What sciences were developed in Byzantium. Presentation on the topic "education and science in Byzantium"

The Byzantines had a respectful attitude towards science, which they called "philosophy". To it they ranked theology, mathematics, natural history, ethics, politics, grammar, rhetoric (eloquence), dialectics (logic), astronomy, music and jurisprudence.

Byzantine theologians made a significant contribution to the development of the Orthodox dogma. At the same time, they relied on ancient philosophy, using, unlike European scholastics, the work of not only Aristotle, but also other ancient scientists. In vain we racked our brains over the solution of the problem: how best to know God - by reason or by faith? Different answers were also given to the question: God or fate govern the Universe and human life.

Byzantine science and technology were significantly ahead of Western European ones.

Byzantine scientist Leo The mathematician laid the foundation for algebra by replacing digital symbols with alphabetic ones. He invented light telegraph , many ingenious mechanisms that amazed foreigners. These were moving statues, mechanical songbirds, etc.

10th century From the story of the Italian ambassador about the reception of foreign diplomats in the palace of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus

In front of the throne of the emperor stood a copper, but gilded tree, the branches of which were full of all sorts of birds made of bronze and also gilded. The birds were singing, each with its own special tune. The throne of the emperor was arranged so skillfully that at first it seemed low, almost at ground level, then somewhat higher, and finally, as if hovering in the air. The gigantic throne was surrounded, as if on duty, by copper or wooden ... gilded lions, which madly beat their tails on the ground, opened their mouths, moved their tongues and growled loudly. After I... for the third time bowed before the emperor, saluting him respectfully, I raised my head and saw the emperor in completely different clothes, almost under the ceiling of the hall, whereas just now I saw him on the throne at a short distance -ni from the ground. I couldn't figure out how it happened. It must have been lifted up by some kind of mechanical device.

Byzantium carried out astronomical observations , closely related to astrology . Byzantine physicians worked on diagnostics - the recognition of ailments. Chemical Knowledge the Byzantines had enough to establish the production of glass, ceramics, enamels and paints. They invented "Greek fire" (they burned enemy ships). Byzantine travelers and pilgrims made many important geographical observations.

Of the humanitarian knowledge in Byzantium, jurisprudence and history were especially respected. The most prominent Byzantine historian was Procopius of Caesarea who described the reign of Justinian, his patron. In the XI century. became famous for the comprehensively gifted scientist-encyclopedist Michael Psell.material from the site

Michael Psell- theologian, philologist, jurist, physicist, astronomer, biologist. He skillfully adapted to the political situation - he survived nine emperors, even became the first minister.

light telegraph - signal lights for the transmission of urgent messages over long distances.

Astronomical observations - observations related to astronomy, that is, the science of celestial bodies.

Astrology - the doctrine according to which the location of celestial bodies can predict the future, the fate of man.

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Content

Introduction……………………………………………………………… 3 pages
1. Byzantium-Keeper of ancient knowledge………………………. 5 pages
1.1 Byzantine Empire ……………………………………………… 5 p.
1.2 Education and science……………………………………………… 6 p.
1.3 Inventions and achievements ……………………………………… 12 p.
2. Grammar Photius …………………………………………………. 16 p.
3. Lev Mathematician ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………. 25 pages
List of used literature………………………………….26 p.

Introduction
The European Middle Ages has long been considered an era of savagery, ignorance and technical stagnation. Meanwhile, it is to this era that humanity owes such outstanding achievements as the invention of book printing, mechanical clocks, the mass introduction of water mills into production, the development of long-distance navigation technologies, and much more, without which neither the geographical discoveries of the 16th century nor the scientific revolution of the 17th century would have been possible. c., nor industrial 18th revolution in..
These were the times when a fortified castle, signifying power, served as a refuge... When pilgrims and crusaders rushed to the East... When monasteries and cathedrals were built in Europe... When fairs roared outside the city walls and a plague raged... When arose from the waves, Venice created a maritime empire on trade.
Science in the Middle Ages, as in any other period of its history, existed simultaneously in two forms: as an impersonal system of knowledge about the world and as one of the spheres of the spiritual life of society. As the latter, it could not help but be exposed to other spheres of public life.
Speaking about the socio-cultural influence on science, one should distinguish between two kinds of influence. Changes in production methods, technical improvements, shifts in social structure, population growth, development of communications, political and ideological movements have a strong influence on science, presenting it with problems for research, focusing scientists' attention on solving certain problems and at the same time predetermining the social organization of scientific research. research, prerequisites and conditions of scientific work.
Since Christianity determined the system of value orientations characteristic of medieval society, it left its mark on any type of activity, including the very attitude of a person to work. A medieval scholar in Western Europe is usually a monk or cleric. Almost all authors of works on natural philosophy wrote essays on theological topics. Naturally, a person who was both a theologian and a scientist was able to transfer the formally ordering principles and intuitions developed within the framework of one system of knowledge to another, just as the same methods of mathematics are currently used in different disciplines.
Dynamic development of technical improvements, introduction and agriculture, and in the handicraft production of new technologies could not but affect the spiritual climate of the Middle Ages, including scientific creativity. But this influence was not direct. Science in the Middle Ages was mostly book business, she relied mainly on abstract thinking, with a direct appeal to nature, she used, as a rule, methods of observation, extremely rarely - experiment, saw her role not in contributing to the transformation of nature, but sought to understand the world as it appears in the process of contemplation. In this respect, medieval science was the antipode of both modern science and medieval technology. Therefore, it was not technical achievements and problems that had a direct impact on medieval science, nor did it, in turn, have any noticeable impact on the development of technology. But the indirect influence of technology and technology on the development of science was enormous. First, the prerequisites were created for expanding the social base of science. The layer of the bourgeoisie, growing in the process of urbanization of Europe, quickly utilize technical innovations. The well-being of the population, despite the protracted periods of economic recession, is increasing. All this gradually prepares the conditions for the ensuing in the XVI - XVII centuries. explosion of scientific activity. Secondly, a special atmosphere of enterprise was created, new practical attitudes towards nature, new value regulators were formed.

