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Elim III surpassed in intelligence and education all his predecessors after, and in the nobility of character, sincere desire to work for the benefit of the fatherland - all sultans, starting from. He was young, energetic, active, enjoyed sympathy among the Turks and at least did not arouse antipathy among his Christian subjects.

His reign was destined to be milestone in history Ottoman Empire. Selim III ascended the throne at the very beginning of the unsuccessful Austro-Russian-Turkish war for the Turks. Despite all efforts, Selim was defeated in it. In 1789 Turkish army was defeated by Russians and Austrians at Focsani and Rymnik. Then Ackerman and Bender were lost on the Russian front. Then the Austrians took Belgrade and Semendria. However, in 1790, the Austrian emperor Joseph II returned everything captured under a peace treaty. However, even after Austria's withdrawal from the war, defeats on the Russian front continued. On December 22, 1790, the Izmail fortress, which had a garrison of 35,000, was stormed by troops under the command of Suvorov. The armed forces of the Sultan were on the verge of complete exhaustion. The Ottoman Empire sued for peace. On December 29, 1791, a peace treaty was signed in Iasi, which brought Russia new territorial and political advantages. Selim III had to finally abandon the Crimea and cede the land between the Bug and the Dniester to Russia.

This defeat forced the Sultan to take the path of reform. The need for a new army, reorganized in the European manner, then became clear to many far-sighted statesmen Turkey. As for Selim himself, he was a supporter of reforms from youthful years. Even then, when, according to the customs of that time, he was in isolation in a special room in the Topkapu Palace (the so-called cafes, or shimshirlik, where they settled with late XVI in. sons of sultans, deposed sultans and other members of the dynasty for fear that they would encroach on the throne), Selim was keenly interested in the affairs of the state. The future sultan spent 15 years in the café (from the age of 13), but his isolation was not strict, and the heir had the opportunity to communicate with reform supporters. His father's doctor Lorenzo told him a lot about Europe and the European army. With his mediation, Selim even corresponded through the French ambassador Choiseul-Goufier with the king of France.

Selim began preparing for military reforms immediately after the end of hostilities, even before the signing of a peace treaty with Russia. At that time, the main parts of the Turkish army were the cavalry militia and the Janissaries. Everyone knew about the extremely low combat qualities of both those and others. No one wanted to fulfill their fief duties, so that the sultans only with great difficulty managed to collect the militia. As for the Janissary corps, it has long since turned from a support of the Sultan's power into a hotbed of unrest and rebellion. However, there was nothing to replace them. Create regular units in Turkey, where there has never been a general conscription, no recruiting system, it was very difficult. Nevertheless, in 1793, Selim began to form a new army. In order not to irritate the Janissaries, he was formally included in the palace guards and was called the "corps of bostanji shooters." Its number for the beginning was set at 12 thousand people. Foreign instructors from France, England and Sweden were invited to officer positions. In military engineering and maritime schools under the guidance of European teachers, the training of national personnel began - future officers and engineers. Despite the relatively high salary, there were few hunters to serve in regular units. The established number of the corps - 12 thousand - was reached only in 1804.

In parallel, there was a reorganization of other military units. Artillery units began to receive new types of guns. The old cannon and gunpowder factories were modernized, but they did not work well. A lot of effort was spent on recreating battle fleet who could answer modern requirements. Shipbuilding engineers invited from Sweden and France restored 15 shipyards and started producing modern ships. In a few years, 45 ships were built, and by the end of Selim's reign, the Turkish fleet consisted of 100 ships, including more than 40 battleships and frigates. Strict discipline was introduced among the sailors, and examinations were held for officers on the subject of knowledge of maritime affairs. However, the Turks themselves were reluctant to enter the naval service. Sailors had to be recruited from among other peoples, primarily the Greeks. At the same time, Selim tried to improve the condition old army and introduce in it the methods of European military training, but did not achieve tangible success. The Sultan and his like-minded all the time had with great difficulty to overcome the traditional prejudice against everything European.

