“LOGISTICS TEXTBOOK Ed. Professor B. A. Anikin Third edition, revised and expanded Recommended by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation as..."

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HIGHER EDUCATION

series founded in 1996

State University of Management

Institute of World Economy and International

relations of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Moscow State Technical University

University named after N. E. Bauman

LOGISTICS

TEXTBOOK

Ed. Professor B. A. Anikin

Third edition, revised and expanded Recommended by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions Moscow INFRA-M UDC (075.8) BBK b5.050ya L Logistics: Textbook / Ed. B.A. Anikina: 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: L69 INFRA-M, 2002. - 368 p. - (Series “Higher Education”).

ISBN 5-16-000912- The textbook systematically presents knowledge about the rapidly developing new scientific and educational direction- logistics, the science of organizing and managing processes and material flows in the economy. The authors analyze the conceptual apparatus, development factors, and the concept of logistics. The main components of logistics in their interrelation are examined in detail - information logistics, inventory logistics, warehousing logistics, transport, organization of logistics management, controlling in logistics schemes, etc.

For university students, students of postgraduate education institutions, managers and specialists.

Anikin B. A., Doctor of Economics Sciences, professor - textbook architectonics, preface, chapter 10, sections 3.3 and 13.2-13.3;

section 13.1 (together with V.I. Sergeev) Dybskaya V.V., Doctor of Economics. Sciences, Professor - Head Kolobov A. A., Doctor of Engineering. Sciences, professor - chapter 11 (together with I.

N. Omelchenko) Omelchenko I. N., Doctor of Engineering. Sciences, Professor - Chapter 11 (together with A. A. Kolobov) Sergeev V. I., Doctor of Economics. sciences, professor - section 6.3;

section 13.1 (together with B. A. Anikin) Tunakov A. P., Doctor of Engineering. Sciences, Professor - Head Fedorov L.S., Doctor of Economics. Sciences, professor - chapters 1-2 and 9, sections 3.1, 4.1, 6.1, 7.1-7. Naimark Yu. Yu., Ph.D. econ. Sciences, Professor - Head Sterligova A. N., Ph.D. econ. Sciences, professor - sections 4.4, 6.2 and 7.3-7. Chudakov S.K., Ph.D. econ. Sciences, Associate Professor - sections 4.3 and 4. Anikin O. B. - sections 3.2 and 4. Reviewers:

Department of Production Management, Moscow State University of Technology"Stankin"

Doctor of Economics Sciences, Professor S. V. Smirnov

Preface to the first edition

Preface to the second edition

Preface to the third edition

Chapter 1. CONCEPTUAL APPARATUS OF LOGISTICS AND FACTORS OF ITS DEVELOPMENT

1.1. Definition, concept, tasks and functions of logistics..……......... 1.2. Logistics development factors

1.3. Levels of logistics development

Chapter 2. LOGISTICS CONCEPT

2.1. Evolution of conceptual approaches to logistics...................... 2.2. Category of economic compromises

2.3. Logistics as a factor in increasing the competitiveness of companies

2.4. Basic Logistics Requirements

Chapter 3. INFORMATION LOGISTICS

3.1. Information logistics systems

3.2. Information infrastructure

3.3. Goals and role of information flows in logistics systems

Chapter 4. PURCHASING LOGISTICS

4.1. Tasks and functions of purchasing logistics

4.2. Mechanism for the functioning of purchasing logistics......……..… 4.3. Procurement planning

4.4. Supplier selection

4.5. Legal basis procurement

Chapter 5. LOGISTICS OF PRODUCTION PROCESSES

5.1. Goals and ways to improve the organization of material flows in production

5.2. Requirements for the organization and management of material flows

5.3. Laws of organization of production processes and the possibility of optimizing the organization of material flows in space and time.................…..... 5.4. Organization of rational material flows in non-flow production

5.5. Optimization of the organization of the production process over time

5.6. Rule 8020

Chapter 6. SALES (DISTRIBUTION) LOGISTICS

6.1. Logistics and Marketing

6.2. Product distribution channels

6.3. Distribution logistics rules

Chapter 7. INVENTORY LOGISTICS

7.2. Inventory management systems in companies

7.3. The place of inventory logistics in the organization’s logistics system

7.4. Types of stocks

7.5. Basic inventory management systems

7.6. Other inventory management systems

7.7. Methodological basis for designing effective logistics system inventory management

Chapter 8. WAREHOUSING LOGISTICS

8.1. Main functions and tasks of warehouses in the logistics system

8.2. Problems of efficient functioning of a warehouse........…….. 8.3. Logistics process in a warehouse

8.4. Warehousing system as the basis for warehouse profitability

Chapter 9. TRANSPORT IN LOGISTICS CONDITIONS......……………….. 9.1. The impact of logistics on transport

9.2. Policies of transport enterprises and changes in the nature of their activities

9.3. New logistics systems for the collection and distribution of goods

Chapter 10. ORGANIZATION OF LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT

10.1. Basic forms of logistics management

10.2. Mechanism for cross-functional coordination of material flow management

10.3. Development of a logistics organization management system: from functional aggregation to information integration

10.4. Controlling in logistics systems

Chapter 11. SERVICE LOGISTICS

11.1. Classification of types of product service

11.2. Criteria for service to meet consumer demand

11.3. Service criteria for the provision of industrial services

11.4. After-sales service criteria........…..... 11.5. Criteria for information service.........…….. 11.6. Criteria for financial and credit services

Chapter 12. LOGISTICS CENTERS

12.1. Logistics centers of companies

12.2. Regional logistics centers

12.3. Composition of a typical regional center

12.4. Logistics centers in Russia

Chapter 13. LOGISTICS OF THE FUTURE

13.1. Global logistics

13.2. Integration of Russian organizations into the global logistics network

13.3. Logistics of “slim” production

Preface to the first edition Logistics is the science of planning, organizing, managing and controlling the movement of material and information flows in space and time from their primary source to the final consumer.

Logistics, although it has deep historical roots, is nevertheless a relatively young science. It received especially rapid development during the Second World War, when it was used to solve strategic problems and ensure clear interaction between the defense industry, logistics and supply bases and transport in order to timely provide the army with weapons, fuels and lubricants and food. Gradually, the concepts and methods of logistics began to be transferred from the military to the civilian sphere, at first as a new scientific direction on the rational management of the movement of material flows in the sphere of circulation, and then in production.

Logistics units have been created at industrial enterprises, the agro-industrial complex, transport, in the NATO apparatus; they are included in the organizing committees for major international competitions, etc.

By the end of the 20th century, logistics science emerged as a discipline that included purchasing or supply logistics, production process logistics, sales or distribution logistics, transport logistics, information or computer logistics and a number of others. Each of the listed areas of human activity has been sufficiently studied and described in the relevant literature; the novelty of the logistics approach itself lies in the integration of the listed, as well as other (unnamed) areas of activity in order to achieve desired result with minimal expenditure of time and resources through optimal end-to-end management of material and information flows. Thus, logistics primarily works for the consumer, trying to satisfy his needs as much as possible.

All this allows us to conclude that although logistics has been known for a long time, nevertheless it claims to be called scientific and academic discipline of the 21st century and, in our opinion, will eventually be introduced as a basic discipline into the curriculum of higher education and postgraduate education, and logistics specialists will be in demand in almost all areas of human activity.

Preface to the second edition When preparing the second edition of the textbook, the authors eliminated a number of errors and inaccuracies, and also considered it necessary to make changes to its structure.

The wishes of readers were taken into account, the circle of representatives of scientific schools in the author’s team was expanded.

The book includes two new chapters. In Chapter 11 “Service Logistics”, written by scientists from MSTU. N. E. Bauman, provides a classification of types of service for products, sets out criteria for the level of service for each type of service, etc. A separate chapter is devoted to the logistics of the future. It examines two areas of global importance related to global logistics and logistics of “harmonious” production, as well as the problem of integrating Russian organizations into the global logistics network.

Almost all chapters include new illustrative material (diagrams and graphs), including the curve of the “golden” section in production logistics, graphs of the impact of the quality of service of meeting consumer demand on the profit of the enterprise, ensuring the optimal level of service depending on total costs, information flow diagrams when importing and transporting goods across Russia, material flow from supplier warehouses to the customs terminal in Russia, distribution channels depending on production volume and demand, driving forces globalization and a number of others.

Over the past two years since the publication of the first edition, the book has found a wide readership in many regions of Russia and neighboring countries. In August 1999, “Workshop on Logistics” was published as a practical application to the text of this textbook. The authors of the textbook will be grateful to readers for critical comments and suggestions, as well as suggestions for participation in the team of authors in order to further improve the text of the book, especially its sections devoted to the practical application of the concept of the logistics approach.

Preface to the third edition Since the release of the first edition of the textbook in Russia, a number of positive changes have occurred in the field of logistics. Firstly, most Russian universities have included logistics among the main basic disciplines. Secondly, since 2000

The Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation is conducting an experiment to open a specialty in “Logistics” in universities. The experiment is being carried out in seven universities - four in Moscow, two in St. Petersburg and Rostov (Rostov-on-Don).

Thirdly, Russian scientists and specialists working in the field of logistics, representing different schools and currents, gradually taking into account European and American experience, are developing their own interpretation of concepts and definitions in logistics. Analyzing their definitions of the basic term “logistics”, we can come to the general conclusion that most Russian authors define logistics as the science of managing flow processes in the economy, which corresponds to the concept of the textbook (Table 0.1).

When preparing the third edition of the textbook, the authors made a number of necessary clarifications to the text. The structure of the book has undergone some changes.

New material included chapter 12 and section 10.3. Chapter 12, Logistics Centers, provides information about the two main types of logistics centers:

organization and region. Section 10.3 discusses the main stages of development of organizational structures for managing a logistics organization, including the concept of an organization of the 21st century. As a practical application to the text of this textbook, “Workshop on Logistics” (2nd ed.) was published in 2001.

Definition of the term “logistics” by Russian scientists and specialists Scientific school Author Definition_ Institute of World Fedorov L.S., Logistics - Economics and Doctor of Economics. sciences, prof. improvement St. Petersburg Semenenko A.I., Logistics - new state doctor of economics. sciences, prof. direction scientific university of economics of practical activity, state doctor of technical. sciences, prof.; planning, management and technical Omelchenko I.N., traffic control university doctor of technical. sciences, prof. Material and State Doctor of Engineering. sciences, prof. Materials Management, State Dr. Tech. sciences, prof.; organization of joint automobile- Tashbaev Y.E., activities of managers road candidate of technical. Sciences, Associate Professor various departments of the university - Higher Dr. econ. sciences, prof.; management and optimization school of economics Sterligov A.N., material and university doctor of economics. sciences, prof. streaming management

CONCEPTUAL APPARATUS OF LOGISTICS

AND FACTORS OF ITS DEVELOPMENT

IN last years Significant changes have taken place in the sphere of commodity circulation in a number of countries. New methods and technologies for the delivery of goods began to be used in economic practice. They are based on the concept of logistics.

Logistics comes from the Greek word “logistike”, which means the art of calculating, reasoning. The history of the emergence and development of practical logistics goes far into the past. Professor at the University of Hamburg G. Pavellek notes that even during the Roman Empire there were ministers who bore the title of “logistics” or “logistics”; they were engaged in the distribution of food1. In the first millennium AD, in the military vocabulary of a number of countries, logistics was associated with the activities of providing the armed forces with material resources and maintaining their reserves. Thus, during the time of the Byzantine king Leon VI (865-912 AD), it was believed that the tasks of logistics were arming the army, supplying it with military equipment, timely and fully taking care of its needs and, accordingly, preparing each act of a military campaign2.

According to a number of Western scientists, logistics has grown into a science thanks to military affairs. The creator of the first scientific works In logistics, it is customary to consider the French military specialist of the early 19th century A. Jomini, who gave the following definition of logistics: “the practical art of maneuvering troops.” He argued that logistics includes not only transportation, but also a wide range of issues such as planning, management and supply, location The realities and challenges of European logistics into the 90s. - Milan, 6th European Logistics Congress. November 1988, p. 12.

