safe house and was soon transferred to her friends in Switzerland. Author of literary and scientific papers. She was personally acquainted with Lenin. She died in 1919 at the age of 69 from pneumonia.

Sofia Perovskaya

The first woman in Russia to be executed in a political trial. Daughter former governor Petersburg, Lev Perovsky was the direct organizer of the assassination of Tsar Alexander II.

She also participated in the failed assassination attempt on the ruler in November 1879. The goal was to blow up royal train near Moscow. Sonya played the role of the lineman's wife. From the house in which they settled, a dig was carried out under the canvas railway and a mine was laid. However, the explosion occurred after the emperor had passed dangerous place. In 1881, the criminals brought the matter to an end. Perovskaya personally drew up a plan of arrangement and with a wave of a white handkerchief gave a sign to Ignatius Grinevitsky, who threw the bomb. On April 3, 1881, she was hanged on the parade ground of the Semyonovsky regiment.

Vera Figner

She was the main defendant in the famous "14" trial - the trial of members of the terrorist organization "Narodnaya Volya", accused of a number of terrorist acts, including an attempt on the military prosecutor Strelnikov. Prior to this, Figner participated in the assassination attempt and assassination of Alexander II, but the only one of the organizers escaped arrest. In 1884, she was sentenced to death by the St. Petersburg Military District Court. However, the execution was replaced by indefinite hard labor. She died on June 15, 1942 from pneumonia, and was buried in Moscow at the Novodevichy Cemetery.

Ludmila Volkenstein

Hereditary noblewoman, was born in Kyiv. When in 1877 her husband, zemstvo doctor Alexander Volkenshtein, was arrested for propaganda activities, this played huge role in a woman's life.

She joined the revolutionaries. In February 1879, she participated in the preparation of an assassination attempt on the Kharkov governor, Prince Kropotkin.

When the prince was killed, she fled abroad, living under the name of Anna Pavlova in Switzerland, France, Italy, Turkey, Bulgaria and Romania. On a fake passport, she returned to St. Petersburg, where she was arrested on a denunciation and brought to the military district court. The sentence was severe - the death penalty. Later, the punishment was changed to imprisonment in the Shlisselburg prison. She spent almost 13 years in solitary confinement, until in 1896 she was sent into exile on Sakhalin.

Anna Rasputina

The silver medalist of the 4th Women's Moscow Gymnasium has a long track record. As a member of the Flying Combat Detachment of the Northern Region of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, she participated in the preparation of assassination attempts on the head of the St. Petersburg prison, Colonel Ivanov, the prosecutor of the Main Military Court, General Pavlov, the head of the Main Prison Directorate Maksimovsky, General Ming. The organizer of the assassination attempt on the Minister of Justice Shcheglovitov.

Arrested on February 7, 1908, along with her comrades, sentenced to death. On February 17, 1908, she was hanged in the Fox Nose.

Zinaida Konoplyannikova

The murderer of General Georgy Mina, known as the leader of the brutal suppression of the armed uprising in Moscow in December 1905, worked as a simple teacher in a rural school in Gostilitsy near Peterhof.

On August 13, 1906, at the Novy Peterhof station, she approached the carriage in which Major General Ming was sitting with his wife and daughter and shot him four times in the back. The wound received by the general turned out to be fatal.

The terrorist was captured and sentenced to death. The last words of Zinaida before the execution were: "Comrade, believe, she will rise, the star of captivating happiness." She became the first woman to be hanged in Russia in the 20th century.

Dora Diamond

She was a member of the combat organization of the Social Revolutionaries, headed by Boris Savinkov. She was directly involved in the manufacture of explosive devices that killed Vyacheslav Plehve and Grand Duke Sergey Aleksandrovich.

Savinkov described Dora as "silent, modest and shy, who lived only by her belief in terror". However, according to his own recollections, after the death of the prince and Plehve, Dora was tormented by remorse.

She was arrested in 1905 during a raid on the secret chemical laboratory of the Social Revolutionaries in St. Petersburg. For participation in the assassination attempts, Dora was imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress, where she went crazy and died in October 1909.

Natalya Klimova

The daughter of a Ryazan landowner joined the Maximalist Socialist-Revolutionary Party in 1906. On August 12, 1906, she participated in the assassination attempt on Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin. The terrorists blew up his government dacha on Aptekarsky Island. Despite the fact that Stolypin himself remained alive, 27 people died, 33 were seriously injured, many later died. Among the victims are the Penza Governor Sergei Khvostov and Prince Shakhovsky, a member of the Council of the Minister of the Interior.