Meanwhile, the need for a new combat-ready army became more and more palpable. The whole reign of Selim passed in external and internal wars. The integrity of the empire was constantly under threat. In 1798 the war with France began. French Corps led by General Bonaparte captured Egypt. True, when trying to take over Syria, the French were defeated, and soon, due to the English blockade and the loss of contact with France, their situation became critical. In June 1802, the remnants of the French army, led at that time by General Kléber, laid down their arms. But as soon as the Franco-Turkish war ended, internal unrest began. In 1804, an uprising broke out in the Belgrade Pashalik. At the head of the rebels stood the leader of the haiduks Kara-Georgy. In the spring, the rebels captured many cities and laid siege to Belgrade, where the dains of the Janissaries settled. In 1805 and 1806 the 70,000-strong army of our Bosnia and Skutar unsuccessfully fought against Kara-George. It was not possible to suppress the uprising. In December 1806, the Serbs drove the Janissaries out of Belgrade and took possession of the whole country. At the same time, in the spring of 1805, the power of the Turks was overthrown in Egypt, where the Albanian commander Muhammad Ali established himself. (Selim was forced to recognize him as an Egyptian pasha, although in fact since then Egypt has become an independent state.) In Arabia successful war Wahhabis of Najd turned against the Turks. To complete the misfortunes, in 1806 a new Russian-Turkish war began.

Under these conditions, Selim made a last attempt to increase the size of his army. Ignoring old Turkish traditions, he issued a decree in March 1805 on the beginning of recruitment in the cities and villages of Rumelia. Physically strong young people aged 20-25, including the Janissaries, were subject to conscription into the army. But the very first attempt to recruit in the small town of Tekirdag ended in a rebellion. Selim had to yield and suspend the decree. In the spring of 1806, having drawn large forces of "new troops" into Rumelia, the Sultan tried to recruit again. However, the Janissaries, supported by the local population, entered into battle with the units reorganized in the European manner. Abdurrahman Pasha, who commanded them, could not even break through to Edirne and was forced to turn back. Selim again yielded and recalled Abdurrahman Pasha to Istanbul.

This defeat proved fatal for the Sultan. The enemies of the reforms raised their heads. At the beginning of 1807, a conspiracy formed in Istanbul, headed by the Deputy Grand Vizier Musa Pasha. The conspirators attracted to their side the so-called yamaks, that is, the soldiers of the auxiliary troops in the garrisons of the forts located along both banks of the Bosphorus. They were told that soon all yamaks would be dressed in the uniform of regular army soldiers and forced to do military exercises. On May 25, 1807, the Yamaks revolted. In the evening, they elected Mustafa Kabachki-oglu as their leader chaush (junior commander) and on May 27 moved to Istanbul. On the way they were joined by artillerymen, part of the crews of the fleet and the Janissaries of the capital. On May 28, the number of rioters reached 20 thousand people. To calm the rebellion, Selim announced the dissolution of new regular units, but his enemies were not satisfied with this. They demanded that the Sultan execute 11 of his closest associates - supporters of the reforms. Selim agreed to this, but even at that price he could not stay on the throne. On May 29, the rebels, who had gathered on the Meat Square in Istanbul (by this time their number had reached 50 thousand), demanded the abdication of the Sultan. On the same day, Selim renounced the throne and went to prison in a cafe, and the 28-year-old prince who came out of there was proclaimed sultan.

However, not all reformists died during the coup. Some of them were at the front in the Danube army. In July 1808, troops loyal to Selim, led by Mustafa Pasha Bayraktar, captured Istanbul. On July 28, they surrounded the Sultan's palace and started a fight with the guards. Seeing that his power had come to an end, he ordered to kill Selim. He courageously resisted the killers, but was eventually strangled by them.

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early years

Sultan Mustafa was under the influence of mysticism all his life: the oracles predicted to him that his son Selim would be the conqueror of the world, and the Sultan organized a seven-day holiday on the occasion of the birth of the heir. Selim received an excellent education in the palace. Sultan Mustafa III proclaimed his son as his successor, however Selim's uncle, Abdul Hamid, ascended the throne after the death of Mustafa. At the same time, Sultan Abdul-Hamid did not get angry with his nephew, but continued to take care of his education.

Governing body

reforms

According to another version, Selim was imprisoned in his harem. Thursday night July 28th 1808 he was with his beloved wife, Refet Khatun, or two concubines. When Alemdar Mustafa Pasha was approaching the city with his army, Mustafa IV ordered Selim and Prince Mahmud to be killed. The murderers were a servant of Fettah of Georgia, a servant of the treasury, Ebe Selim, and a black eunuch named Nezir Aga. When the killers drew their daggers, one of the concubines between them and Selim was killed. Refet Hatun fainted, and in the ensuing struggle, the deposed sultan was killed, his last words, according to legend, were " Allahu Akbar"("Allah is great"). The body was quickly wrapped in a blanket. The assassins moved on to find Prince Mahmud and kill him, but he was more fortunate and was able to escape.