Lifting and transport equipment and warehouses. - 1989, No. 1, p. 58.

deployment of troops, as well as the construction of bridges, roads, etc. It is believed that some principles of logistics were used by Napoleon's army. However, logistics as a military science was formed only by the middle of the 19th century.

Logistics began to be actively used during the Second World War, and primarily in the logistics of the US Army in the European theater of operations3. The clear interaction of the military industry, rear and front-line supply bases and transport made it possible to timely and systematically provide the American army with supplies of weapons, fuels, lubricants and food in the required quantities.

That's why in many Western countries Logistics was put at the service of efficient management of material flows in the economy. Like other methods of applied mathematics (operations research, mathematical optimization, network models, etc.), logistics gradually began to move from the military field to the sphere of economic practice. Initially it took shape as the new kind theories about the implementation of management of the movement of commodity and material resources in the sphere of circulation, and then production. Thus, arose in countries with market economies even before and during the period economic crisis distribution systems, in which the functions of supplying materials and raw materials, production of products, their storage and distribution would be linked, transformed into independent areas scientific research and a form of business practice - logistics.

Russia has made a significant contribution to the development of logistics. At the beginning of the 20th century, St. Petersburg professors of communications published a work entitled “Transport Logistics.” On its basis, models of troop transportation, support and supply were built. These models received practical application in the planning and conduct of a number of campaigns of the Russian army during the First World War.

In the USSR, during the first five-year plans, based on the principles of transport logistics, cargo delivery schedules for major construction projects, polar and other expeditions were developed. During the Great Patriotic War military communications services organized the movement of front-line cargo by all types of transport4. IN post-war period Logistics has been further developed. In particular, in 1950 the work of B.G. was published. Bakhaev “Fundamentals of Operation navy" This work formulated the main credo of logistics, the essence of which was the requirement for the rational organization of transportation and transfer of goods in the required quantity and required quality to a given destination with minimal costs within a specified time frame.

At the end of the 1970s, the logistics system Smekhov A.A. was developed in Leningrad. Introduction to logistics. - M.: Transport, 1993, p. 5.

Pluzhnikov K.N. Transport forwarding. - M.: Russia, Consultant, 1999.

technology, i.e., the operation of modes of transport according to the transport hub method, where their interaction took place. The concepts of domestic scientists were studied by Western specialists. Currently, they form the basis for the development of a unified European transport system of the EU countries. At the end of the 1980s, an attempt was made in the USSR to introduce the intersectoral system “Rhythm”, operating on the principles of logistics. A unified inter-industry technology for sustainable transportation of iron ore raw materials combined train schedules, the work of stations, enterprises - senders and recipients of cargo in organizing the promotion of technological routes. A logistics chain for the delivery of coal from Kuzbass to one of the Moscow thermal power plants was developed and implemented.

In business activities, economic and scientific literature, foreign experts identify two fundamental directions in the definition of logistics. One of them is related to the functional approach to goods distribution, that is, the management of all physical operations that must be performed when delivering goods from the supplier to the consumer.

Another direction is characterized by a broader approach: in addition to managing goods distribution operations, it includes market analysis of suppliers and consumers, coordination of supply and demand in the market for goods and services, as well as harmonization of the interests of participants in the goods distribution process.

Within the framework of the noted approach to logistics, there are many different interpretations. Analyzing them, it is easy to notice a number of aspects through the prism of which logistics is viewed. The most widespread are managerial, economic and operational-financial aspects. Thus, Professor G. Pavellek5 and the staff of the US National Council for Materials Distribution Management6, defining the essence of logistics, focus on the management aspect. Logistics, in their opinion, is the planning, management and control of the flow of material products entering the enterprise, processed there and leaving this enterprise and the corresponding information flow7.

Many experts in the field under study, including French, give preference to the economic side of logistics and interpret it as “... a set of various types of activities in order to obtain, at the lowest cost, the required quantity of products at a specified time and in a specified place, in which there is a specific need in Logistics. - 1990, No. 1, p. 63.

Transportation Research. - 1985, 19A, No. 5-6, p. 383; Mcigee J., Capacino W., Rosenfield D.

Modern Logistics Management. - N.Y., 1985, p. 4.

Logistics. - 1990, No. 1, p. 63.

of this product"8. In the directory published by Danzas (one of the largest German freight forwarding companies), logistics is defined as a certain system developed for each enterprise with the aim of optimally, from the point of view of making a profit, accelerating the movement of material resources and goods inside and outside the enterprise, starting from the purchase of raw materials and supplies, passing them through production and ending with the supply of finished products to consumers, including the linking these tasks information system 9.

Some definitions of logistics reflect both managerial and economic aspects. The most typical characteristic of logistics in this regard is given by Professor Pfohl (Germany), who links together the processes of planning and controlling the movement of material assets with reducing the costs of their movement and information support10.

A number of definitions of logistics emphasize its operational and financial aspect. In them, the interpretation of logistics is based on the time of settlement of transaction partners and activities related to the movement and storage of raw materials, semi-finished products and finished products in economic circulation from the moment of payment of money to the supplier until the moment of receiving money for delivery of the final product to the consumer11.

Other definitions of logistics reflect the views of specialists who focus on individual functions in the cycle under consideration. Logistics in these cases comes down to a very narrow range of operations: transportation, loading and unloading, warehousing, etc. Generalizing the above definitions of logistics, it can be characterized as the science of managing material flows from the primary source to the final consumer with minimal costs associated with the movement of goods and flow of information related to it.

Of course, in the above-mentioned interpretations of logistics, one or another of its aspects is rightly highlighted, but the most important, in our opinion, aspect of logistics is overlooked - the ability to influence the strategy of the corporation and the creation of new competitive advantages of the company in the market, i.e. its final goals. This aspect is essentially reflected in the second approach to the definition of logistics.

The first to foresee the practical potential of logistics were the American Laplaze M., Meunier J., Weil J. Logistique d’entreprises et politique commerciale de la SNCF.

Revue generale des chemis de Fer, 1984, No. 11, p. 55.

Lifting and transport equipment and warehouses. - 1989, No. 1, p. 59.

Journal of Business Logistics. - 1986, vol. 7, No. 2, r. 3.

specialists Paul Converse and Peter Drucker. They defined its potential as “the last frontier of cost savings” and “the uncharted continent of the economy”12. Subsequently, their point of view was shared by many logistics theorists. American researchers such as M. Porter, D. Stock and some others believe that logistics has gone beyond the boundaries of its traditional narrow definition and is of great importance in the strategic management and planning of a company13.

French specialists E. Mate and D. Tixier are also proponents of a broad interpretation of logistics, who mean by it “ways and methods of coordinating the company’s relations with partners, a means of coordinating the demand presented by the market and the supply put forward by the company... a way of organizing the activities of an enterprise that allows us to combine efforts various units producing goods and services in order to optimize the financial, material and labor resources used by the company to realize its economic goals”14. E. Mate and D. Tixier believe that “...logistics is at the very heart of what a company does in various areas choice, at the center of the actions taken; undoubtedly it represents important factor developing a general policy for the company" 15. Proponents of an expanded interpretation of logistics also include English scientists D. Benson and J. Whitehead. In their opinion, logistics covers market research and forecasting, production planning, procurement of raw materials, materials and equipment, includes inventory control and a number of sequential goods and movement operations, and the study of customer service16.

From the above definitions of logistics by foreign specialists it follows that it represents a broader category than marketing, many of the main functions of which have been transferred to logistics. One confirmation of this can be the creation of logistics structures in a number of companies that absorbed previously functioning marketing departments.

Moreover, English researchers M. Christopher and G. Wills believe that logistics is effective not only at the firm level, but also at the industry level. She, International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logictics Management. - 1990, No. 7, p. 53.

Mate E., Tixier D. Material and technical support for enterprise activities.

M.: Progress, 1993, p. 11 I2.

Nikolaev D.S. Transport in international economic relations. - M.:

International Relations, 1984, p. 26-35.

They believe that decisions on the general economic process of the industry, including issues of location of enterprises and warehouses, should belong to them.

The discrepancy in the definition of logistics is due to a number of reasons17. One of them lies in the specificity and difference in the scale of the tasks that individual firms are trying to solve in the field of sales of goods, their transportation, warehousing, etc.

Another reason is the existing differences in national systems organization and management of product distribution, as well as in the level of research into logistics problems in different countries. The third reason is the multiplicity of functional areas of activity in the external environment of the logistics system (Figure I.I).

At its core, logistics is not a completely new phenomenon and unknown to practice. The problem of the most rational movement of raw materials, supplies and finished products has always been the subject of close attention.

The novelty of logistics lies, firstly, in the change in priorities in the economic practices of firms, which assigns a central place to the management of flow processes rather than production management. Secondly, the novelty of logistics lies in a comprehensive integrated approach to the issues of movement of material assets in the process of reproduction.

Rice. 1.1. Functional “environment” of the logistics system:

1 - logistics and electronic data processing; 2 - purchase of raw materials and supplies; 3 - logistics planning;

4 - production planning; 5 - improving product quality; 6 - planning and production management; 7 - warehouse systems; 8 - sales planning; 9 - sales market, marketing; 10 - service structure; 11 - organization of customer service; 12 - financial planning;

13 - current financial activities; 14 - structure of the personnel system;

15 - personnel planning and management Smekhov A.A. Introduction to logistics. - M.: Transport, 1993, p. 56.

If, with a fragmented method of managing material flows, coordination of actions is clearly insufficient, the necessary sequence and coordination in the actions of various structures (divisions of companies and their external partners) is not observed, then logistics involves the coordination of processes associated with material and information flows, production, management and marketing. Thirdly, the novelty of logistics lies in the use of the theory of compromises in the economic practices of firms. As a result, during the movement of material and information flows, directly opposite goals of participants in the logistics chain (suppliers, consumers and intermediaries) are often achieved, which indicates that logistics performs the function of balancing, optimizing and coordinating various types of relationships (loading production capacities and purchasing and sales capacities, financial and information relations, etc.). This made it possible to move away from the separate management of various product distribution functions and to integrate them, which made it possible to receive overall result activity that exceeds the sum of the individual effects.

Based on the above, we can give the following general definition of logistics. Logistics is a form of optimization of market relations, harmonization of the interests of all participants in the process of goods distribution. Logistics is the improvement of the management of material and related information and financial flows along the path from the primary source of raw materials to the final consumer of finished products based on a systematic approach and the application of economic compromises in order to obtain a synergistic effect.

IN modern conditions Western experts distinguish several types of logistics: logistics associated with providing production with materials (purchasing (marketing, or distribution, logistics). They also distinguish transport logistics, which, in essence, is an integral part of each of the three types of logistics. An integral part of all types of logistics is also the mandatory presence of a logistics information flow, including the collection of data on the flow of goods, their transmission, processing and systematization with the subsequent issuance of ready-made information. This subsystem of logistics is often called computer logistics. If you follow the logic of Western specialists, then the number of types of logistics could be continue.

It seems that operating with such concepts has not only a purely terminological meaning. It is reflected in the expansion of the scope of logistics activities, in the creation of appropriate new organizational structures for managing companies, special units for managing the movement of goods in enterprise warehouses, marketing and Magee J., Capacino W., Rosenfield D. Modern Logistics Management. - N.Y., 1986, p. 7.

material distribution when selling finished products. Therefore, in our opinion, it would be more correct to talk not about types of logistics, but about its functional areas.

There is a connection and interdependence between these areas of logistics. For example, if the main production uses a technology that does not require the presence of significant intermediate stocks of materials and raw materials, then, in accordance with logistics, deliveries are planned to be carried out at a strictly defined time at short intervals. To fulfill irregular orders in the shortest possible time, when the main production is characterized by spatial concentration of equipment, the creation of reserves of production capacity (so-called “island of production” systems), appropriate methods are used in the field of procurement to purchase a variety of material resources in order to fulfill individual orders .