November 30, 1906 Klimova was identified and arrested. Sentenced by a court-martial to death, commuted to indefinite hard labor. She ran. She died of influenza in Paris in October 1918.

Evstoli Rogozinnikova

She is famous for personally killing the head of the main prison department, Alexander Maksimovsky, for introducing corporal punishment for political prisoners in prisons.

The crime took place on October 15, 1907. She came to the Main Reception Department and obtained a personal reception from the chief. Entering his office, the girl shot Maksimovsky several times with a revolver. Rogozinnikov was captured.

During the search, it turned out that the girl had carried explosives with her: more than 5 kg of extra-dynamite and two detonators connected by a cord. The plan of the terrorists was as follows: during the interrogation, Rogozinnikova was supposed to pull out the cord that would set the bomb in action. But this was not destined to come true. The criminal was disarmed.

The military court sentenced the terrorist to death. She was hanged on October 18, 1907 in Lisy Nos.

Fanny Kaplan

The name of the terrorist who made an attempt on the life of Vladimir Lenin is known to everyone. The assassination attempt took place on August 30, 1918 at the Michelson plant in the Zamoskvoretsky district of Moscow, where the leader of the revolution spoke at a meeting of workers. After the event in the factory yard, he was wounded by several shots. Kaplan was arrested immediately, during a search they found Browning number 150489 in her.

During interrogations, she stated that she reacted extremely negatively to the October Revolution, considers Lenin a traitor and is sure that his actions "delete the idea of ​​​​socialism for decades."

Fanny Kaplan was shot without trial on September 3, 1918 on the oral instructions of the Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee Sverdlov. The corpse was pushed into a tar barrel, doused with gasoline and burned near the walls of the Kremlin.

And although there was a lot of controversy about who actually shot at Lenin, recently the Prosecutor General's Office of the Russian Federation officially closed the case on the assassination attempt, insisting on the only version - it was Kaplan.

redevelopment industrial areas requires new approaches: replacing the production function with only a residential or public-business function is not effective enough. Methods for the revitalization of industrial facilities and territories were discussed at round table"Industrial Heritage of the Two Capitals: Preservation and Popularization", held as part of the St. Petersburg International Cultural Forum.

Industrial heritage is a vulnerable and underestimated area of ​​heritage, says Doctor of Architecture, Professor of the Department of Art History and Cultural Studies of St. A. L. Stieglitz Margarita Stieglitz.

Special approach

“This is a specific area and it requires a special approach that is different from other areas of heritage,” says Ms. Stieglitz. “Today, the situation with him is at the junction of cardinal changes and decisions.” In her opinion, it is important to single out points in the industrial zones that could become the center of the formation of the environment. The topic of use is the most acute one: a significant part of St. Petersburg industrial sites that have lost their functionality are abandoned, often even if there is an owner.

The list of potential sites for renovation, cited by Margarita Stieglitz, includes the Novo-Admiralteyskaya shipyard, the territory of the Obukhov plant, the buildings of the meat processing plant named after. S. M. Kirov on the Moscow Highway, the water tower of the rope shop of the Krasny Gvozilshchik plant, the complexes of the Izhora plant, the Red Triangle plant, the buildings of the Stieglitz paper mill on Sinopskaya Embankment and a number of others.

There are examples of successful revitalization, but they are rare and often involve compromises. So, for example, in order to preserve the water tower of the main station of the St. Petersburg city water pipelines, a modern glass structure had to be erected nearby. And when creating the creative space "Weavers" in the building of the paper-spinning manufactory, only the front facade was preserved.

“We have already passed the first stage, proving that monuments of industrial architecture and engineering have a significant status, like other heritage. They were able to put them under protection and include them in the register. Now another stage has begun - using, giving objects such forms that could not “kill” the monument, but, on the contrary, make it an engine for the development of the urban environment,” concluded Ms. Stieglitz. To intensify work on heritage conservation, ICOMOS has established a Scientific Committee on Industrial Architecture and Engineering. Works out options for the use of industrial areas and working group under the Committee for economic policy St. Petersburg. But, according to Mrs. Stieglitz, officials do not always pay due attention to the historical and cultural status of objects.