In the third version, Selim was strangled on the orders of the ruling sultan. He was buried in the mosque Laleli next to my father's grave.

By the end of the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire, once a strong state, was in decline. One of the signs of the weakening of the empire was the emergence of the "Eastern Question", the essence of which was the inconsistency of opinions of the leading world powers on the division of the Ottoman Empire, the fall of which for these countries was already obvious fact. Born in war and for war, the Ottoman state lost its viability as soon as its military-feudal system began to decay.

The military system, ruining the peasant economy of the occupied lands, prompted the search for new, not yet devastated territories, prompted the Turks to new wars and new defeats. The army fell into complete decline: the feudal militia was reduced to an insignificant size; Janissaries turned into unbridled free military. Military equipment and combat training was stagnant at the level of the 16th century. Marble cores were still used. The soldiers wore heavy and uncomfortable uniforms, used weapons of various sizes, were not trained in the art of maneuvering, and acted on the battlefield in a continuous, disorderly mass. After the defeat in the Chesme Bay, the fleet actually ceased to exist.

Turkey also lost its former independence in matters of foreign policy, experiencing the influence of British diplomacy. Military defeats served as a further cause of the economic and political collapse of the country. Land Fund decreased, the treasury was reduced, which led to an increase in tax oppression, and, as a result, a deterioration in the situation of the general population. In the cities, the handicraft fell into decline due to the guild system that still existed.

Trade was hampered by internal duties and robberies. Foreign trade was monopolized by foreign powers enjoying the privileges of the capitulation regime. Foreign capital began to subjugate domestic trade as well, forming a commercial bourgeoisie out of the non-Turkish population. they were closed the way to the state military service and agriculture. At the same time, among the Turks themselves, trade was considered a disgraceful occupation. It must be said that the factor of a multi-ethnic state played an important role for Turkey in terms of how its internal and foreign policy. A non-Turkish bourgeois population is developing, which was to a lesser extent or even not at all interested in preserving the empire.

The position of Turkey became so critical that the highest representatives of the feudal-bureaucratic apparatus of the empire began to look for a way out of the situation. It is known that already in the second half of the 18th century, attempts were made to carry out military reform, in particular, in relation to the organization of the army and navy according to European models. However, the reforms carried out did not give the expected results. from the highest feudal elite and the Janissary freemen met with strong opposition.

Internal complications, the separatism of the feudal lords, the growth of the national liberation movement, on the one hand, and the deterioration of Turkey's international position, on the other, created a threatening situation for the ruling circles of the Ottoman Empire. In such conditions, they especially needed a combat-ready army. However, there was no such army, and the ruling circles of the Ottoman Empire saw this as the greatest danger for themselves.

There could not be a good army in Turkey. The state of the army reflects the general state of the country. The Turkish army was built according to the old model. Its backbone continued to be the feudal cavalry militia and the Janissaries. But the Timariot fiefdoms had long since begun to evade military service, and the Janissaries at the time in question were more engaged in crafts and trade, or even simply robbery and robbery, and lost their former combat effectiveness. Discipline in the army has plummeted, mass desertion soldiers from the battlefield commonplace. This state of the army was extremely disturbing to the ruling circles, and they came to the conclusion that the army needed a radical reorganization according to the European model.

In 1791, Sultan Selim III demanded that the highest secular and spiritual dignitaries express their views on the state of the state and how this situation could be improved. The Sultan was presented with 22 notes. Most of them talked about the poor state of the army, and some proposed the creation of a new, European-trained army. In 1792-1793. Selim III embarked on reforms that historical literature got his name. They are known under common name"nizam-y jadid" - new order' or 'new device'. By special decrees, it was ordered to take away timars and zeamets from leners who did not fulfill their military duty, to create a military corps on the European model, to establish a special fund for subsidizing reforms, transferring to it the collection of certain taxes for this purpose, etc. Military reforms were carried out under the leadership of mainly French officers. The new corps (it was also called "nizam-y jadid") was created very slowly. In 1798, it numbered 3-4 thousand soldiers, and in 1804 - 12 thousand. A military engineering school was also created, work began on the reorganization of the fleet.