Byzantium is the Keeper of ancient knowledge.

1.1 Byzantine Empire.
The Byzantine Empire got its name from the ancient Megarian colony, the small town of Byzantium, on the site of which in 324-330. Emperor Constantine founded the new capital of the Roman Empire, which later became the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople. The name "Byzantium" appeared later. The Byzantines themselves called themselves the Romans - "Romans", and their empire - "Roman". The Byzantine emperors officially called themselves "emperors of the Romans", and the capital of the empire was called "New Rome" for a long time. Having arisen as a result of the collapse of the Roman Empire at the end of the 4th century. and the transformation of its eastern half into an independent state, Byzantium was in many ways a continuation of the Roman Empire, preserving the traditions of its political life and state structure. Therefore, Byzantium IV - VII centuries. often referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire.
The territory of the empire exceeded 750,000 sq. km. In the north, its border ran along the Danube to its confluence with the Black Sea, then along the coast of the Crimea and the Caucasus. In the east, it stretched from the mountains of Iberia and Armenia, adjoined the borders of the eastern neighbor of Byzantium - Iran, led through the steppes of Mesopotamia, crossing the Tigris and Euphrates, and further along the desert steppes inhabited by North Arab tribes, to the south - to the ruins of ancient Palmyra. From here, through the deserts of Arabia, the border went to Ayla (Aqaba) - on the coast of the Red Sea. Here, in the southeast, the neighbors of Byzantium were the South Arab tribes, the Himyarite kingdom - “Happy Arabia”. The southern border of Byzantium ran from the African coast of the Red Sea, along the borders of the Aksumite kingdom (Ethiopia), the regions bordering Egypt, inhabited by semi-nomadic tribes of the Vlemmians, and further to the west, along the outskirts of the Libyan Desert in Cyrenaica, where the militant Mauretanian tribes of the Ausurians and layouts.
1.2 Education and science
All major branches of knowledge in Byzantine Empire basically continued and developed the legacy classical greece Hellenistic and Roman period; this heritage was given a theological orientation or it was processed in accordance with Christian doctrine. The development of scientific theory, however, stopped: after all, the basis ancient science was philosophy, which in the Middle Ages gave way to theology. Due to the fact that “the worldview of the Middle Ages was essentially theological,” and “church dogma was the starting point and basis of all thinking,” secular sciences usually took on a theological coloring in Byzantium, as elsewhere in the Middle Ages; information on natural science, geography, mathematics, history can often be found in theological writings. The peculiarity of the medieval sciences also consisted in the fact that rarely any of the thinkers (the same took place in antiquity) was limited to any one field of knowledge: the majority was engaged in science in broad sense the words; many wrote essays on philosophy, theology, mathematics, medicine - in a word, on a number of sciences that later differentiated.
The Byzantine school was the guardian of traditions. The Byzantines neglected the experiment. This neglect was based on a clear theoretical basis: the Byzantines believed that experience and observation only glide over the surface of phenomena, while speculative reasoning based on authorities - the Bible, the works of the church fathers, writings to penetrate the essence of things, prominent ancient philosophers - allow to the source of knowledge. Truth was not subject to verification - it was given a priori in the best of books.
Mathematical calculations were widely used in astronomy, which was of paramount importance for navigation and in determining calendar dates, necessary, for example, for calculating taxation, as well as for church chronology. It was important for the chroniclers to determine the year of the "creation of the world", from which the entire secular and theological historical chronology was counted; in addition, the clergy needed to know the exact dates of the main events in the life of Christ (his birth, baptism, etc.), to which church services and holidays were timed. The most significant of the latter was the feast of Easter: in accordance with it, the days of celebrating many events of the church year were established. Special methods for calculating the time of this most revered holiday in the church calendar were quite complicated. They were associated with a serious mathematical processing of the results of astronomical observations.
In the eyes of the Byzantines, scholarly writings on geography were only descriptions of the earth compiled by ancient authors, such as Strabo. These writings were studied and commented on throughout Byzantine history. But for the practical needs of the state, church and trade, other kinds of works are also compiled, dedicated to the description of the land and contemporary countries and peoples of that era. A number of works belonged to merchants who described the countries they saw and collected information about the routes of communication.
In Byzantium of the period under consideration, a number of works on zoology and botany appeared. They either described the wonders of the animal world of distant countries (India), or contained information intended for practical needs related to agriculture.
Chemistry in the IV-VII centuries. developed most fruitfully in its practical application - therefore, to study its history, the recipes used by artisans in the production process are important. The theory of chemistry developed within the framework of alchemy, which was considered a secret, sacred science of the transmutation of metals in order to produce and increase the volume of silver and gold, as well as the philosopher's stone - a miraculous remedy that supposedly was supposed to turn other metals into gold, would serve as a panacea for all diseases contributed to life extension. There is no doubt that special signs were known in early Byzantium for the designation of chemical substances; these signs were not of a magical nature, but replaced the chemical formulas of our time.
The basis of medical knowledge throughout the existence of the Byzantine Empire was the writings of two great physicians of antiquity: Hippocrates (c. 460-377 BC) and Galen (131-201). Extracts from the writings of these two ancient authors were included in the newly compiled compilations and have been preserved in many lists.
The most important feature of the Byzantine enlightenment of the period under review should be considered the gradual replacement of the Hellenistic period system of pagan education by a new system, created under the auspices of the church in the interests of the monarchy. While trying to eradicate pagan education and replace it with Christian education, the church at the same time borrows the methodology that has developed over hundreds of years in ancient and Hellenistic Greece.