Intangible values

The problem of the significance and value of industrial heritage objects is developed by the head of the Moscow bureau of MT Architects, Lyudmila Titova. It raises the question of defining the very concept of "heritage". In her opinion, the heritage bears, first of all, an associative value. But the socio-cultural factor in the practice of reconstruction is practically not taken into account.

It is not clear who should determine the value of an object: experts or society? Most of the factories that we see on archival footage are perceived by us as material objects, we pay attention to unique engineering solutions, features of architectural structures, but forget about the users of this object. About the people who worked at these factories or lived nearby, about the significance of this object for them. Lyudmila Titova is in favor of preserving, among other things, intangible manifestations of the value of industrial heritage. But methods of working with them have not yet been developed.

She suggested that today we are dealing with an incorrect typology of heritage. “There is an idea to connect it not with the functional purpose of the building, but with those for whom the object was built, for whom it was designed,” says Ms. Titova. “Heritage conservation approaches need to be revisited in the context of the fourth industrial revolution.”

Sergey Georgievsky, General Director of the Moscow Agency for Strategic Development Center, spoke about the methods of working with industrial heritage. He presented the results of a study conducted by the agency on the typology of industrial areas and redevelopment practices on the example of the revitalization of industrial areas in Moscow.

The subject of the study was 46 production areas, which are priority from the point of view of the general plan of the capital. An architectural, urban planning, historical, cultural and economic analysis work with them. The main stages of the study consisted in the typology industrial facilities and determining the potential for each type.

The researchers divided all production areas into 8 groups, highlighting the main problems and recommendations for each. The problems of low permeability of territories, a large number of fencing, social exclusion, low commercial activity. Among the private nuances are the distance from the metro, proximity to a cemetery or industries. Recommendations for such territories were the preservation and development of the frame, the elements of which can be objects cultural heritage, road network, unique building morphotype, landscape features. Openness is proposed to be achieved through the creation public spaces, social facilities, creative industries and other points of cultural diversity.

Analysis of approaches to renovation and redevelopment of industrial zones and their economic efficiency revealed two main approaches to working with industrial heritage: adaptation and reconstruction. The advantages of the first one are in the preservation of key facilities without large investments, with giving them a new, relevant functional purpose. Reconstruction involves large investments in complex revitalization, often this approach is accompanied by the loss of historical industrial ensembles, only key or iconic buildings are preserved. The General Plan of Moscow provides for the replacement of production functions with a number of new ones - residential, public and business, recreational. It is also planned to create new high-tech industries. But in fact, the construction of housing and apartments is most actively implemented. Sergey Georgievsky connects this with the development of the city's transport infrastructure and its local history: a significant part of the historical industrial facilities are within the boundaries of the MCC and the third transport ring.

“When developing a redevelopment strategy, it should be understood that the chaotic development of various sections of the production zone and targeted reorganization are ineffective as tools for transformation,” says Sergey Georgievsky. It is also inefficient to attract a single investor to the development of the territory, as a result, this leads to its monofunctionality. Researchers propose to divide the projected territory into lots according to functional value and work with a group of investors, each of whom will be responsible for the development of a specific function. Together with the Laboratory of the General Plan of Moscow, the agency analyzed the weight of each factor and the cost of various scenarios used today for the redevelopment of industrial areas. The discovery was that capital investments in reconstruction when changing the functional purpose are lower than investments in new construction, the difference is up to 29%. “The myth that redevelopment with preservation, work with existing facilities and territories is very expensive, time consuming and difficult, but it is much easier to demolish and build, is just a myth,” Mr. Georgievsky assures. “Often, capital investments, taking into account restoration, are cheaper than new construction.”

He cites the renovation of the territory of the ZIL plant in Moscow as an example to illustrate his conclusion. The conclusion drawn by the authors of the study is that the same type of development formats are no longer effective. Using a variety of options is more productive; To do this, not one, but several developers should participate in the renovation of industrial sites. The new functionality of the former industrial facilities should be diverse, going beyond the boundaries of only residential and public and business functions.

Sergey Georgievsky, Director General of the Center for Strategic Development Agency:

– The loss of industrial areas in the city of their industrial purpose is a global trend. Production moves out of the city. In Moscow, we are seeing two trends - the transformation into public and business areas and housing. At the same time, demolition still prevails over adaptation. For effective redevelopment, a variety of existing approaches should be used - this is just a matter of the work of the city, developers and the expert community with each other. Unfortunately, there is currently no such dialogue at all.