In the logistics chain, i.e. the chain through which commodity and information flows pass from supplier to consumer, the following main links are distinguished: purchase and supply of materials, raw materials and semi-finished products; storage of products and raw materials; Production of goods;

distribution, including dispatch of goods from the finished goods warehouse;

consumption of finished products (Fig. 1.2). Each link in the logistics chain includes its own elements, which together form the material basis of logistics. The material elements of logistics include: vehicles and their equipment, warehousing, communications and management equipment.

The logistics system, naturally, also covers personnel, i.e. those workers who perform all sequential operations.

Source: The realities and challenges of European logistics into the 90s. Milan, 6th European Logistics Congress. November 1988, p. 10.

The ability to plan various operations and analyze the levels of elements of the logistics system predetermined its division into macro- and micrologistics. Macrologistics solves issues related to market analysis of suppliers and consumers, development of a general distribution concept, placement of warehouses at the service area, choice of mode of transport and Vehicle, organization of the transport process, rational directions of material flows, points of delivery of raw materials, supplies and semi-finished products, with the choice of a transit or warehouse scheme for the delivery of goods.

Micrologistics solves local issues within individual firms and enterprises. An example is intra-production logistics, when various logistics operations are planned within the enterprise, such as transport and storage, loading and unloading, etc.

Micrologistics provides operations for planning, preparation, implementation and control of the processes of movement of goods within industrial enterprises. The difference between macro- and micrologistics also lies in the fact that on the scale of the first, interaction between participants in the process of commodity distribution occurs on the basis of the purchase and sale of goods, and within the second, on non-commodity relations.

The increasing complexity of production and increased competition in the 1980-90s required a more precise linking of logistics with the strategic goals of firms, as well as an intensification of the role of logistics in increasing the flexibility of firms and their ability to quickly respond to market signals. In this regard, the main task of logistics has become the development of a carefully balanced and justified proposal that would help achieve the greatest efficiency of the company, increase its market share and gain advantages over competitors. Because, as practice has shown, underestimation close connection The concept of logistics with an active market strategy has often led and continues to lead to the fact that the purchase of raw materials, semi-finished products and components itself becomes an incentive to start producing a particular product without adequate demand for it. In the current market situation, such an approach to product production is fraught with commercial failure.

Of course, the focus on minimizing costs remains in force, but only if the optimal level of combination of costs and profitability of fixed and working capital involved in the market strategy is found.

One of the main tasks of logistics is also to improve the management of product distribution, to create an integrated effective system for regulating and monitoring material and information flows, ensuring high quality delivery of products. This task is closely related to the solution of such problems as: correspondence of material and information flows to each other;

control over the material flow and transfer of data about it to one-stop center;

determining the strategy and technology for the physical movement of goods;

development of methods for managing goods movement operations; establishing standardization standards for semi-finished products and packaging; determining the volume of production, transportation and storage; discrepancy between intended goals and purchasing and production capabilities. You can accomplish this task using the solution scientific problems development of logistics itself, starting from the structuring of the technology of its chains and ending with various local tasks.

In accordance with modern tasks of logistics, two types of its functions are distinguished: operational and coordination. Operational functions are associated with the direct management of the movement of material assets in the sphere of supply, production and distribution and, in essence, are not much different from the functions of traditional logistics support. Functions in the supply sector include managing the movement of raw materials, individual parts or stocks of finished products from the supplier or point of purchase to manufacturing enterprises, warehouses or commercial storage facilities. In the production phase, the function of logistics becomes inventory management, which includes control of the movement of semi-finished products and components through all stages of the production process, as well as the movement of finished products to wholesale warehouses and retail markets. Product distribution management functions cover the operational organization of the flow of final products from the manufacturing enterprise to consumers.

The functions of logistics coordination include: identifying and analyzing the needs for material resources of various phases and parts of production;

analysis of the markets in which the enterprise operates and forecasting the development of potential markets; processing of data relating to orders and client needs (Fig. 1.3). Features listed Logistics involves coordinating the supply and demand of goods. In this sense, marketing and logistics are closely interrelated, and the established formula - “marketing creates demand, and logistics realizes it” - has a strong basis. To a certain extent, the formula is also applicable to coordinating the relationship between logistics and production. Thus, logistics deals with the “joining” of two areas:

Source: Motoryzacja. - 1988, No. 2, S. 27.

the demand presented by the market and the offer put forward by the company, based on relevant information.

Within the framework of the coordination functions of logistics, another of its areas has emerged - operational planning, dictated by the desire to reduce inventories without reducing the efficiency of production and sales activities of companies. Its essence is that, based on the forecast of demand, adjusted later when real orders are received, transportation schedules and, in general, a procedure for managing inventories of finished products are developed, which ultimately determines production planning and the development of programs for supplying it with raw materials and components.

A deeper disclosure of the essence of logistics and its relationships with the processes occurring in various areas of activity in industrialized countries is provided by an analysis of factors contributing to the development of logistics.

Interest in the problems of logistics development in industrialized countries has historically been associated primarily with economic reasons. In conditions when the growth of production volumes and the expansion of intranational and global economic relations led to an increase in the costs of distribution, the attention of entrepreneurs focused on finding new forms of optimizing market activity and reducing costs in this area.

In Western countries, about 93% of the time of movement of goods from the primary source of raw materials to the final consumer is spent passing through various logistics channels and mainly into storage. The actual production of goods takes only 2% of the total time, and transportation - 5%19. The share of merchandise products in these countries is more than 20% of the gross national product. At the same time, in the structure of such expenses, the costs of maintaining stocks of raw materials, semi-finished products and finished products account for about 44%, warehousing and forwarding - 16%, long-distance and technological transportation of goods - 23 and 9%, respectively. The remaining 8% falls on the costs of ensuring the sale of finished products20. Transactions to move goods within a global market are more expensive and complex than in smaller national markets. The costs for them amount to about 2535% of the cost of sales of export-import products, compared to 810% of the cost of goods intended for shipment on the domestic market.

In our opinion, the development of logistics, in addition to the desire of firms to reduce time and money costs associated with the movement of goods, was determined by the following two factors:

Increasing complexity of the system of market relations and increasing requirements for the quality characteristics of the distribution process;

creation of flexible production systems.

The development of logistics was significantly influenced by the transition from a sellers' market to a buyers' market, accompanied by significant changes in production strategy and product distribution systems. If in the pre-transition period the decision on product release preceded the development of a sales policy (strategy), which actually involved “adjusting” the sales organization to production, then in conditions of market oversaturation, the imperative became the requirement to form production programs depending on the volume and structure of market demand. Adaptation to the interests of the clientele in conditions of intense competition, in turn, required manufacturing companies to adequately respond to these conditions, and the result was an increase in the quality of service, primarily a reduction in order fulfillment time and unconditional compliance with the agreed delivery schedule.

Thus, the time factor, along with the price and quality of products, has become Materials of economic and social council UN. Committee on internal transport UN Economic Commission for Europe. - Geneva, 1990.

Kearney A.T. Logistics Productivity: the Competitive Edge in Europe. - Chicapo 1994, p. 39.

determine the success of the enterprise in the modern market.

Next, it is necessary to point out the increasing complexity of implementation problems while simultaneously increasing requirements for the quality of the distribution process. This caused a similar reaction from manufacturing firms regarding their suppliers of raw materials. As a result, a complex system of connections was formed between various market entities, which required modification of existing organizational models in the field of supply and sales. Work has been actively undertaken to optimize certain areas of product distribution.

Problems were solved regarding the optimal placement of warehouses, determining the optimal size of shipments of goods, optimal transportation route schemes, etc.

As is known, the replacement of traditional conveyors with robots has led to significant savings in human labor and the creation of flexible production structures that have made the production of small batches of products profitable. An opportunity has emerged for large enterprises to restructure their work from mass production to small-scale production at minimal cost, while small firms have gained a chance to increase their flexibility and competitiveness. In turn, work on the principle of “small batches”

entailed corresponding changes in the system of supplying production with material resources and marketing finished products. In many cases, supplying large volumes of raw materials, semi-finished products and final steel products is not only uneconomical, but simply unnecessary. In this regard, there was no longer a need to have large storage capacities at enterprises and a need arose to transport goods in small quantities, but within tighter deadlines. At the same time, increased transportation costs were largely covered by reducing warehouse costs.

In addition to the above factors that directly determined the development of logistics, it is also necessary to note the factors that contributed to the creation of opportunities for this. These should probably primarily include:

using systems theory and trade-offs to solve economic problems;

Acceleration scientific and technological progress in communications, introduction of computers into business practice last generations, used in the field of commodity distribution;

Unification of rules and regulations for the supply of goods in foreign economic activity, elimination of various types of import and export restrictions, standardization of technical parameters of communication routes, rolling stock and loading and unloading equipment in countries participating in intensive world economic relations.

The formation of the concept of logistics was accelerated by the development of systems theory and trade-off theory. In accordance with the first, the problem of commodity circulation began to be considered as complex, which, among other things, meant: a satisfactory result cannot be obtained by focusing on any one aspect of the activity of the sphere of interest to us. The most important requirement of the theory is the mandatory analysis of all components of the commodity distribution system, their internal and external relationships.

The settlement of relationships within logistics became possible with the help of the theory of compromises. It is on its basis that an effect that suits the system as a whole is achieved. In relation to product distribution, solutions are selected that provide positive impact to reduce overall costs or increase total profits, even to the detriment of the activities of individual divisions of the company. In intercompany relations, a similar result is obtained by harmonizing the interests of all participants in the logistics process, seeking compensation for additional costs by achieving a non-industry effect. For example, increased transport costs due to the transition to transporting goods in small quantities are covered by an increase in tariffs, which the clientele agrees to, counting on obtaining a non-transport effect.

Undoubtedly, important role played in creating objective opportunities for the development of logistics technical progress in communications and computer science. It made it possible to control all main and auxiliary processes of goods distribution at a higher level. The automatic control system clearly monitors such process indicators as the availability of semi-finished products and the release of finished products, the state of inventories, the volume of supplies of materials and components, the degree of order fulfillment, and the location of goods on the way from the manufacturer to the consumer.

The use of modern means of information tracking of material flows contributes to the introduction of “paperless” technology. Its essence is that, for example, in transport, instead of numerous documents accompanying the cargo (especially in international traffic), information is transmitted synchronously with the cargo through communication channels, containing all the details necessary to characterize the goods about each shipped unit.

With such a system, on all sections of the route, at any time, it is possible to obtain comprehensive information about the cargo and, based on this, make management decisions. With the help of “computer logistics”, throughout the entire service chain, the company’s activities are analyzed and its position is assessed in comparison with competitors. The very structure of the system of initial data used for automatic control depends on the characteristics of each enterprise for which a logistics chain is drawn up indicating all the nodes, input and output paths to them and the corresponding information flows. Information systems also provide data on the market capacity and its saturation with goods.

An important role is played by the computerization of operations related to the preparation of invoices. The speed and accuracy of such transactions affects the cash flow portion of a firm's balance sheet and ultimately affects capital turnover.

Recognition of the importance of all types of information, its internal and external flows, control over them and their use has led in many corporations to a change in the forms of activity of the departments responsible for the functioning of information systems. Data processing departments became known as information departments or information services. At the same time, their management functions were changed. Information departments or information services currently operate with all types of information flows and are responsible for the activities of all control systems of corporations and firms. And the heads of such departments or services have risen to the highest level of the corporate hierarchical ladder.

The positive impact of the use of communications on the development of logistics is probably indirectly evidenced by data on the improvement in the quality of information and the increased volume of information exchange between all firms participating in the logistics process in the late 1970s and mid-1980s (Table 1.1).

Around the same time, measures were taken to regulate the international movement of goods in order to simplify, minimize or eliminate factors that complicate the passage of goods flows, such as:

differences in national standards for products, long distances for information transfer and transportation, an excessively expanded volume of documentation on international transactions with goods and financial settlements for them, the presence of import quotas and export restrictions, very stringent requirements for packaging and labeling of goods, diversity in the technical parameters of vehicles and means of communication etc.