Primary education consisted of the study of spelling, the basics of arithmetic and grammar, which meant familiarization with the works of classical authors, primarily Homer's Odyssey and Iliad. Over time, along with Homer, they began to read the books of the Old and New Testaments, and especially carefully studied the Psalter, which for many centuries served as the first book to be read not only in Byzantium, but also in Russia.
The general primary stage of education was followed by higher education. The secular sciences studied in higher education according to the system proposed by Plato (in his “Republic”) were divided into two groups, namely: the “trivium”, which included grammar, rhetoric and dialectics, and the “quadrivium”, which consisted of arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy. However, the range of Byzantine scientific studies was not limited to the branches of knowledge included in these cycles. In addition to them, they studied law, medicine, and theology.
Higher educational institutions were controlled by the imperial power. There were also private schools. According to traditions, teaching was conducted orally, the lesson was improvised by the teacher. Approximately until the 5th century. n. e. the method of reading aloud the studied text, adopted in ancient Greece, was also preserved. Only in the 5th century, in connection with the spread of monasticism, which considered silence one of the highest Christian virtues, did they begin to read silently. The most important teaching method was the exegetical method, i.e., interpretation, commenting on the works chosen for study.
Legal education played a special role, since lawyers were very much needed in the state apparatus. Law was one of the main subjects of teaching in the Athens, Alexandria and Beirut schools.
Criminal law and legal proceedings were not studied. The method of teaching was wholly exegetical and suffered from confusion and incompleteness. As a result of training, students did not receive any practical skills.
The development of the philological sciences was closely connected with the needs of education, and took place mainly in the process of studying and commenting on the works of ancient literature, and later also on the works of early Christian literature.
The lexicography of the period under review has not yet become such an important branch of knowledge as in subsequent centuries. In this area, the most interesting are bilingual dictionaries (Greek-Latin, Latin-Greek, Coptic-Greek), the compilation of which was caused by the needs of the vast international relations of the empire.
As a result of the Fourth crusade the fate of Byzantine culture has undergone significant changes. The most important center of Byzantine science and education - Constantinople, with its old traditions and long-standing higher education and libraries, was lost. Many residents of the capital, who belonged to educated circles, fled to Asia Minor.
By force of circumstances, the focus of science and education in XIII century became Nicaea, where, as in the neighboring cities of Asia Minor, apparently, interest in preserving the traditions of Byzantine culture did not weaken.
In the 13th century, contemporaries, speaking of learning, likened ancient Athens not to Constantinople, but to Nicaea. The emperors from the house of Laskaris patronized enlightenment and considered it necessary not only to act as patrons of art, at whose court prominent figures of science and literature found refuge, but also labored in this field themselves. The desire to oppose the ancient empire of the Romans, the keeper of the traditions of ancient education, played a lot in the policy of these emperors important role.
Theodore I Laskaris widely practiced inviting scholars to his court. He specifically instructed Nicephorus Vlemmids (1197 - 1272) - a prominent scientist and church-political figure - to examine Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly and Athos monasteries in order to collect Greek manuscripts, create libraries and collect the available manuscripts there. Vlemmid himself founded a school in the Imathian monastery, where such disciplines as logic, metaphysics, arithmetic, music, geometry, astronomy, theology, ethics, politics, jurisprudence, piitika and rhetoric were taught. AT educational process used specially designed study guides, which were usually a revision or, more precisely, an arrangement of the corresponding works of ancient writers and scientists, as well as the church fathers. Vlemmid made no small contribution to the development of science, he compiled textbooks on logic, physics and manuals on geography, which included knowledge of astrology, astronomy, and theology.
Thus, not only in Nicaea, but also in some other cities on the territory of the Nicaean Empire, the traditions of science and education were not interrupted.
After the restoration of the empire, in the recaptured Constantinople, the emperors continued the policy of the Laskaris to preserve the traditions of science and enlightenment. George Acropolitan received a special task from Michael VIII Palaiologos to restore the system of higher education in the capital. Acropolitan himself took over the teaching of Aristotle's philosophy of mathematics according to Euclid and Nicomachus. Along with secular schools in the 60s of the XIII century. in the capital, the school under the patriarchate, headed by the “ecumenical teacher”, resumed its activities. The head of the school at that time was the "rhetor of rhetors" Manuil Olovol.
Tin was a very bright personality. Manuil Olovol taught grammar, logic, rhetoric at school and was one of the few Byzantines who knew Latin.
About the usual schooling can be judged by complaints about the lack of funds, about non-payment of tuition fees by students. Apparently, holding the post of teacher was a public service.
Educational institutions over high type gave students a comprehensive acquaintance with the works of ancient authors. Such was the school of the outstanding progressive Byzantine scientist, the forerunner of Western European humanism - Maximus Planudus (1260 - 1310). Maksim Planud's school was designed for students who already had preliminary training. Much attention was paid to reading and commenting on the classics, rhetoric, and mathematics. It is interesting that in this school, subjects were included in the teaching that were previously absent in Byzantine schools - the Latin language and literature.
At the decline of Byzantium, the glory of Constantinople as a center of science began to fade. With Constantinople on the territory of Byzantium successfully competed at that time new center The capital of the Seas is Mystra.
The last period of development of Byzantine science and education is also characterized by the development of legal science. The activities of the famous jurist and Thessalonian judge Constantine Armenopoulos belong to this period. The "Six Book of Laws" compiled by him is one of the most popular manuals on law, repeatedly used by subsequent legislators in the countries of South-Eastern Europe. The "Sexateuch" was also recognized in the West. The basis of this legal monument was the earlier sources of Byzantine law, arranged in a new way for ease of use in judicial practice.