To finance military reforms, the so-called “new revenue fund” was created. She was given proceeds from new taxes on consumption specially introduced for this purpose, the income of fiefs, for one reason or another (mainly for evading military duties) taken from their owners. So, in 1804, income from 3575 timars and zeamets was intended for the “new cash desk”, in the amount, according to entries in the registers, 22.3 million akçe.

However, conservative elements stubbornly resisted the reforms. The support of the conservatives were the Janissaries. In 1805, the Janissaries revolted when Selim III intended to send some of them to the new army. The uprising began in European Turkey and spread to Istanbul. At a terrible moment, Selim showed indecision. He canceled the decree on military reforms, disbanded the new corps. But this did not save him - he was removed from the throne (May 29, 1807). His supporter, Rousse Pasha Mustafa Pasha Bayraktar, having captured Istanbul, tried to return the throne to Selim and implement his reforms. But Selim's successor III Sultan Mustafa IV, a reactionary and obscurantist, for fear of losing the throne, ordered Selim III to be strangled. However, he was removed. Bayraktar and his supporters enthroned Mahmud II (July 28, 1808). Bayraktar's attempts to implement Selim's reforms failed. In mid-November 1808, a new uprising of the Janissaries broke out, during which Bayraktar was killed.

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Reforms of Selim III

End XVIII century made it even more difficult political life Ottoman Empire. Ideas french revolution penetrated the Balkans and the Greek islands Aegean Sea and gave an additional impetus to the liberation struggle of the conquered peoples. The emerging bourgeoisie stood at the head of spontaneous peasant uprisings which gave them organization.

At the same time, a fierce feudal turmoil flared up in the country, engulfing vast areas of the empire. So, for example, Vidimsky Pasha Osman Pazvand-oglu, starting with robberies and robbery of Serbia and Wallachia, left obedience to the Sultan and even began to mint a coin in his own name. Ali Pasha settled in Ioannina, subjugating Epirus, Southern Albania and part of the Seas to his power. The Pasha of Scutaria (northern Albania) and the Pasha of Bosnia, the chiefs of the districts (ayans) Ruschuk, Seree and others also turned into semi-independent rulers. In Kurdistan, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and even more so in Arabia, Egypt and the Maghreb, the power of the Sultan was illusory.

Sultans and viziers could not understand the real reasons for the collapse of the state. But they clearly felt external manifestations crisis: devastation of the treasury, military defeats, Janissary uprisings, arbitrariness of pashas and ayans, bribery, falling away of entire regions, liberation movements oppressed peoples. Therefore, the most far-sighted of Turkish statesmen, trying to preserve the foundations of Turkish feudal domination, began to look for ways to centralize and strengthen central power.

At the end of the XVIII century. a plan of reforms arose, aimed primarily at overcoming the fragmentation of the Ottoman Empire. These reforms boiled down mainly to measures of a military-technical nature, to strengthening the army, administration and finances.

This was a belated attempt by the ruling class to save the crumbling empire. The reforms were associated with the name of the Sultan who ascended the throne in 1789 Selima III.

However, the personal role of Selim II was small. In fact, several dignitaries acted in his name. In 1792--1796 gg. Decrees of the Sultan were published on the selection of timars and zeamets from those leners who do not fulfill their military obligations to the state, on the establishment of a separate treasury to finance new institutions, on the opening military engineering school, about transformations in the fleet and about the creation of a new corps of regular troops, trained and disciplined in a European way.

The totality of the events of Selim PI, as well as the regular army created by him, intended to later replace the army of the Janissaries, were called "nizam-i-jadid" ( new system). These armed forces, although small in number, favorably differed from the Janissaries in their discipline and military training. With the help of foreign instructors, a significant navy was rebuilt, numbering by the end of the 18th century. 23 battleships and a number of smaller vessels.

Selim II also tried to reform the civil administration: he subordinated the activity of the grand vizier to the control of the unofficial "council of twelve", composed of persons close to the sultan, and established permanent embassies abroad.

However, the social support of the Sultan was narrow and unreliable. The supporters of the Sultan - the educated metropolitan nobles and a small part of the provincial feudal lords - were few and indecisive. The overwhelming majority of secular and, in particular, spiritual feudal lords actively opposed the reforms, seeing in them an encroachment on ancient privileges. Therefore, the Sultan was not able to carry out any significant reforms in the field of the economy. economic, material base the central government was not only not strengthened, but, on the contrary, weakened by an unsuccessful struggle with opponents of reforms. The Janissaries were especially worried, fearing that their corps would be liquidated and replaced by the Nizam-i-Jadid troops. And the Janissaries were not only a military unit, but also a privileged class group.