Manufacturer's divisions:

Fixed Asset Planning Department Source: Transportation Journal. - 19S8, vol. 27, No. 3, r. 6.

As a rule, these measures related to customs barriers, control and technological procedures at border crossings, and the introduction of new transportation technologies (for example, intermodal). As a result, the time spent by goods in transit was reduced, the accuracy of their delivery and safety was increased, and inventories of material assets at border terminals were reduced.

At the same time, international distribution centers were created, warehouse layouts were changed, and transshipment warehouse points were concentrated in the context of the integration of the economies of Western Europe and the creation of a single market. Containers, rolling stock and technical parameters of communication routes were unified, and this made it possible to use automatic systems for reading and addressing cargo. Moreover, the approval of some norms and standards was transferred from individual countries to the common market, which stimulated innovation in the EU national economy and brought considerable savings (120 billion marks, or 2.1% of the GNP of EU countries)21. The increase in the volume of material flows in international communications dictated the need to eliminate excessive detail in the rules and regulations established on a bilateral basis. The process of coordinating investments in the creation of international logistics infrastructure has begun.

In the real economy, logistics systems within various production associations, for objective reasons, are at different stages, or levels, of development. There are separate stages, through Smekhov A.A. Introduction to logistics. - M.: Transport, 1993, p. 21.

which logistics functions inevitably must go through before they reach a high level of development. An analysis of leading industrial companies in various capitalist countries made it possible to identify within their framework four successive stages of development of logistics systems as of the late 1980s - early 1990s (Fig. 1.4).

The first stage of logistics development is characterized by a number of the following points. Companies operate on the basis of fulfilling shift-based daily targets; the form of logistics management is the least perfect. The scope of the logistics system usually covers the organization of storage of finished products shipped from the enterprise and its transportation (see Fig. 1.4).

The system operates on the principle of directly responding to daily fluctuations in demand and disruptions in the product distribution process. The performance of the logistics system at this stage of its development in a company is usually assessed by the share of costs for transportation and other operations for distribution of products in the total amount of sales revenue.

Companies that have logistics systems of the second level of development are characterized by managing the flow of goods produced by enterprises from Source: Canadian Transportation and Distribution Management. - 1988, No. 12, vol. 91, r. 23.

the last point of the production line to the final consumer. Control of the logistics system extends to the following functions: customer service, order processing, storage of finished products at the enterprise, inventory management of finished products, long-term planning of the logistics system. Computers are used to perform these tasks, but the corresponding information systems are usually not very complex. The performance of the logistics system is assessed based on a comparison of cost estimates and actual costs. However, the desire to reduce costs in order to meet the budget is not the best guideline in the operation of the system and in servicing the customer.

Third-level logistics systems control logistics operations from the purchase of raw materials to servicing the final consumer of the product. Additional functions of such systems include: delivery of raw materials to the enterprise, sales forecasting, production planning, extraction or purchase of raw materials, inventory management of raw materials or work in progress, design of logistics systems. The only area that is not controlled by the logistics manager is the day-to-day management of the enterprise. The activities of a logistics manager are usually carried out on the basis of an annual plan. System performance is assessed not by comparing last year's costs or cost estimates, but by comparing it to a service quality standard. At the same time, companies strive to increase system performance, rather than reduce costs, as is typical for second-tier systems.

Management is carried out not on the principle of immediate response, but is based on planning proactive influences.

Logistics systems of the fourth level of development became widespread in the second half of the 1990s. The scope of logistics functions here is basically similar to that characteristic of logistics systems of the third stage of development, but with one important exception.

Such companies integrate the processes of planning and controlling logistics operations with marketing, sales, production and finance operations. Integration helps to reconcile the often conflicting goals of various divisions of the company. The system is managed on the basis of long-term (more than one year) planning. The operation of the system is assessed taking into account the requirements of international standards. Companies typically operate at a global level, not just at a national or regional level. They produce products for the global market and manage parts of the world's production and distribution systems to optimize costs and meet customer requirements.

Managing global distribution functions, as well as the flow of materials and information, places new, increased demands on logistics managers. For example, a strategy for organizing logistics and storing products in warehouses requires knowledge of the legislative framework, tax systems, and the specifics of government regulation. Inventory management strategy is related to certain requirements to packaging and labeling, and language differences must be taken into account. The effectiveness of customer service is determined by the efficiency of preparation and processing of complex documentation, as well as the results of actions to eliminate customs barriers. There is an increasing need to attract other firms (“third parties” - customs and forwarding agencies, banks) to participate in logistics processes.

In industrialized countries, the distribution of logistics development levels among companies is not the same. A survey of 500 large Western European companies (it covered 26% of companies in Germany, 20% in Holland, 17% in Great Britain, 16% in France, 11% in Belgium and 10% in Italy), representing 30 different sectors of the economy, showed that in the first 57% of surveyed firms are at the development level. At the second level - 20%, at the third and fourth levels - 23% of companies combined22.

Practical experience of companies in different countries of the world has shown that the ascent from the lowest stage of development of logistics systems to higher ones occurs both gradually and, when favorable conditions arise, spasmodically. Such conditions may be a merger of enterprises, a new Kearney A. T. Logistics Productivitv: the Competitive Edge in Europe. - Chicago, 1994, p. 37.

governance regime, political initiatives (for example, the adoption of a free trade law). Go to more high level at best it usually lasts from six months to two years, and the transition from the first stage of development to the fourth takes about 20 years. However, it is expected to be reduced to 10 years due to the increased pressure of international competition and the opportunity to use the experience of firms that have already traveled this path. An analysis of the levels of logistics development also showed that companies where an integrated approach to logistics management has been established improve their performance indicators. Thanks to the use of logistics, the labor productivity of employees of companies involved in the transportation of goods increased by a total of 9.9%, and in 60% of the surveyed companies it was possible to improve the quality of transport services.

The analysis also revealed that firms with different levels of logistics development differ significantly in the target area of ​​investment. As a rule, at the lowest level of development, large capital investments are aimed at neutralizing negative impacts, and at a higher level - mainly at the formation of logistics infrastructure. The results of the above survey, for example, showed that first-tier firms spent 44% of their funds on clearing bottlenecks in the logistics system or its individual links, 32% on introducing standard labor productivity and 24% on using incentive pay. Firms that have reached the second level of logistics development allocated 47% of funds to the mechanization of warehouse work, 30% to the construction of warehouses and 23% to the automation of technological processes23.

In recent years, in countries with market economies, the development of logistics is characterized by the transfer of control functions over the distribution of finished products from manufacturing firms to specialized firms, i.e.

to external agents. This trend appeared first in Western Europe and Japan and later in the United States. It is expected that the development of this trend will lead to significant changes in organizing work on moving products.

Logistics under a contract, or using a third party, involves the involvement of an independent wholesale company to perform all or part of the company’s functions for the distribution of products, including transportation, storage, inventory management, customer service and the creation of logistics information systems. This is one of the manifestations of the continuous process of deepening the social division of labor. The inclusion of specialized firms in the logistics system is due, firstly, to the fact that they have experience in the field of sales of services that is not available in a manufacturing company; secondly, the desire of the latest Kearney A. T. Logistics Productivitv: the Competitive Edge in Europe. - Chicago, 1994, p. 39.

Reduce your overhead costs and focus on core profitable manufacturing functions.

Most of the existing specialized logistics companies were formed by spinning off logistics departments from large corporations.

Another part of them arose through the reorganization of some transport companies, which took on functions such as, for example, packaging, assembly, labeling, sorting, storage, inventory management, and strategic planning of product distribution. In order to master logistics and improve it in business practice, firms in some industrialized countries began to create advisory departments on this issue. For example, in French enterprises by the mid-1980s there were about 500 departments involved in logistics24. As a rule, such departments concentrate their activities on one of the links in the logistics chain (for example, transport) or two or three links, but in conjunction with the entirety of its other elements. The administration of companies uses advisory departments to obtain a diagnosis of the state of logistics at the enterprise. They also carry out research in the field of logistics, develop proposals for its improvement, conduct classes to study logistics problems, and adopt the experience of other companies.

National and international specialized societies and associations that unite industrial firms and scientific organizations. Associations of this kind have their own research centers with a well-established methodology for analyzing the situation in industry, advisory departments, information banks, training centers etc. In some countries there are several national associations. Currently, in Europe alone there are more than 20 national associations that are members of the European Logistics Association.

The development of logistics systems is carried out in conjunction with the evolution of the concept of logistics and its principles, which have been formed in countries with market economies for a very long time.

Manutention/Stockage. 1990, b. 58.

Control questions 1. Provide basic information about the history of logistics.

2. When did the science of logistics originate and who is its founder?

3. Name two fundamental approaches to defining logistics and show the difference between them.

4. Why was logistics put at the service of efficient materials management?

5. Give a summary definition of logistics.

6. How can we explain the discrepancy in the definition of logistics?

7. Name the main links of the logistics system.

8. List the elements of the logistics system.

9. List the main participants in the logistics system.

10. Define the supply chain.

11. What is meant by macrologistics?

12. What is meant by micrologistics?

13. List the main tasks of logistics.

14. Name the main functions of logistics.

15. Why is the concept of “logistics” broader than the concept of “marketing”?

16. What two groups of logistics functions do you know?

17. List the functions of the first group.

18. List the functions of the second group.

19. List the factors of direct impact on the development of logistics.

20. Expand the content of each of the factors of logistics development.

21. Name the factors that contributed to the creation of opportunities and incentives for the development of logistics.

22. What stages of development does logistics go through?

23. What is the difference between the previous stage of logistics development and the subsequent one?

LOGISTICS CONCEPT

In foreign literature, three periods of development of commodity distribution systems for material products are distinguished: the pre-logistics period, the period of classical logistics and the period of neo-logistics25. Each period is characterized by corresponding conceptual approaches to the creation and management of these systems and criteria adequate to them.

Responsibility for this area of ​​activity throughout the company was assigned to one of the lower levels of the management vertical. Therefore, it is no coincidence that transportation and logistics support were often called the “Cinderella” of the company.

The rapid development of non-rail transport, especially automobile transport, that occurred in the pre-logistics period, significantly increased its role in the movement of goods. Preference began to be given to optimizing transportation. The criterion for the effectiveness of the latter was the minimum price for the transportation of goods by public transport and the minimum transport costs for transportation by own rolling stock. As a result, the function of managing cargo flows was first performed by specialists in tariffs and routes, and then their responsibilities included the selection of transport service options and various additional services. Accordingly, there was a need to control the transport and forwarding of goods, checking freight bills, packing, weighing, loading and unloading, etc. Beginning in the 1940s, the job of a freight manager became more diversified. This, along with the factors outlined above, laid the foundation for the development of logistics.

At its core, logistics is not a completely new phenomenon and unknown to practice. The problem of the most efficient movement of materials, Journal of Business Logistics. - 1986, vol. 7, No. raw materials and finished products has always been the subject of close attention.

The novelty of logistics lies, firstly, in the change of priorities in the economic practices of companies, where the management of commodity distribution processes has become central. Secondly, the novelty of logistics lies in the use of an integrated approach to the issues of movement of material assets in the process of reproduction. With a fragmented method of managing material flows, coordination of actions is clearly insufficient; the necessary consistency and coordination in the actions of various divisions of companies is not observed.

Logistics, based on an integrated approach, involves the coordination of processes related to material flows, production and marketing.

Thirdly, the novelty of logistics lies in the use of the theory of compromises in the economic practices of firms. All this, taken together, made it possible to move away from the separate management of various functions of product distribution and to integrate them, which made it possible to obtain an overall result of activity that exceeded the sum of the individual effects.

which began in the early 1960s, is that instead of organizing optimal transportation, companies began to create logistics systems. During this period, three conceptual approaches to their creation can be distinguished, differing in the scope of compromise (harmonization of economic interests) and criteria. At the same time, within each approach, the compromises were of an intra-logistics functional nature and did not affect the actual production activities of the firms.