1.3 Inventions and achievements
Here are just some of the achievements of that time:
In agriculture, plow-type arable implements with iron shares began to be introduced, which not only loosened, but also turned over the upper soil layer. These tools were called plows-roes. For harvesting, scythes and sickles were used, as well as rakes and pitchforks. For threshing - flails.
Already with early medieval watermills, and later windmills, spread. The construction of watermills became a noticeable phenomenon already in the 9th century, and from the 10th to the 13th century. its pace is increasing all the time. Thanks to these inventions, it was possible to make water work not only in ordinary mills where grain is ground, but also to set in motion various machines: mechanical sieves for sifting flour, hammers in forges, machines in fullers and rawhies. To beginning of XII in. such machines are widely used.
One of the important branches of handicraft production was pottery. In addition to clay utensils, foundry equipment (crucibles, molds for casting), building and finishing materials, as well as clay toys were made. Products of masters were often painted and covered with multi-colored glaze.
Mining began to develop, pushed by the urgent need of Europe for iron. As a raw material for iron smelting, swamp or lake iron ore was used as the most accessible and easily mined. Mining developed mainly in rural areas and gradually turned into a separate area of ​​labor activity. A special profession appears - artisan miners engaged in the search and extraction of minerals.
Lathes of the early Middle Ages did not differ structurally from the most ancient models. But then the need to manufacture a significant number of more complex products forced us to look for ways to improve the design of machine tools. First of all, it was necessary to free both hands of the turner to work on the products. This was achieved by the introduction of a foot drive. Its device consisted of a pedal connected by a flexible connection to a wooden spring. The latter was used in two versions: in the form of an ochepa and a bow.
Tape loom - special variety loom, adapted for the simultaneous weaving of several tapes, on which the operation performed by the weaver on one tape is reproduced on all tapes.
Achievements in military affairs were associated with the production of iron. The knight possessed expensive military equipment: a sword, a spear, a helmet and chain mail. Over the centuries, armored head protection has been improved. If in the X - XI centuries. wore a simple helmet with a nose (a plate covering the nose), then later a deaf helmet appeared. Of various shapes, equipped with or without a visor, the helmet had a slit for air and vision on the front side. The battle armor ended with a shield. The warrior carried it on his arm, threaded through a loop reinforced on the back. Military armor was made in special weapons workshops. Chain mail was an expensive piece of armor; it was an iron shirt, made up of many rings 1 cm in diameter, connected to each other by means of tongs. Covering her head or leaving it open, she had a cut in front and behind in order to be able to sit on a horse. The shins were protected by chainmail leggings. Mounted knights, skilled in military affairs, were the color of military strength. Along with the "noble" weapons - a sword and a spear - another, less respectable, but no less effective, bow and crossbow was also used.
The production of chemical goods of that time can rather be called a craft. Usually these were collectives with a small number of employees, which most often had a family character. Already in the early Middle Ages, salt production, the production of paints, saltpeter, gunpowder and wood-chemical products (potash, tar, tar, charcoal) were developed. Medicines and other chemicals were manufactured in smaller quantities. Of the various colors, cinnabar, mercury sulphide, was mentioned earlier than others (in the 11th century). At the same time, the red dye “worm”, extracted from the insect, was mainly used for dyeing fabrics. To dye fabrics red, vegetable dye, madder, was also used. Mineral red paint - Kashin minium was very famous. For yellow paints, natural ocher was used, or, as it was then called, “vokhru”. Vegetable yellow paint "shishgel" was obtained from buckthorn. Yellow paints - sandalwood and saffron - were very famous. The most common green paint, known as early as the 15th century. there was a yar, or a verdigris yar. Lead white was most often used as white paint, the mention of which dates back to the 11th century. Blue paint was in short supply - azure, obtained from the rare mineral lapis lazuli. Dark colors - gray, brown and black - gave tannin-rich parts of plants: oak bark, ink nuts, blueberries, etc. mixed with iron compounds. For frescoes, "earthen paints" were taken, obtained by grinding various natural minerals, such as colored pebbles. Sometimes the pebbles were pre-calcined, which is why the color of the paint often changed. To obtain brighter tones, cinnabar, azure, verdigris, etc. were added to the “earthy” colors.
Paints were used both as cosmetics and as medicines - external and often even internal. So, by the XII century. include references to the use of paint "vapa" for the treatment of skin diseases. An ointment against scabies was also mentioned, made from sulfur, saltpeter, vitriol and jari.
Shipping and trade are closely related concepts. With the development of trade, it became necessary to look for the shortest ways and possibilities for the delivery of goods, as well as to develop equipment for transportation. The most bulky goods were transported by sea, despite the known hazards such a journey. An important technical innovation - the keel rudder, strengthened along the keel axis - contributed to the significant development of maritime transport.
Kog, created by the Hanseatic sailors, spread in Europe as the best cargo ship. He could take up to 200 tons of goods into his voluminous inside. Equipped with a keel rudder, a long keel and a square sail, it was distinguished by its speed, covering up to 110 miles per day.
The ships, which became more docile and easier to manage, could go to the open sea and transport goods between the trading cities of Italy and the ports of Northern Europe.
For the sake of convenience in maintaining income and expenses from trade transportation, an accurate calendar is adopted. Church chronology, in which New Year began on March 22, then on April 25, was gradually replaced by a single calendar, in which the countdown of the new year began on January 1. In order to be able to judge the speed of ships and the duration of transportation, merchants began to divide the day into hours. In the 14th century, clocks appeared on the towers of city halls and cathedrals.
Along with the income book, scales and weights were the main working tool of the trader. Scales were needed to make sure that the weight of the purchased goods was correct, since local measures of weight varied.