Selim II did not have the opportunity to rely on the bourgeoisie. The Turkish national bourgeoisie was simply not yet formed. For the more socio-economically developed foreign bourgeoisie (in particular, Greek and Slavic), although it was interested in ensuring order and security, Turkish domination itself was unacceptable.

The reforms laid a heavy burden on the masses of the people, and above all on the peasantry. The introduction of new heavy taxes and extortions exacerbated the discontent of the masses.

As a result, Selim II faced insurmountable obstacles. In addition, foreign policy complications arose that further weakened the supporters of reforms.

French invasion of Egypt. The overthrow of Selim III. Greek rebellion and its aftermath

In July 1798, an event occurred that was of great importance for the Ottoman Empire: in its richest province - Egypt - landed french army led by Napoleon Bonaparte. At first, the French managed to defeat the Mamluk troops and establish their power in the country. But the uprisings soon began. guerrilla war and it turned out that the French army was actually chained to Egypt.

Selim's position was at first expectant, especially since Bonaparte demagogically declared that the purpose of his invasion of Egypt was to punish the Mamluk beys for disobedience to the sultan. But at the end of 1798, when the large scale of the anti-French movement was determined, he declared war on France and sent a detachment of troops led by an Albanian commander named Muhammad Ali to help the Mamluks and Egyptians. Napoleon came out to meet the Turkish troops, but could not advance further than the fortress of Akka (Palestine) and retreated back to Egypt.

With difficulty, the French troops fought off the Mamluks, Turks and their English allies. In 1801, Egypt was occupied by the British, but this time they failed to gain a foothold there, just as Selim's attempts to regain his power in the country were unsuccessful. In 1805, a new uprising took place in Cairo, as a result of which Muhammad Ali was proclaimed the ruler of the country. And although the sultan, while maintaining prestige, awarded him the title of pasha, Turkey actually lost its power over Egypt.

The backwardness and internal weakness of Turkey made it easier for the Western European powers, who sought to use

Porto for their own purposes, including in their anti-Russian policy. In 1806, Napoleon's ambassador Sebastiani, with threats and promises, prompted Porto to conflict with Russia and provoked a Russo-Turkish war.

In the winter of 1806-1807. the Russian army entered Moldavia and Wallachia, and when in the spring of 1807 the Turkish army set out to meet the Russian army, a coup took place in Istanbul. According to ancient customs, the Grand Vizier led the army, and most of the ministers went with him. Opponents of the reforms took advantage of this, waiting for a long time for the right moment to settle accounts with Selim II. Under the secret leadership of the Deputy Grand Vizier (border-kam-pasha) and Sheikh ul-Islam was plotted. The garrison of the Bosphorus ports revolted. The Janissaries who remained in Istanbul joined him and Selim III was deposed from the throne. The new Sultan Mustafa IV was an obedient executor of the will of the Janissaries and Ulema. Subsequently (July 8, 1808), the supporters of the reforms tried to take revenge. They committed new coup by placing Sultan Mahmud II on the throne. However, in November 1808, as a result of a new Janissary rebellion, they were killed. Mahmud II survived only because he was last descendant Osman, but reform activities he had to turn off for a long 20 years.

England tried to take advantage of this unstable situation. In March 1807, seven thousand troops landed in Alexandria, but Muhammad Ali defeated the British and drove them out of Egypt. Nevertheless, in 1809, England managed to impose a treaty on the Sultan, according to which she received confirmation of previous capitulations and the Sultan's obligation to keep the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus closed to all foreign warships.

As already mentioned, England, France and Austria, fearing that the formation of independent Slavic states in the Balkans would benefit Russia, covered up their own plans of conquest with formulas of "the inviolability of the Ottoman Empire" and "maintaining the status quo". In fact, none of the powers observed these principles. Yes, it was impossible.

The policy of the Russian government towards the Ottoman Empire was ambivalent.

On the one hand, on the initiative of Metternich, the doctrine was extended to the empire Holy Union about the protection of legitimate (legitimate) monarchs from revolutionary attempts - in this case, from the national liberation movements of the Greeks and Slavs. Both Alexander I and Nicholas I more than once condemned these "rebels", contrary to the sympathies that existed in Russia for the oppressed Slavic peoples and Orthodox Greece.