The scope of the compromises in the first approach was the costs of individual logistics operations of one company, and the criterion was the minimum total costs of material distribution. This approach allowed us to achieve certain results. By increasing costs for some operations in order to further reduce costs for others, it turned out to be possible to minimize costs for the entire logistics system. A typical example of this approach is an increase in transportation costs and a reduction in inventory management and warehousing costs.

The focus on minimizing total costs gave a positive economic effect based on the use of intrafunctional compromises. However, time has shown that the cost criterion limits the financial capabilities of the company, since it does not reflect the influence of demand on the ratio of its income and expenses. As a result, there has been a transition to a different criterion (maximizing the company's profit from logistics operations), which is focused on both costs and demand. But also new approach had certain restrictions.

The emphasis on intra-company logistics functions with relatively little attention to similar functions performed by other firms participating in the same logistics process infringed on the interests of the latter. Therefore, at the end of the period of classical logistics, changes occurred in its concept. The criterion for the formation of an optimal distribution management system was the maximum profit from the logistics operations of all participating firms. The emphasis was shifted to intercompany compromises in the field of logistics.

The early 1980s can be dated new period in the development of logistics - the period of neologi stics, or second generation logistics. During this period, logistics is characterized by an expansion of the scope of compromises. The need for such expansion was justified by the fact that none of the functional zones within the company, including logistics, usually does not have sufficient resources and capabilities to “alone” properly respond to significant changes in external conditions and work effectively independently. For a more effective response, joint efforts of all structural divisions of the company or enterprise were required. In addition, it was necessary to use the knowledge and experience of managers who consider the activities of the company as a whole.

The conceptual approach to the development of logistics systems that embodies this idea is called an “integrated” or “entire enterprise approach.” Within this approach, logistics functions are considered as the most important subsystem of the company-wide system. This means that logistics systems must be created and managed based on common goal- achieving maximum efficiency of the entire company. Therefore, attention began to focus on the interfunctional compromises of the company, including its own production and other non-logistics divisions. The criterion for this approach was minimizing the costs of the entire enterprise.

Another argument in favor of the development of cross-functional compromises was the interdependence of the costs of logistics, production and other operations of the company, since any change in one of these activities will certainly have an impact on others, but not necessarily a favorable one. Very often, trying to reduce costs as much as possible through any one element can result in higher overall costs. For example, low shipping costs can be costly for the firm as a whole. This situation may arise if the transport department achieves this goal by sacrificing speed and especially reliability of delivery. Therefore, a proposal to change one of the activities must be considered in conjunction with total amount handling and production costs.

The criterion for minimizing the total costs of commodity distribution and production requires finding certain compromises between the interests of all structural divisions of the company in order to achieve the best balance between costs and results obtained. However, the interests of different departments are naturally different. For example, marketing department managers are interested in increasing market share and, therefore, in a high level of inventory, since only under this condition can they ensure rhythm, reliability and regularity of supplies of the minimum quantity of goods required by consumers, i.e., achieve high quality customer service.

For its part, the production department, trying to avoid possible supply disruptions, also advocates a high level of inventory, but with this policy, another indicator of the level of service is simultaneously reduced - the fulfillment of individual orders, which the department is generally reluctant to do due to the fact that production costs increase as product batch sizes decrease and the number of changeovers in the technological process increases. Financial and control departments strive to reduce the volume of inventories, and the transport department requires a larger volume of one-time delivered goods (this entails a decrease in the rhythm of deliveries, and the volume of warehouse stocks increases among both suppliers and clients). The inventory storage department is interested in reducing them, but following this leads to a decrease in the reliability of the entire sales and production network and ultimately weakens the competitive position of the company.

Logistics specialists, like material flow managers, take a compromise position and try to find and maintain the optimal balance of costs, inventory and service quality.

They do a lot of work to coordinate various functions. For example, on-time delivery, which many companies strive for, requires coordination between production and marketing logistics.

Since the same task can be performed in different ways at different costs and levels of efficiency, more accurate and reasonable estimate Interconnections and costs of logistics can have a decisive impact on the profitability of companies. How it is possible to establish the optimal balance of interests of various divisions of firms and achieve, on this basis, minimum total costs, is shown in Fig. 2.1.

Rice. 2.1. Dependence of costs for order fulfillment a - total costs for order fulfillment; b - storage costs;

c - transport costs; q - batch size; s - costs.

Since the share of storage and transport costs in the overall cost structure is large, the minimum total cost of order fulfillment is above the intersection point of lines b and c. In more complex logistics models, other requirements are taken into account to resolve contradictions. In this case, they proceed from the characteristics of the product, the type of enterprise, the strategy and tactics of the company. In turn, strategic and tactical plans must justify which territory and, accordingly, which market sector can be covered by supplies with various combinations of warehousing and transportation methods at a given time.

The dependence of the costs of product placement (transportation and storage) on the delivery time is shown in Fig. 2.2. From the above figure it follows that in order to achieve the minimum delivery time, it is most advisable to carry them out through a network of intermediate warehouses located near customers, where the necessary stocks are created for this purpose.

With a warehouse form of supply, costs fall up to a certain point due to an increase in delivery time, and then, as the supply cycle lengthens, costs remain virtually unchanged. The transit form of supply is characterized by a closer connection between costs and the possible delivery time, and up to a certain point, the warehouse form is more effective, and for non-urgent or rhythmic deliveries, the transit form is more effective.

a - direct deliveries; b - warehouse supplies; t - delivery time;

s - placement costs. Accommodation is transportation Since the mid-1980s, a new approach to the development of logistics has emerged in Western countries, which can be generally characterized as a logical and natural continuation of the above integrated approach. Its specificity is that the logistics system goes beyond the economic environment and takes into account social, environmental and political aspects; the criterion is the maximum ratio of benefits and costs. The new approach is called the concept of “general responsibility”. It is expected that at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries the public importance of the problems of vocational training, environmental protection and consumer rights will increase. Under these conditions, the scope of compromise will continue to expand, and, most importantly, it will include balancing the goals of making a profit and solving social problems.

The development of logistics is characterized by the fact that, simultaneously with the evolution of its concept, the process of developing methodological foundations for cost calculation is underway, although it does not proceed so quickly and unambiguously. The problem here primarily lies in identifying the cost structure of products and services.

The impetus for the analysis of logistics costs was instability economic situation Western countries in the mid-1950s, causing a decline in company profits. Initially, such costs included the total costs of operations for moving goods (transportation costs, warehousing, order processing, etc.). Logistics costs then began to be viewed as optimizing the costs of moving finished products, including their storage and inventory maintenance, packaging and support activities (spare parts, after-sales service). As for the share of after-sales service costs in the Benelux countries, the USA, France, Germany, Canada, Italy and the UK, for example, in the structure of the total cost of electronic equipment it remained at 4243% for a whole decade26.

In connection with the integration of logistics functions and the development of the idea of ​​functional trade-offs, many companies have adopted the concept of “total distribution costs” in their logistics activities. They included the costs of providing production with material resources, explaining this by the fact that decisions related to the level of service significantly affect the size of inventory, which therefore must be included in the logistics system. An analysis of the ratio of costs associated, on the one hand, with the logistics of production, and on the other, with the distribution of finished products of various industries, showed that, for example, in France, E. Mate, D. Tixier. Logistics and technical support of enterprise activities .

M.: Progress, 1993, p. 5556.

the first of them constitute about 1.59% of the sales price, and the second - 324%, i.e. 23 times more than the first.

Later, when, as already noted, cross-functional compromises became widespread, an isolated consideration of measures to rationalize the sphere of circulation and production was abandoned, and the total cost method began to be introduced into the commercial practice of firms.

In other words, firms began to analyze total value costs, called the “one umbrella principle”.

An integrated approach to the development of logistics has changed the concept of its costs. Cost calculation began to be carried out not according to functional principle, with a focus on the final result, when the volume and nature of the work of the logistics system are initially determined, and then the costs associated with its implementation. Under these conditions, a new approach to calculating costs was developed, which consisted in developing missions, i.e., defining goals that must be achieved by the logistics system within certain situation"product market". The mission may be defined in terms of the type of market served, type of product, and service and cost constraints. The mission can, for example, be formulated as achieving, with minimal costs, the largest share of total deliveries of goods to consumers at a time convenient for them, while observing the required batching and shipping intervals (it is possible to include other company goals).

Currently, in accordance with the mission approach, one of the basic principles of calculating logistics costs has become the requirement for the mandatory reflection of material flows crossing traditional functional boundaries that arise during the performance of individual operations (i.e., the costs of serving consumers in the market must be identified). This means that this principle should make it possible to carry out a separate analysis of costs and income by types of consumers and market segments or distribution channels. This requirement arises due to the fact that operating with average values ​​of functional costs is fraught with danger, since in cases of identifying costs, significant deviations from the average values ​​may not be visible. Thus, a modern costing system is considered, on the one hand, as a system that determines the total costs of logistics in accordance with its goals (“outputs”), and on the other hand, as the sum of costs associated with the performance of traditional logistics functions (“inputs” ). In this case, the costs of “outputs” and “inputs” are consistent with each other.

Since the implementation of the mission involves cutting functional areas logistics activities, then the achievement of certain goals is associated with the costs of a large number of functional operations performed by activity centers within the company. Practice shows that highest efficiency Cost calculation of the distribution sphere is achieved by separately determining the costs associated with the implementation of specific tasks (“outputs”) of this sphere, and the various input resources involved in achieving these “outputs” (goals). The difference between output orientation, based on the mission idea, and input orientation, based on the functional approach, is illustrated schematically in Fig. 2.3.

Mission A: serve the company's Western European markets with 95% delivery reliability within 10 days at minimal overall costs;

Mission B: to serve customers of the company's products, satisfy their requirements regarding the size of shipments and frequency of delivery with minimal overall Mission B: to satisfy the demand of domestic consumers using existing distribution channels and organizational and technical base in order to obtain maximum profit for the company by balancing the requirements of retail trade regarding costs

Source: Christopher M. The Strategy of Distribution Management, - L., 1986, p. 67.

The figure also shows how the stated distribution missions can have different effects on the costs of functional areas and at the same time provide a completely logical basis for calculating the costs of the company. In other words, currently in competitive markets, functional logistics costs are determined by the needs of the mission being performed, i.e., by summing up costs vertically. The combination of a functional approach and the implementation of specific targets in the field of logistics is also used when analyzing company profits.

The interaction of the two principles of cost and profit calculation noted above in terms of logistics has led to the need to develop, with a clear sequence, the most economical distribution scheme for firms. First of all, logistics goals and alternatives for their implementation are determined. Then the functions that must be performed to achieve the goals are outlined, and the associated costs for each alternative are calculated. At the final phase of developing a logistics scheme, based on the criterion comparative effectiveness such options, the most acceptable one is selected.

Thus, by calculating costs using the mission method, a company using the above matrix model can select the most profitable options in terms of choosing service goals. In the case of using the services of several competing centers of activity (for example, transport companies), the mission method provides the opportunity to select a center that is capable of carrying out logistics operations within the framework of the set goals at a minimum cost for the customer company or acceptable for both parties.

It is expressed in calculations that reflect the interests of both various divisions of companies and all companies participating in the logistics process. However, when decision making is influenced by a large number of variables, harmonization of interests is achieved not through calculations, but through comparison quality characteristics activities of companies.

Since the distribution of products (transportation, loading and unloading, storage, etc.) occurs at various points in the logistics chain, based on the theory of compromises, as already noted, in order to make the right decisions, it is necessary to take into account the needs of related functions at the interfaces. This means that indicators such as volume and frequency of deliveries, which determine the size of the forwarding area and the costs of delivering just-in-time materials, should not be considered in isolation.