Grammar Photius

St. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople (Comm. 6/19 February), is a bright church and political figure, scientist and theologian, - in the words of Fr. John Meyendorff: "almost one of the largest figures of the Byzantine period in the history of the Church."
The exact date of his birth is unknown; the patriarch died around 890-891. The future Patriarch of Constantinople came from a wealthy and noble family (his brother was married to the sister of Emperor Theodora) and received an excellent education, which could only be obtained in his time. Photius began his activity with public service, and, moreover, in fact high level. He held the highest government posts. It is known that "he traveled on a diplomatic mission to the court of the Arab caliph" and served as the first secretary in the state (he was a proto-secretary). Being a very educated person, he taught various sciences. Among his students were people from the highest strata of society: he taught Emperor Michael and Constantine the Philosopher. It should be noted that in those days to have an excellent education meant mastery of theology.
In 858, Photius, while still a layman, was elevated to the patriarchal throne, passing in six days successively through all lower degrees priesthood from reader to bishop. There was nothing unusual in the fact that a layman was elected patriarch - history knows many such cases (Tarasius, Nicephorus, Ambrose of Milan). So, Photius went straight from secular positions to fulfilling the duties of the patriarch. But it must be admitted that he was ready for this.
The enthronement took place on December 25, 857, the day of the Nativity of Christ. The rules of St. Photius twice: 857-867 and 877-886. The patriarch kept to the same conciliatory action, as before the patriarchs Tarasius, Nicephorus, Methodius. Not to go against the current, but to manage the current - in the name of the welfare of the Church and the state - was the desire of Photius.
etc.................

Throughout its history, Byzantium has been a multi-ethnic state. Byzantine culture combined the achievements of many peoples inhabiting it (Greeks, Syrians, Romans, Copts, Armenians, Georgians, Cilicians, Thracians, Cappadocians, Dacians, Slavs, Polovtsy, Arabs, etc.). However, the Byzantines were not limited to the simple assimilation of knowledge acquired in previous centuries, and in a number of industries made certain steps forward.

Particular attention was paid to those areas of knowledge that were closely related to practice, primarily medicine, agricultural production, construction, and navigation. At the same time, not ancient philosophy, but theology, was put at the basis of all sciences. Establishing itself on the ruins of the ancient world, Christianity in Byzantium supplanted the life-affirming pagan religion of the Greeks.

For a long time, paganism existed alongside Christianity. Many major church figures of Byzantium IV-V centuries. studied in pagan schools and subsequently actively fought against some Christian prejudices against Greco-Roman ancient literature. Thus, Basil the Great (c. 330-379), a prominent theologian and bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, was educated at a higher pagan school in Athens. In his writings, he spoke with great respect about the ancient cultural heritage and convincingly argued that ancient literature in many respects anticipated the emergence of Christianity. Moreover, Basil the Great and other early Christian writers pointed to the need for Christians to receive a secular education: in their opinion, it would contribute to a better understanding of the "Scripture" and its interpretation using the methods and means of ancient education. Calling themselves Romans, and their empire - Roman, the Byzantines-Christians were proud that they keep cultural heritage Hellas and Rome, so powerful was the historical inertia of the ancient world. However, only that which contributed to the strengthening of Christianity was selected from the ancient heritage. In the field of natural science, the main data were drawn from the works of Aristotle (“Physics”, “History of Animals”, “On the Parts of Animals”, “On the Movement of Animals”, “On the Soul”, etc.). All of them were repeatedly commented on by early Byzantine authors in order to make them accessible to the reading public.

In the early Byzantine period, the so-called "Six-day" encyclopedias, based on the biblical legend about the creation of the world in six days, became a kind of encyclopedia of natural science. The main purpose of "Conversations on the Six Days" was to present the Christian doctrine of the structure of the Universe and the refutation of the physical theories of antiquity. Basil the Great and George Pisida enjoyed the greatest fame. Engaged in the development of philosophical and theological problems and arguing with ancient writers, they borrowed from antiquity a variety of information on natural science, both real (about plants, birds, fish, reptiles, land animals, etc.), and fantastic (about sacred geese, about virgin birth of offspring in the kite and silkworm caterpillar - the thesis about immaculate conception etc.).

Valuable information about the animal world of Egypt, Ethiopia, Arabia, Ceylon and India is contained in the XI book of "Christian Topography" (c. 549) by Cosmas Indikoplova (i.e. "Sailor to India"). Along with this, it stated that the Earth is a plane, surrounded by the ocean and covered with the vault of heaven, where paradise is located.

Having become the ideology of the Middle Ages, Christianity had a decisive influence on social and political processes. The state doctrine of the glorification of the Christian monarchy and the cult of the Byzantine emperor as the head of the entire Christian world had a huge impact on the entire social and ideological life of Byzantium (ideology, culture, philosophy, history, literature, art and culture). various areas knowledge, including medicine).

The Eastern Roman Empire was predominantly Greek state, overwhelmingly Christian, and for a long time survived the Western Empire.

The name of the empire "Byzantine" (from the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which Emperor Constantine I the Great founded Constantinople) was introduced into use by Renaissance humanists after its fall, who did not dare to call it Roman. Despite the rather dubious choice of name, the term "Byzantine Empire" is widely used in modern historical science.

The inhabitants of the eastern Roman Empire themselves called themselves "Romans" (ρωµαίοι), that is, "Romans", and the empire - "Romean" or "Romania" (Ρωµανία). Western contemporaries called it the "Empire of the Greeks" because of decisive role in it the Greek population and culture. In Russia, it was also usually called the "Greek Kingdom".

Byzantine science had a powerful impact on many neighbouring countries and peoples. Spiritual life in Byzantium was of a complex, contradictory nature, combining ancient pagan traditions and Christian worldview, which was reflected in the development of Byzantine science.

Despite the fact that Christianity in the Roman Empire was recognized state religion, a deep respect for the knowledge of ancient philosophy was maintained, since in the minds of the Byzantines their connection with the Greco-Roman ancient world played the most important role.