On the other side, real interests Russia was required to support the national liberation movements against the Turks, in order to strengthen the Russian positions in the Balkans as opposed to the growing influence of the Western powers.

In 1821 a Greek uprising broke out. Covering Morea and the islands of the Aegean Sea, it resulted in a nationwide struggle for independence. driving forces of this struggle were the Greek peasantry and the urban merchant bourgeoisie, which had reached a relatively high level development. In 1822 the Greek national government was formed.

Sultan Mahmud II could not suppress the uprising on his own. The Asia Minor and Rumelian feudal lords refused to submit and give their troops, and he was forced to turn to the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali for help.

In previous years, Muhammad Ali carried out a number of reforms in Egypt: he slaughtered the Mamluks (1811) and instead created a regular army according to the European model, introduced a monopoly of foreign trade, liquidating all capitulations on the lands subject to him, streamlined finances, etc.

In 1811, Muhammad Ali, at the request of the Sultan, sent his army to Arabia and by 1818, in the course of brutal war defeated the Wahhabi state. At the same time, he pursued own goals: establish their dominance over Arabia with its sacred cities, as well as gain a foothold on the trade and strategic routes of the Red Sea coast.

Muhammad Ali also conquered Upper Egypt and Eastern Sudan. By the early 1820s, he had a significant regular army, far superior to the forces of the Sultan, and already dreamed of the formation of an independent Arab empire. Therefore, he willingly accepted the offer of the Porte to participate in the suppression of the Greek uprising, in exchange for the transfer of Syria and Fr. Crete (Candia).

In 1824, Muhammad Ali equipped a significant army and navy under the command of Ibrahim Pasha. Egyptian troops landed in Crete and Morea and carried out a brutal massacre of the Greeks. By the spring of 1826, almost all of Morea was captured by Egyptian troops, and the sultan seemed to be able to triumph.

However, the hopes of the Sultan to suppress the Greek uprising and keep Greece in the empire did not come true. In 1826, an Anglo-Russian protocol was signed in St. Petersburg demanding that the Porte cease hostilities against the Greeks, and on July 6, 1827, an Anglo-French-Russian agreement was signed in London, stipulating that Greece should receive autonomy. Each of the powers hoped, under the guise of helping the Greeks, to ensure their political and economic interests in the areas liberated from Turkish domination.

While Ibrahim Pasha with Egyptian troops continued to betray Greece to fire and sword and in June 1827 took the last stronghold of Greek resistance - Athens, the combined squadrons of the three powers destroyed the Egyptian fleet in Navara Bay (in October 1827). In the spring of 1828, Russia, seeking to make the most of the favorable situation, declared war on Turkey, and in the autumn of the same year, France landed troops in Morea.

Russian-Turkish war 1828-1829 ended in total defeat Turkish troops. In Asia, General Paskevich advanced far into Turkey, taking the fortress of Erzerum. In Europe, General Dibich, breaking through with an army of 20,000 to the Balkans, captured Adrianople and found himself just a few marches from Istanbul. Panic seized the capital. The ambassadors of the European powers actively contributed to the conclusion of peace with Russia in order to prevent the entry of Russian troops into Istanbul.

On September 14, 1829, peace was signed in Adrianople. At that time tsarist government considered the destruction of the Ottoman Empire untimely, and preferred to ensure the predominant influence of Russia on the policy of the Porte. Therefore, the Treaty of Adrianople only slightly changed the Russian-Turkish border that existed before the war. Parts of Georgia and Armenia liberated from Turkish rule, as well as the northeastern coast of the Black Sea, were finally assigned to Russia. The most important were not the territorial, but the political articles of the treaty.

The Port undertook to grant autonomy to Serbia and Greece (Greece was recognized as an independent kingdom). The special position of Moldavia and Wallachia was also confirmed, with Russia retaining the right to participate in the development of the status of these principalities and patronize their rulers. ottoman empire sultan rule

The port, in addition, undertook not to interfere with the merchant navigation of Russia and other states in the Black Sea and the straits. An indemnity was imposed on Turkey, until the payment of which the occupation of the Danube fortresses by Russian troops was maintained.

The most important consequence of these events was the intensification of the struggle for the "Ottoman inheritance".

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