Considering trade-offs as a method of balancing costs, income and profits of firms, it should be noted that they are assessed in two aspects: firstly, in terms of the impact on the total costs of the system and, secondly, in terms of the impact on sales revenues. A compromise can be found in such a way that total costs increase, but due to better service delivery, sales income increases. If the difference between income and costs is greater than it was before, the trade-off results in an improvement in the cost-effectiveness ratio.

The sphere of influence of economic trade-offs covers the strategic, organizational and operational levels of decisions in the field of distribution of goods27. Strategic decisions concern problems of a fundamental nature. They form part of a strategic plan, in which the company's activities are planned for a relatively long period (more than three years).

Thus, choosing a supplier is an example of a strategic purchasing decision because relationships with suppliers are usually negotiated over a long period.

At the next, lower organizational level, decisions concern the organization of production and the market. They cover a period of one to three years. Choosing a shipping method, mode of transport and level of customer service - examples of compromises this level. At the operational level, trade-offs are achieved by making decisions to detail organizational plans. Such decisions are implemented in a short period of time, the maximum time horizon of which is one year. Trade-offs at the operational level often arise in day-to-day activities. These include, for example, choosing the size of the shipment, types of containers, and discounts on order volume.

From the point of view of decision levels and integral control over the material flow in the process of its movement from supplier to consumer, it is important to determine which logistics criteria and where exactly come into play as components of these decisions. Decision analysis shows that at the strategic level, when choosing a supplier, the main criterion is the purchase price. Other main criteria include the reliability of the supplier and the quality of the products shipped. The location of the supplier, which can be critical to transport costs, the time it takes goods to travel, and possible import duties and charges associated with border crossings may also be relevant to the supplier selection criteria, but sometimes they may not be included in the selection process.

At the organizational level, for example, when choosing the reliability of service that a firm seeks to provide to customers of its products, the criterion is usually taken as the frequency of shipments. Finally, at the operational level, if, for example, products are manufactured for a consumer on a regular basis, the criterion for changing the volume of shipments can be the route or mode of transport as the most suitable for a particular shipment.

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The textbook systematically presents knowledge about a rapidly developing new scientific and educational direction in the world - logistics, the science of organizing processes and material flows in production and their management. The authors analyze the conceptual apparatus, development factors, and the concept of logistics. The main components of logistics in their interrelation are examined in detail - information logistics, inventory logistics, warehousing logistics, transport, organization of logistics management and controlling in logistics schemes.
For university students, students of postgraduate education institutions, managers and specialists.

Factors in the development of logistics.
Interest in the problems of logistics development in industrialized countries has historically been associated primarily with economic reasons. In conditions when the growth of production volumes and the expansion of intranational and global economic relations led to an increase in the costs of distribution, the attention of entrepreneurs focused on finding new forms of optimizing market activity and reducing costs in this area.

In Western countries, about 93% of the time of movement of goods from the primary source of raw materials to the final consumer is spent passing through various logistics channels and, mainly, storage. The actual production of goods takes only 2% of the total time, and transportation - 5%.

In these same countries, the share of merchandise distribution products is more than 20% of the gross national product. At the same time, in the structure of such expenses, the costs of maintaining stocks of raw materials, semi-finished products and finished products account for about 44%, warehousing and forwarding - 16%, long-distance and technological transportation of goods - 23 and 9%, respectively. The remaining 8% falls on the costs of marketing finished products.

Table of contents
Preface
Chapter 1. CONCEPTUAL APPARATUS OF LOGISTICS AND FACTORS OF ITS DEVELOPMENT
1.1. Definition, concept, tasks and functions of logistics
1.2. Logistics development factors
1.3. Levels of logistics development
Test questions for Chapter 1
Chapter 2. LOGISTICS CONCEPT
2.1. Evolution of conceptual approaches to logistics
2.2. Category of economic compromises
2.3. Logistics as a factor in increasing the competitiveness of companies
2.4. Basic Logistics Requirements
Test questions for chapter 2
Chapter 3. INFORMATION LOGISTICS
3.1. Information logistics systems
3.2. Information infrastructure
3.3. Goals and role of information flows in logistics systems""
Test questions for Chapter 3
Chapter 4. PURCHASING LOGISTICS
4.1. Tasks and functions of purchasing logistics
4.2. Mechanism of functioning of purchasing logistics
4.3. Procurement planning
4.4. Supplier selection
4.5. Legal basis of procurement
Test questions for Chapter 4
Chapter 5. LOGISTICS OF PRODUCTION PROCESSES
5.1. Goals and ways to improve the organization of material flows in production
5.2. Requirements for the organization and management of material flows
5.3. Laws of organization of production processes and possibilities for optimizing the organization of material flows in space and time
5.4. Organization of rational material flows in non-flow production
5.5. Optimization of the organization of the production process over time
5.6. Rule 80-20
Test questions for Chapter 5
Chapter 6. SALES LOGISTICS
6.1. Logistics and Marketing
6.2. Product distribution channels
Test questions for Chapter 6
Chapter 7. INVENTORY LOGISTICS
7.1. Inventory category
7.2. Inventory management systems in companies
7.3. The place of inventory logistics in the organization’s logistics system
7.4. Types of stocks
7.5. Basic inventory management systems
7.6. Other inventory management systems
7.7. Methodological basis for designing an effective logistics inventory management system
Review questions for Chapter 7
Chapter 8. WAREHOUSING LOGISTICS
8.1. The role of warehousing in the logistics system
8.2. The main problems in the functioning of warehouses
8.3. Logistics process in a warehouse
8.4. Warehousing system as the basis for warehouse profitability
Review questions for Chapter 8
Chapter 9. TRANSPORT IN LOGISTICS CONDITIONS
9.1. The impact of logistics on transport
9.2. Policies of transport enterprises and changes in the nature of their activities
9.3. New logistics systems for the collection and distribution of goods
Review questions for Chapter 9
Chapter 10. ORGANIZATION OF LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT
10.1. Basic control functions
10.2. Mechanism for cross-functional coordination of material flow management
10.3. Controlling in logistics systems
Test questions for Chapter 10
List of recommended literature.

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n1.doc

HIGHER EDUCATION

series founded in 1996
State University of Management

Institute of World Economy and International

relations of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Moscow State Technical University

University named after N. E. Bauman

LOGISTICS
TEXTBOOK
Ed. Professor B. A. Anikin

Third edition, revised and expanded
Recommended

Ministry of Education

Russian Federation as a textbook

For university students

Moscow

UDC (075.8)33

BBK b5.050ya73

Logistics: Textbook / Ed. B.A. Anikina: 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: L69 INFRA-M, 2002. - 368 p. - (Series “Higher Education”).
ISBN 5-16-000912-4
The textbook systematically presents knowledge about a new scientific and educational direction that is rapidly developing in the world - logistics, the science of organizing and managing processes and material flows in the economy. The authors analyze the conceptual apparatus, development factors, and the concept of logistics. The main components of logistics in their interrelation are examined in detail - information logistics, inventory logistics, warehousing logistics, transport, organization of logistics management, controlling in logistics schemes, etc.

For university students, students of postgraduate education institutions, managers and specialists.

BBK 65.050ya73
ISBN 5-16-000912-4 © Team of authors, 1997, 2000, 2002

in the following composition:

Anikin B. A. , Doctor of Economics Sciences, professor - textbook architectonics, preface, chapter 10, sections 3.3 and 13.2-13.3;

Section 13.1 (together with V.I. Sergeev)

Dybskaya V.V. , Doctor of Economics Sciences, Professor - Chapter 8

Kolobov A. A., Doctor of Engineering. Sciences, Professor - Chapter 11 (together with I. N. Omelchenko)

Omelchenko I. N. , Dr. Tech. Sciences, Professor - Chapter 11 (together with A. A. Kolobov)

Sergeev V.I. , Doctor of Economics sciences, professor - section 6.3;

Section 13.1 (together with B. A. Anikin)

Tunakov A. P. , Dr. Tech. Sciences, Professor - Chapter 12

Fedorov L. S. , Doctor of Economics Sciences, professor - chapters 1-2 and 9, sections 3.1, 4.1, 6.1, 7.1-7.2

Naimark Yu. Yu. , Ph.D. econ. Sciences, Professor - Chapter 5

Sterligova A. N. , Ph.D. econ. Sciences, Professor - sections 4.4, 6.2 and 7.3-7.7

Chudakov S.K. , Ph.D. econ. Sciences, Associate Professor - sections 4.3 and 4.5

Anikin O. B. - sections 3.2 and 4.2

Reviewers:

Department of Production Management

Moscow State Technological

University "Stankin"

Doctor of Economics Sciences, Professor S. V. Smirnov

Preface to the second edition..................................................... ………........ 8

Preface to the third edition............................................................... …........... 9
Chapter 1. CONCEPTUAL APPARATUS OF LOGISTICS

AND FACTORS OF ITS DEVELOPMENT..................................................... ……....... 12

1.1. Definition, concept, tasks and functions of logistics..……......... 12

1.2. Factors in the development of logistics................................................................... ……... 22

1.3. Levels of logistics development................................................................... ...…….... 27
Chapter 2. CONCEPT OF LOGISTICS....................................…………....... ... 34

2.1. Evolution of conceptual approaches to logistics........…........... 34

2.3. Logistics as a factor of increase

Competitiveness of firms..................................................................... ... 48

2.4. Basic requirements of logistics.........................................……... 53
Chapter 3. INFORMATION LOGISTICS.........................…………..... 60

3.1. Information logistics systems........................……..... 60

3.2. Information infrastructure......................................……..... 69

3.3. Goals and role of information flows

In logistics systems......................................................... .....…….... 80
Chapter 4. PURCHASING LOGISTICS...................................................…………... 84

4.1. Tasks and functions of purchasing logistics...................................……... 84

4.2. Mechanism of functioning of purchasing logistics......……..… 94

4.3. Procurement planning................................................................... .......…….... 110

4.4. Selecting a supplier................................................... ...............……... 118

4.5. Legal basis of procurement................................................................... ...…….... 122
Chapter 5. LOGISTICS OF PRODUCTION FACILITIES

PROCESSES........................................................ .......................……...... 130

5.1. Goals and ways to improve organization

Material flows in production................................................... 130

5.2. Requirements for organization and management

Material flows...................................................…… ....... 134

5.3. Laws of organization of production processes

And opportunities to optimize the organization

Material flows in space and time.............. 138

5.4. Organization of rational material

Flows in non-flow production.................................................................... 152

5.5. Optimization of production organization

Process over time......................................................... ..........……...... 155

5.6. Rule 80-20.................................................... ....................……....... 164
Chapter 6. SALES (DISTRIBUTION)

LOGISTICS................................................. .......………........ 169

6.1. Logistics and marketing........................................................ .........……... 169

6.2. Product distribution channels...................................................……...... .176

6.3. Rules of distribution logistics................................…….. 186
Chapter 7. INVENTORY LOGISTICS..................................................... ………….. 192

7.2. Inventory management systems in companies................................ 198

7.3. Inventory logistics location

In the logistics system of the organization.......................................... 205

7.4. Types of inventories........................................................ .....................……..... 208

7.5. Basic inventory management systems..............................…….. 213

7.6. Other inventory management systems..................................................... 221

7.7. Methodological principles of design

Efficient logistics system

Inventory management........................................................ ...........…….... 227
Chapter 8. WAREHOUSING LOGISTICS...................................…………..... 235

8.1. Main functions and tasks of warehouses

In the logistics system........................................................ ............... 235

8.2. Problems of efficient functioning of a warehouse........…….. 238

8.3. Logistics process in a warehouse...................................................……... 241

8.4. Warehousing system as the basis for profitability

Warehouse works................................................... .....................………….. 246
Chapter 9. TRANSPORT IN LOGISTICS CONDITIONS.......................................... 258

9.1. The influence of logistics on transport......................................................... 258

9.2. Transport company policy

And changes in the nature of their activities........................……. 262

9.3. New logistics collection systems

And cargo distribution......................................................... .........……... 266
Chapter 10. ORGANIZATION OF LOGISTICS

MANAGEMENT......................................................... .....................………… 272

10.1. Basic forms of management

Logistics support...........................…..... 272

10.2. Interfunctional coordination mechanism

Materials management..................................................... 285

10.3. Development of a logistics management system

Organization: from functional aggregation

Before information integration...................................................... 295

10.4. Controlling in logistics systems.................................................... 301
Chapter 11. SERVICE LOGISTICS

SERVICES................................................................... ...............………..... 304

11.1. Classification of types of service

Products........................................................ ...........................…….. 304

11.2. Service satisfaction criteria

Consumer demand........................................................ ....…….. 306

11.3. Service delivery criteria

For industrial purposes........................................……. 308

11.4. After-sales service criteria........…..... 310

11.5. Criteria for information service.........…….. 312

11.6. Criteria for financial and credit service

Services........................................................ ....................…….. 313
Chapter 12. LOGISTICS CENTERS.................................................…………... 315

12.1. Logistics centers of companies................................................… ..... 315

12.2. Regional logistics centers.................................................... 316

12.3. Composition of a typical regional center..........................…..... 317

12.4. Logistics centers in Russia....................................................….... 321
Chapter 13. LOGISTICS OF THE FUTURE....................................………… ... 324

13.1. Global logistics................................................... .........…….. 324

13.2. Integration of Russian organizations into the world

Logistics network........................................................ ...........…....... 329

13.3. Logistics of “slim” production.................................................................. 331
Recommended reading................................................... .........………….... 334

Preface to the first edition
Logistics - the science of planning, organizing, managing and controlling the movement of material and information flows in space and time from their primary source to the final consumer.