At a time when barbarian Western Europe entered into " dark night Middle Ages”, the Eastern Roman Empire turned out to be the only center of civilization and culture in all of Europe, providing a higher socio-economic and cultural level in the territories that fell into its sphere of influence.

Science in Byzantium was intricately interconnected with Christian teaching. At the same time, special interest was directed to ancient philosophy, and an attempt to develop it.

Byzantine scientific thinking took shape in a contradictory environment of the assertion of the Christian worldview on the basis of the ethical and natural-scientific views of antiquity.

Thus, science was based on two different pictures of the world: pagan Hellenism, on the one hand, and official Christian doctrine, on the other.

Byzantine culture as a whole is characterized by the desire for systematization, which is characteristic of the Christian worldview in general, and also due to the influence of ancient Greek philosophy, primarily Aristotle, who set the trend towards classification.

In Byzantium, works of a generalizing nature are being created, in which there is a classification and systematization of everything that has been achieved by that time in science. The main intellectual efforts of Byzantine scholars consisted in the formal study of newly rewritten texts, their compilation, fixation of what had already been achieved, which led to encyclopedia.

A lot of work was done to systematize and comment on ancient authors. Encyclopedias on history, agriculture, medicine are compiled, and rich ethnographic material is collected about the inhabitants of neighboring countries.

Science in Byzantium was understood in accordance with the ancient tradition as speculative knowledge, as opposed to practical, empirical knowledge, which was considered a craft.

Following the ancient model, all sciences were united under the name of philosophy - mathematics, natural science, ethics, grammar, rhetoric, logic, astronomy, music and jurisprudence, etc. John of Damascus divided philosophy into theoretical, relating to knowledge, and practical, relating to virtues. In the theoretical section, he included physics, mathematics, and theology, and in the practical section, ethics, economics (household ethics) and politics. He considered logic to be an instrument of philosophy. John of Damascus gave a systematic exposition of philosophical and logical concepts, as well as cosmological, psychological and other scientific information based on ancient writings.

It cannot be said that Byzantine scholars were engaged only in the passive processing of the ancient heritage. Not limited to the simple assimilation of knowledge acquired in previous centuries, the Byzantines made certain steps forward in a number of industries. For example, John Philopon came to the conclusion that the speed of falling bodies does not depend on their gravity; Leo the Mathematician was the first to use letters as algebraic symbols. With the growth of provincial cities, the rise of handicraft production greater value began to be given to the development of knowledge aimed at solving practical problems in the field of medicine, agriculture, construction. Shipbuilding, architecture, mining industry successfully developed. There is an accumulation practical knowledge caused by the needs of navigation, trade.

Develop natural Sciences, which is accompanied by an expansion of ideas about nature. Climb scientific knowledge associated with the emergence of rationalism in the philosophical thought of Byzantium. Representatives of the rationalist trend in Byzantine theology and philosophy tried to reconcile faith and reason, just like the Western European scholastics. In an effort to combine faith with reason, they stated that in order to approach the comprehension of God, it is necessary to study the world, created by him, therefore, natural science knowledge was introduced into theology. Rationalism was accompanied by a new stage in the comprehension of the ancient heritage. Blind faith based on authority is being replaced by the study of the causality of phenomena in nature and society.

One of the most striking figures of the rationalist trend is Michael Psellos. The writings of Psellus are permeated with the desire to master and use the ancient heritage, to provide it with a worthy place in the system of the Christian worldview. Even describing the world of the spiritual essences of Christian teaching, Psellus uses statements about the nature of the soul of Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus. Psellos dealt with the problems of natural science and cosmology. Moreover, theology almost does not interfere in the questions of natural science in Psellos. In his opinion, sciences should take from mathematics its numerical method and geometric proof, which have the property of logically coercing the recognition of statements as true or false.

The ideas of the rationalists were condemned by the church, and were not widely adopted in Byzantium. Unlike Western Europe, rationalism did not become the leading trend in Byzantine theological and philosophical thought.

Despite the general speculative tradition dating back to antiquity, practical science Byzantium achieved certain results in solving many utilitarian tasks, which for a long time ensured the material and technical superiority of the empire. The most famous example in the literature is the so-called "Greek fire" used in military affairs, which was a mixture of oil and sulfur. Mining was actively developing in the empire as a branch of science and technology, covering a complex of processes of exploration, extraction from the bowels and primary processing mineral. Using the experience gained in antique period, in Byzantium, building, finishing and semi-precious stones, sulfur, saltpeter, iron, copper, lead ores, silver, gold, mercury, and tin were mined. The degree of development of metallurgy is an important indicator of the technical and economic level of the country, since it is a very extensive area of ​​economics, science and technology, covering the processes of obtaining metals, changing their chemical and physical composition and giving certain forms. Byzantium produced copper, tin, lead, mercury, zinc oxide, silver and gold. Non-ferrous metals and their alloys were used in shipbuilding, agriculture, handicrafts, and military affairs. The production of ferrous metals - cast iron, steel, iron, was the leading branch of the Byzantine economy, along with agriculture.

A characteristic feature of Byzantine production, urban crafts was a comprehensive state regulation. On the one hand, state support ensured the protection of handicraft corporations, the availability of state orders, safety on the roads and in the cities of the empire, on the other hand, the workshops lost their independence and fell under strict control central government, which led to the loss of initiative, stagnation in development.

The attitude of the Byzantines to the preservation of the ancient heritage also had contradictory consequences for the development and implementation of practical knowledge. Initially, it allowed Byzantium to remain the most advanced state in Europe until the 12th century in the production of ceramics, glass, construction, shipbuilding, and so on. But over time, a rigid focus on the preservation of ancient traditions inevitably became a brake on technical development, and the lag behind most of the Byzantine crafts from Western European ones was gradually outlined.