Logistics, although it has deep historical roots, is nevertheless a relatively young science. It received especially rapid development during the Second World War, when it was used to solve strategic problems and ensure clear interaction between the defense industry, logistics and supply bases and transport in order to timely provide the army with weapons, fuels and lubricants and food. Gradually, the concepts and methods of logistics began to be transferred from the military to the civilian sphere, first as a new scientific direction on the rational management of the movement of material flows in the sphere of circulation, and then in production. Logistics units have been created at industrial enterprises, the agro-industrial complex, transport, in the NATO apparatus; they are included in the organizing committees for major international competitions, etc.

By the end of the 20th century, logistics science emerged as a discipline that included purchasing or supply logistics, production process logistics, sales or distribution logistics, transport logistics, information or computer logistics and a number of others. Each of the listed areas of human activity has been sufficiently studied and described in the relevant literature; the novelty of the logistics approach itself lies in the integration of the listed, as well as other (unnamed) areas of activity in order to achieve the desired result with minimal time and resources through optimal end-to-end management of material and information flows. Thus, logistics primarily works for the consumer, trying to satisfy his needs as much as possible.

All this allows us to conclude that although logistics has been known for a long time, nevertheless it claims to be the name of a scientific and educational discipline of the 21st century and, in our opinion, will eventually be introduced as a basic discipline in the program of higher education and postgraduate education, and logistics specialists will be in demand in almost all areas of human activity.
Preface to the second edition

When preparing the second edition of the textbook, the authors eliminated a number of errors and inaccuracies, and also considered it necessary to make changes to its structure. The wishes of readers were taken into account, the circle of representatives of scientific schools in the author’s team was expanded.

The book includes two new chapters. In Chapter 11 “Service Logistics”, written by scientists from MSTU. N. E. Bauman, provides a classification of types of service for products, sets out criteria for the level of service for each type of service, etc. A separate chapter is devoted to the logistics of the future. It examines two areas of global importance related to global logistics and logistics of “harmonious” production, as well as the problem of integrating Russian organizations into the global logistics network.

Almost all chapters include new illustrative material (diagrams and graphs), including the curve of the “golden” section in production logistics, graphs of the impact of the quality of service of meeting consumer demand on the profit of the enterprise, ensuring the optimal level of service depending on total costs, information flow diagrams when importing and transporting goods across Russia, material flow from supplier warehouses to the customs terminal in Russia, distribution channels depending on production volume and demand, driving forces of globalization and a number of others.

Over the past two years since the publication of the first edition, the book has found a wide readership in many regions of Russia and neighboring countries. In August 1999, “Workshop on Logistics” was published as a practical application to the text of this textbook. The authors of the textbook will be grateful to readers for critical comments and suggestions, as well as suggestions for participation in the team of authors in order to further improve the text of the book, especially its sections devoted to the practical application of the concept of the logistics approach.
Preface to the third edition

Since the publication of the first edition of the textbook in Russia, a number of positive changes have occurred in the field of logistics. Firstly, most Russian universities have included logistics among the main basic disciplines. Secondly, since 2000, the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation has been conducting an experiment to open the specialty “Logistics” in universities. The experiment is being carried out in seven universities - four in Moscow, two in St. Petersburg and Rostov (Rostov-on-Don). Thirdly, Russian scientists and specialists working in the field of logistics, representing different schools and trends, are gradually developing their own interpretation of concepts and definitions in logistics, taking into account European and American experience. Analyzing their definitions of the basic term “logistics”, we can come to the general conclusion that most Russian authors define logistics as the science of managing flow processes in the economy, which corresponds to the concept of the textbook (Table 0.1).

When preparing the third edition of the textbook, the authors made a number of necessary clarifications to the text. The structure of the book has undergone some changes. New material included  Chapter 12 and Section 10.3. Chapter 12, Logistics Centers, provides information about the two main types of logistics centers: organization and region. Section 10.3 discusses the main stages of development of organizational structures for managing a logistics organization, including the concept of an organization of the 21st century. As a practical application to the text of this textbook, “Workshop on Logistics” (2nd ed.) was published in 2001.

Table 01

Definition of the term “logistics” by Russian scientists and specialists

Scientific school____	Author__________	Definition_________
Institute of World economy and international relations RAS	Fedorov L.S., Doctor of Economics sciences, prof.	Logistics - improvement motion control material flows from primary source of raw materials to the end consumer finished products and related to them information and financial flows to based on a systematic approach and economic compromises in order to achieve synergistic effect Logistics - form market optimization connections, harmonization interests of all participants supply chains
St. Petersburg state University of Economics and finance	Semenenko A.I., Doctor of Economics sciences, prof.	Logistics - new direction of scientific practical activities, whose target function is end-to-end organizational- analytical optimization economic flow processes
Moscow state Technical University them. N.E. Bauman	Kolobov A.A., Dr. Tech. sciences, prof.; Omelchenko I.N., Dr. Tech. sciences, prof.	Logistics is the science of planning, management and traffic control material and information flows in any systems
Kazan State Technical university (KAI)	Tunakov A. P., Dr. Tech. sciences, prof.	Logistics is the science of management of material, information and financial flows
Moscow state automobile and road institute (technical University)	Mirotin L.B., Dr. Tech. sciences, prof.; Tashbaev Y.E., Ph.D. Sciences, Associate Professor	Logistics is the science of organization of joint managers' activities various departments enterprises and groups enterprises for efficient promotion of products raw material procurement chains - production  sales  distribution" based on integration and coordination operations, procedures and functions performed in within this process in order to minimize common resource costs
State University - Higher school of economics State university of management	Sergeev V.I., Doctor of Economics sciences, prof.; Sterligova A.N., Ph.D. Sciences, Associate Professor Anikin B.A., Doctor of Economics sciences, prof.	Logistics is the science of management and optimization material and flows accompanying them (informational, financial, service, etc.) in micro-, meso- or macroeconomic systems Logistics - management material flows, service flows and related with them informational and financial flows to logistics system for achieving its goals goals in front of her Logistics is the science of streaming management processes in the economy

Chapter 1
CONCEPTUAL APPARATUS OF LOGISTICS

AND FACTORS OF ITS DEVELOPMENT

I often think about: where is my place in

this stream?

Genghis Khan
1.1. Definition, concept, tasks

and logistics functions
In recent years, significant changes have taken place in the sphere of commodity circulation in a number of countries. New methods and technologies for the delivery of goods began to be used in economic practice. They are based on the concept logistics.

Logistics comes from the Greek word “logistike”, which means the art of calculating, reasoning. The history of the emergence and development of practical logistics goes far into the past. Professor at the University of Hamburg G. Pavellek notes that even during the Roman Empire there were ministers who bore the title of “logistics” or “logistics”; they were engaged in the distribution of food 1. In the first millennium AD, in the military vocabulary of a number of countries, logistics was associated with the activities of providing the armed forces with material resources and maintaining their reserves. Thus, during the time of the Byzantine king Leon VI (865-912 AD), it was believed that the tasks of logistics were arming the army, supplying it with military equipment, timely and fully taking care of its needs and, accordingly, preparing each act of a military campaign 2 .

According to a number of Western scientists, logistics has grown into a science thanks to military affairs. The creator of the first scientific works on logistics is considered to be the French military specialist of the early 19th century, A. Jomini, who gave the following definition of logistics: “the practical art of maneuvering troops.” He argued that logistics included not only transportation, but also a wide range of issues such as planning, management and supply, determining the location of troops, as well as the construction of bridges, roads, etc. It is believed that some principles of logistics were used by Napoleon's army . However, logistics as a military science was formed only by the middle of the 19th century.

Logistics began to be actively used during the Second World War, and primarily in the logistics of the US Army in the European theater of operations 3 . The clear interaction of the military industry, rear and front-line supply bases and transport made it possible to timely and systematically provide the American army with supplies of weapons, fuels, lubricants and food in the required quantities.

That is why in many Western countries logistics has been put at the service of efficient material flow management in the economy. Like other methods of applied mathematics (operations research, mathematical optimization, network models, etc.), logistics gradually began to move from the military field to the sphere of economic practice. Initially, it took shape as a new type of theory about the implementation of control over the movement of commodity and material resources in the sphere of circulation, and then production. Thus, The ideas of integrating supply, production and distribution systems, which would link the functions of supplying materials and raw materials, production of products, their storage and distribution, which arose in countries with market economies even on the eve of and during the economic crisis of the 1930s, were transformed into independent areas of scientific research and form of business practice - logistics .

Russia has made a significant contribution to the development of logistics. At the beginning of the 20th century, St. Petersburg professors of communications published a work entitled “Transport Logistics.” On its basis, models of troop transportation, support and supply were built. These models received practical application in the planning and conduct of a number of campaigns of the Russian army during the First World War.

In the USSR, during the first five-year plans, based on the principles of transport logistics, cargo delivery schedules for major construction projects, polar and other expeditions were developed. During the Great Patriotic War, military transport services organized the movement of front-line cargo by all types of transport 4 . In the post-war period, logistics received further development. In particular, in 1950 the work of B.G. was published. Bakhaev “Fundamentals of operation of the marine fleet.” This work formulated the main credo of logistics, the essence of which was the requirement for the rational organization of transportation and transfer of goods in the required quantity and required quality to a given destination with minimal costs within a specified time frame.

At the end of the 1970s, logistics technology was developed in Leningrad, that is, the operation of modes of transport using the transport hub method, where their interaction took place. The concepts of domestic scientists were studied by Western specialists. Currently, they form the basis for the development of a unified European transport system of the EU countries. At the end of the 1980s, an attempt was made in the USSR to introduce the intersectoral system “Rhythm”, operating on the principles of logistics. A unified inter-industry technology for sustainable transportation of iron ore raw materials combined train schedules, the work of stations, enterprises - senders and recipients of cargo in organizing the promotion of technological routes. A logistics chain for the delivery of coal from Kuzbass to one of the Moscow thermal power plants was developed and implemented.

In business activities, economic and scientific literature, foreign experts highlight two fundamental directions in defining logistics. One of them is related to functional approach to product distribution, i.e., the management of all physical operations that must be performed when delivering goods from the supplier to the consumer. Another direction is characterized broader approach: in addition to managing goods distribution operations, it includes market analysis of suppliers and consumers, coordination of supply and demand in the market for goods and services, as well as harmonization of the interests of participants in the goods distribution process.

Within the framework of the noted approach to logistics, there are many different interpretations. Analyzing them, it is easy to notice a number of aspects through the prism of which logistics is viewed. The most widespread are managerial, economic and operational-financial aspects. Thus, Professor G. Pavellek 5 and employees of the US National Council for Materials Distribution Management 6, defining the essence of logistics, focus on managerial aspect. Logistics, in their opinion, is the planning, management and control of the flow of material products entering the enterprise, processed there and leaving this enterprise and the corresponding information flow 7 .

Many experts in the field under study, including French ones, give preference economic side of logistics and interpret it as “... a set of various types of activities with the aim of obtaining at the lowest cost the required quantity of products at a specified time and in a specified place in which there is a specific need for these products” 8. In the directory published by Danzas (one of the largest German freight forwarding companies), logistics is defined as a certain system developed for each enterprise with the aim of optimally, from the point of view of making a profit, accelerating the movement of material resources and goods inside and outside the enterprise, starting from the purchase of raw materials and materials, passing them through production and ending with the supply of finished products to consumers, including the information system connecting these tasks 9.

Some definitions of logistics reflect how managerial, so economic Aspects. The most typical characteristic of logistics in this regard is given by Professor Pfohl (Germany), who links together the processes of planning and controlling the movement of material assets with reducing the costs of their movement and information support 10 .

A number of definitions of logistics emphasize its operational and financial aspect. In them, the interpretation of logistics is based on the time of settlement of transaction partners and activities related to the movement and storage of raw materials, semi-finished products and finished products in economic circulation from the moment of payment of money to the supplier until the moment of receiving money for delivery of the final product to the consumer 11 .

Other definitions of logistics reflect the views of specialists who focus on individual functions in the cycle under consideration. Logistics in these cases comes down to a very narrow range of operations: transportation, loading and unloading, warehousing, etc. Summarizing the above definitions of logistics, it can be characterized as the science of managing material flows from the primary source to the final consumer with minimal costs associated with the movement of goods and related information flow.

Of course, in the above-mentioned interpretations of logistics, one or another of its aspects is rightly highlighted, but the most important, in our opinion, aspect of logistics is overlooked - the ability to influence the strategy of the corporation and the creation of new competitive advantages of the company in the market, i.e. its final goals. This aspect is essentially reflected in the second approach to the definition of logistics.

American specialists Paul Converse and Peter Drucker were the first to predict the practical potential of logistics. They defined its potential as “the last frontier of cost savings” and “the uncharted continent of the economy” 12 . Subsequently, their point of view was shared by many logistics theorists. American researchers such as M. Porter, D. Stock and some others believe that logistics has gone beyond the boundaries of its traditional narrow definition and is of great importance in the strategic management and planning of a company 13.

French specialists E. Mate and D. Tixier are also proponents of a broad interpretation of logistics, who mean by it “ways and methods of coordinating the company’s relations with partners, a means of coordinating the demand presented by the market and the supply put forward by the company... a way of organizing the activities of an enterprise that allows us to combine efforts various units producing goods and services in order to optimize the financial, material and labor resources used by the company to realize its economic goals” 14. E. Mate and D. Tixier believe that “...logistics is at the very heart of the company’s choices in various areas, at the center of the actions taken; undoubtedly, it represents an important factor in the development of the general policy of the company" 15. Proponents of an expanded interpretation of logistics also include English scientists D. Benson and J. Whitehead. In their opinion, logistics covers market research and forecasting, production planning, procurement of raw materials, materials and equipment, includes inventory control and a number of sequential goods and movement operations, and the study of customer service 16 .

From the above definitions of logistics by foreign specialists it follows that it is a broader category than marketing, many of whose core functions have shifted to logistics. One confirmation of this can be the creation of logistics structures in a number of companies that absorbed previously functioning marketing departments. Moreover, English researchers M. Christopher and G. Wills believe that logistics is effective not only at the firm level, but also at the industry level. She, they believe, should own decisions on the general economic process of the industry, including issues of locating enterprises and warehouses.

The discrepancy in the definition of logistics is due to a number of reasons 17. One of them lies in the specificity and difference in the scale of the tasks that individual firms are trying to solve in the field of sales of goods, their transportation, warehousing, etc. Another reason is the existing differences in national systems for organizing and managing product distribution, as well as in the level of research into logistics problems in different countries. The third reason is the multiplicity of functional areas of activity in the external environment of the logistics system (Figure I.I).

At its core, logistics is not a completely new phenomenon and unknown to practice. The problem of the most rational movement of raw materials, supplies and finished products has always been the subject of close attention. The novelty of logistics lies, firstly, in the change in priorities in the economic practices of firms, which assigns a central place to the management of flow processes rather than production management. Secondly, the novelty of logistics lies in a comprehensive integrated approach to the issues of movement of material assets in the process of reproduction.

Rice. 1.1. Functional “environment” of the logistics system:

1 - logistics and electronic data processing; 2 - purchase of raw materials and supplies; 3 - logistics planning; 4 - planning of production; 5 - improving product quality; 6 - production planning and management; 7 - warehouse systems; 8 - sales planning; 9 - sales market, marketing; 10 - service structure; 11 - organization of customer service; 12 -financial planning; 13 - current financial activities; 14 - structure of the personnel system; 15 - HR planning and management

If, with a fragmented method of managing material flows, coordination of actions is clearly insufficient, the necessary sequence and coordination in the actions of various structures (divisions of companies and their external partners) is not observed, then logistics involves the coordination of processes associated with material and information flows, production, management and marketing. Thirdly, the novelty of logistics lies in the use of the theory of compromises in the economic practices of firms. As a result, during the movement of material and information flows, directly opposite goals of participants in the logistics chain (suppliers, consumers and intermediaries) are often achieved, which indicates that logistics performs the function of balancing, optimizing and coordinating various types of relationships (loading production capacities and purchasing and sales capacities, financial and information relations, etc.). This made it possible to move away from the separate management of various functions of product distribution and to integrate them, which made it possible to obtain an overall result of activity that exceeds the sum of the individual effects.

Based on the above, we can give the following general definition of logistics. Logistics is a form of optimizing market relations, harmonizing the interests of all participants in the product distribution process. Logistics is improving the management of material and related information and financial flows on the way from the primary source of raw materials to the final consumer of finished products based on a systematic approach and the application of economic compromises in order to obtain a synergistic effect.

In modern conditions, Western experts distinguish several types of logistics: logistics related to providing production with materials (purchasing logistics); production logistics; sales (marketing or distribution logistics) 18 . There are also transport logistics, which, in essence, is an integral part of each of the three types of logistics. An integral part of all types of logistics is also the mandatory presence of a logistics information flow, which includes the collection of data on the flow of goods, their transmission, processing and systematization with the subsequent issuance of ready-made information. This logistics subsystem is often called computer logistics. If we follow the logic of Western experts, then the number of types of logistics could be continued. It seems that operating with such concepts has not only a purely terminological meaning. It is reflected in the expansion of the scope of logistics activities, in the creation of appropriate new organizational structures for managing companies, special divisions for managing the movement of goods in enterprise warehouses, marketing and material distribution in the sale of finished products. Therefore, in our opinion, it would be more correct to talk not about types of logistics, but about its functional areas.

There is a connection and interdependence between these areas of logistics. For example, if the main production uses a technology that does not require the presence of significant intermediate stocks of materials and raw materials, then, in accordance with logistics, deliveries are planned to be carried out at a strictly defined time at short intervals. To fulfill irregular orders in the shortest possible time, when the main production is characterized by spatial concentration of equipment, the creation of reserves of production capacity (so-called “island of production” systems), appropriate methods are used in the field of procurement to purchase a variety of material resources in order to fulfill individual orders .

In the supply chain , i.e., the chain through which commodity and information flows pass from supplier to consumer, the following main links are distinguished: purchase and supply of materials, raw materials and semi-finished products; storage of products and raw materials; Production of goods; distribution, including dispatch of goods from the finished goods warehouse; consumption of finished products(Fig. 1.2). Each link in the logistics chain includes its own elements, which together form the material basis of logistics. The material elements of logistics include: vehicles and their equipment, warehousing, communications and management equipment. The logistics system, naturally, also covers personnel, i.e. those workers who perform all sequential operations.


Information flow

Material flow

Rice. 1.2. Logistics chain
Source: The realities and challenges of European logistics into the 90s. Milan, 6th European Logistics Congress. November 1988, p. 10.
The ability to plan various operations and analyze the levels of elements of the logistics system predetermined its division into macro- and micrologistics. Macrologist and solves issues related to market analysis of suppliers and consumers, development of a general concept of distribution, placement of warehouses at the service area, choice of mode of transport and vehicles, organization of the transport process, rational directions of material flows, points of delivery of raw materials, materials and semi-finished products, with the choice of a transit or warehouse scheme for the delivery of goods.

Micrologistician but solves local issues within individual firms and enterprises. An example is intra-industrial logistics, when various logistics operations are planned within an enterprise, such as transport and storage, loading and unloading, etc. Micrologistics provides operations for planning, preparing, implementing and monitoring the processes of moving goods within industrial enterprises. The difference between macro- and micrologistics also lies in the fact that on the scale of the first, interaction between participants in the process of commodity distribution occurs on the basis of the purchase and sale of goods, and within the second, on non-commodity relations.

The increasing complexity of production and increased competition in the 1980-90s required a more precise linking of logistics with the strategic goals of firms, as well as an intensification of the role of logistics in increasing the flexibility of firms and their ability to quickly respond to market signals. Due to this The main task of logistics was the development of a carefully balanced and justified proposal that would contribute to achieving the highest efficiency of the company, increasing its market share and gaining advantages over competitors. For, as practice has shown, underestimation of the close connection of the logistics concept with an active market strategy has often led and continues to lead to the fact that the purchase of raw materials, semi-finished products and components itself becomes an incentive to start producing one or another product without adequate demand for it. In the current market situation, such an approach to product production is fraught with commercial failure. Of course, the focus on minimizing costs remains in force, but only if the optimal level of combination of costs and profitability of fixed and working capital involved in the market strategy is found.

One of the main tasks of logistics is also to improve the management of product distribution, to create an integrated effective system for regulating and monitoring material and information flows ensuring high quality delivery of products. This task is closely related to the solution of such problems as: correspondence of material and information flows to each other; control over the material flow and transfer of data about it to a single center; determining the strategy and technology for the physical movement of goods; development of methods for managing goods movement operations; establishing standardization standards for semi-finished products and packaging; determining the volume of production, transportation and storage; discrepancy between intended goals and purchasing and production capabilities. This task can be accomplished by solving scientific problems in the development of logistics itself, starting from the structuring of the technology of its chains and ending with various local problems.

In accordance with modern tasks of logistics, two types of its functions are distinguished: operational and coordination. Operational functions are associated with the direct management of the movement of material assets in the sphere of supply, production and distribution and, in essence, differ little from the functions of traditional logistics support. Functions in the supply sector include managing the movement of raw materials, individual parts or inventories of finished products from the supplier or point of purchase to production plants, warehouses or commercial storage facilities. In the production phase, the function of logistics becomes inventory management, which includes control of the movement of semi-finished products and components through all stages of the production process, as well as the movement of finished products to wholesale warehouses and retail markets. Product distribution management functions cover the operational organization of the flow of final products from the manufacturing enterprise to consumers.

To the number logistics coordination functions include: identification and analysis of the needs for material resources of various phases and parts of production; analysis of the markets in which the enterprise operates and forecasting the development of potential markets; processing of data relating to orders and client needs (Fig. 1.3). The listed functions of logistics are to coordinate the supply and demand of goods. In this sense, marketing and logistics are closely interrelated, and the established formula is “Marketing creates demand, and logistics implements it”- has a solid basis. To a certain extent, the formula is also applicable to coordinating the relationship between logistics and production. Thus, logistics deals with “docking”th» two spheres:


Rice. 1.3. Functional diagram of logistics