Education in the empire was given special meaning. The reign of Justinian I was marked by a struggle against paganism, in particular, in 529 he closed the Platonic Academy in Athens, where the pagans studied and taught classical Greek philosophy. It was forbidden to teaching activities Gentiles, Jews and heretics. But, despite the persecution of pagan teachers, the loss of their pre-existing privileges, educational institutions continued to work.

The University of Constantinople occupied a key place in cultural life state, representing the largest educational and science Center. Throughout the history of Byzantium, its inhabitants, in comparison with the inhabitants of medieval Western Europe as a whole, were significantly more educated. Byzantine schools were the most important source of knowledge about antiquity. Of course, gradually church literature penetrated into educational programs secular educational institutions. But, despite the teaching of some church disciplines, the schools remained secular, and the education system itself, especially in elementary school, was very close to the ancient one. Not only the Psalter was studied, but also the works of Homer, Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, the works of Plato and Aristotle. For better understanding ancient works, students were given information on ancient history and mythology.

In the treatise “For Young Men on How to Usefully Read Pagan Writers,” Basil of Caesarea, although he calls for caution in reading the works of ancient authors and interpreting them in the light of Christian morality, he considers these works unconditionally useful. Interestingly, the notebooks of Byzantine schoolchildren show a certain similarity with ancient textbooks. The students rewrote the same excerpts from ancient myths, the same maxims as the ancient Hellenes. The only differences are that in Byzantine notebooks, in addition to the usual exercises, verses from the Psalter sometimes appear, as well as in an appeal to God at the beginning of the first sheet and a drawn cross at the beginning of each page.

The school course consisted of the study of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics, law and music. Inclusion in school programs music, or harmony, was explained by the fact that harmony was considered a science, which, along with mathematics and astronomy, helped to learn the eternal laws of the universe. At the same time, not only quantitative properties sounds, but also their physical nature. In the study of mathematics, the "Introduction to Arithmetic" by Nicomachus of Gerasa was used as the main tool. Diophantus' Arithmetic, Euclid's Elements, Heron of Alexandria's Metrics were used as educational guides. In the study of astronomy as a science of numbers applied to moving objects, Claudius Ptolemy's Almagest was used. His own work "Tetrabook" was used as a manual on astrology, which was also included in the teaching program. In the 7th century the textbook of Paul of Alexandria "Introduction to Astrology" became more popular.

Rhetoric played an important role. It was considered a means of development and improvement of the personality. There were no class restrictions on obtaining a rhetorical education, but only those who were able to pay for the rather expensive education in rhetoric schools could master it. The standard of style was Gregory the Theologian, who was placed above other speakers. Primary schools in the empire functioned not only in cities, but also in rural areas. Higher education could be obtained only in major cities. The main center of education in the state was Constantinople.

In 425, by decree of Emperor Theodosius II, a university was established in Constantinople. The number of teachers in it was determined - 31 people, of which 20 were grammarians, 8 orators, 2 teachers of law and 1 philosopher. They were considered government officials and received a salary from the imperial treasury.

Theodosius special state acts secured the task of state control over students. Each student was required to provide documentary evidence of the origin, the state of his parents, it was required to indicate the sciences in which he intended to study, the address of residence in Constantinople.

Often the emperors not only assisted in the development of education, but were themselves fond of the sciences. Leo VI the Wise is known as the scholar who wrote big number secular and theological writings. Caesar Varda founded a school in Magnavra, the leading scientist of his time, Leo the Mathematician, was appointed head. The school was located in the palace, it taught philosophy, grammar, geometry and astronomy.

Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was distinguished by versatile knowledge. By his order and with direct participation, many encyclopedias (about fifty) were compiled on various branches of knowledge.

Emperor Constantine IX Monomakh created two schools: philosophy and law. The emperor personally attended classes, listened to and took notes of lectures. Michael Psellos was appointed head of the philosophical school. He began his lectures with Aristotle's "Logic", after that he moved on to his "Metaphysics", and completed the course with an interpretation of the works of Plato, whom he considered the most significant thinker and even put on the same level with Gregory the Theologian.

The patronizing attitude of the emperors towards education and science was explained not only and not so much by their love for knowledge, but by practical considerations, since the successful functioning of the Byzantine state apparatus required the presence of competent and educated people in the administrative structure.

Education served not to obtain certain knowledge and information, and, in the future, to generate new knowledge, but, first of all, to take a place in the bureaucratic structure corresponding to a certain qualification.

Cognitive motivation in Byzantine society was weak, knowledge was not an end in itself, they were subordinated to the principles of the functioning of the bureaucratic machine. The high qualification of civil servants for a long time ensured the advantage of Byzantium in comparison with Western Europe.

Not only the secular, but also the church administration was largely composed of those who successfully completed school. School graduates, regardless of social status their parents could become officials of the imperial or church office. Parents spared no expense in order to pay teachers for their children. (At the same time, the teachers themselves usually also received a salary from the state.) Theoretically, there was free access to the highest positions of the state apparatus, so everyone who had the money to study studied.

An extensive bureaucratic apparatus for its successful functioning needed educated and literate people, in connection with which, secular education acquired a special significance. This explains why the Byzantine schools, unlike those in Western Europe, were not subordinate to the church.

Of course, along with secular schools, there were also church ones. educational institutions. Since the 9th century, for example, there has been a theological school (patriarchal academy), the curriculum of which was focused on the interpretation of sacred texts. But students also studied rhetoric and other secular sciences.

Science (as well as other areas public life) in Byzantium was subjected to stateization, and organizational and managerial functions taken over by the bureaucracy. Administrative prescriptions in the field of science and the production of information become one of the criteria for truth, which must comply with formal requirements controlled by the bureaucracy.

Bureaucratization and state regulation had dual consequences, and, in some cases, contributed to the development of Byzantine science and education, while in other conditions they became an obstacle to their development. Over-formalization has become feature Byzantine science, bureaucratization led to its ossification.

A utilitarian attitude to science dominated: its goal was to educate students and process previously acquired knowledge. The prevailing attitude was that scientific wisdom can be found in the ancient past, the direct heirs of which the Byzantines considered themselves to be.

As a result, the formalized ancient heritage turned into the cause of stereotypical thinking that did not give development to the original scientific creativity. The ancient classics, as well as the Bible, constituted the totality of all the necessary knowledge.

The basis of knowledge was tradition, which, according to the Byzantines, turned to the essence, while experience made it possible to get acquainted only with superficial manifestations of the surrounding world.

Experiment and scientific observation were poorly developed. Ideas that could not be confirmed by bookish authority were perceived as rebellious.

Since the XIV century, pressure on the Byzantine Empire of the Ottoman Turks has been constantly increasing. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell. This rainy day marked the end of Byzantium, where for eleven centuries the science of the ancient past was carefully studied and protected.

The political decline of Byzantium led to an active transmission of scientific experience to the West, which became the most important factor who prepared the Western European Renaissance.

Questions

1. Ancient heritage and Christian ideology in Byzantium.

2. Features of Byzantine science.

3. Works on the systematization and commenting of ancient authors. John of Damascus.

4. Rationalist trend in Byzantine theology. Michael Psell.

5. Material and technical achievements of Byzantium.

6. Education in Byzantium.

Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire) is a state that was formed after the division of the Roman Empire into eastern and western parts. I will consider the development of science and education in Byzantium.

feature Byzantine education is the replacement of the old system of pagan education with a Christian one. Education in Byzantium had a theological focus: children were taught to read and write from the Bible and Homer's poems, and the psalter (praise, laudatory song) was especially carefully studied. Education of children began at the age of 5-7.

Primary education was not universal, the villagers were mostly illiterate. “Former elementary schools maintained in Hellenistic era in cities and large villages at the public expense, have long disappeared. Children from wealthy and noble families received elementary education mostly at home, with hired tutors. Public schools were mostly private and paid."

Primary education was replaced by education in higher education. Here, as before, secular sciences were divided into two groups: trivium and quadrivium. The trivium included grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics, while the quadrivium consisted of geometry, arithmetic, music, and astronomy. Theology was not left out either.

The center of culture and education was the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople. at the University of Constantinople (Magnavra graduate School) were preparing secular and spiritual officials Byzantine Empire. The founding time of this university is 855 or 856, the first rector of the school is Leo the Mathematician (about 790 - about 870), a Byzantine mathematician and mechanic. During the reign of Constantine IX Monomakh (r. 1042-1055), two departments were created at the university - law and philosophy. Michael Psellos (1018-1078), who was the author of many philosophical and historical works. Michael Psellos revered the works of Plato and considered him a world thinker. The teacher of law was a prominent lawyer, a friend of Michael Psellos - Konstantin Likhud, who later became the Patriarch of Constantinople. The students studied Greek science, but the lawyers also thoroughly studied Latin.

Along with secular institutions, the Patriarchal Academy, which was founded by Alexei I Comnenus (1056/1057 -1118), operated from the end of the 11th century. The most prominent representatives of Byzantine culture taught at this academy. The teaching was conducted by a board of 12 teachers, some of whom explained the Bible, while others taught rhetoric.

Now about Byzantine science. Byzantine scientists showed interest in a wide variety of sciences that were undifferentiated. They mastered and developed previously acquired knowledge, and did not develop new theories and concepts.

Theology also played an important role in the development of science; many works of Byzantine scholars were of an ecclesiastical and religious nature. AT early period In the development of science, the attention of theologians was directed to the development of the Orthodox dogma and to the fight against heresy and pagans. The teachers of the church were Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, who are also called the "Great Cappadocians".

Photius (about 820-896) - Patriarch of Constantinople, a major connoisseur of ancient literature. He wrote the first bibliographic work of the Middle Ages - "The Library" (otherwise "Miriobiblion"), "which contains information about 280 works of ancient Greek and Byzantine authors, and several dozen of these works are known to us only from the description of Photius." He also wrote an extensive Lexicon dictionary, theological treatises and letters.

Aretha of Caesarea (861-934) - Archbishop of Caesarea, student of Photius. He is the author of the commentary on the Apocalypse ( latest book New Testament), by his order, the lists of Plato, Euclid and other ancient authors that have survived to this day were rewritten.

The development of science in Byzantium was facilitated by the works of Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (905-959). On the basis of the Byzantine archives, he, together with his assistants, wrote several works: “On Themes” (information on the geography of Byzantium), “On Ceremonies” (information on palace life), "On the management of the empire" (the history of neighboring peoples and their relationship with the Byzantine Empire).

The Byzantines achieved significant success in medicine, they summarized practical experience in medicine and improved diagnostics. “In the 11th century, a number of works on medicine and pharmacology appeared, among which Simeon Seth’s treatise “On the Properties of Plants” was especially significant. Seth relied not only on the ancient tradition, but also on personal experience and Arabic medical literature.

Chemistry also developed in Byzantium. The Byzantines knew the recipes for making glass, ceramics, various enamels and paints. The Byzantines first used "Greek fire" - this is an incendiary mixture that gives a flame that cannot be extinguished by water.

In the XII century, astrology was developing, thanks to diplomatic relations, knowledge in the field of geography and ethnography was expanding.

After creation Faculty of Law there are also advances in jurisprudence. Lawyers of the 11th-12th centuries publish collections of imperial decrees and commentaries on old collections. In the twelfth century, a number of annotated collections of canon law appear.

So, education in Byzantium was not universal, education was received mainly by citizens and representatives of the privileged strata of the population. Education contributed to career growth and allowed to take more high position in society. Despite the church-religious nature, the level of development of science and education in Byzantium during this period was higher than in other medieval states.