Features of the population of tropical Africa. Economy of West Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa is usually divided into three broad stripes that cross the continent: Sudan, Tropical Africa, and South Africa. The northern border of Tropical Africa runs approximately along the 5th parallel of northern latitude, the southern border along the river. Zambezi, from the mouth to Victoria Falls, and further west, to the mouth of the river. Kunene. From a physical-geographical point of view, the identification of this strip is extremely arbitrary. The climatic zone characteristic of this strip does not coincide with the indicated boundaries; The tropical forest is taking over the Guinean coast of Sudan. But from an ethnographic point of view, these boundaries have a solid justification. The fifth parallel is the northern border of the Bantu-speaking peoples; beyond it begins the region of the Sudanese peoples, in many respects completely different from the Bantu.

Africa south of the Zambezi is inhabited, like Tropical Africa, mainly by tribes and peoples who also speak Bantu languages, but these are mainly pastoralists, while the Bantu of Tropical Africa are predominantly or even exclusively farmers. These are not state boundaries, but ethnic ones, and like any ethnic boundaries, they are to a certain extent arbitrary.

Tropical Africa is in turn divided into two geographically and ethnographically distinct parts: Eastern and Western. Western Tropical Africa is the river basin. Congo; this is a huge basin, the central part of which is covered with tropical forest, turning into a park savanna on the outskirts of the basin. Eastern Tropical Africa is a mountain plateau with deep fault valleys and high mountains; it is a savannah, or dry steppe, turning in places into a semi-desert. Both parts are inhabited by tribes Bantu, but the Bantu of the western part are engaged exclusively in agriculture and hunting, and the Bantu of the eastern part combine agriculture with cattle breeding. The Bantu of the western part, before the start of European colonization, developed independently, experiencing no external influence. On the contrary, the shores of the eastern part of Africa were visited by the Greeks in very distant times and Arab traders. The influence of Arabs, Persians, and partly Indians is reflected in many features of the Bantu culture of East Africa. The Bantu peoples of the region of Lakes Victoria, Albert, Kivu, etc. assimilated the Nilotic and partly Cushitic herder tribes that came from the north.

The dividing line between the western and eastern Bantus runs approximately along the line of lakes Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika and then approximately 30° east. d.

The physical and geographical appearance of Eastern Tropical Africa is characterized by extreme diversity of relief and landscape, which is not repeated anywhere else in Africa. Overall it is a plateau, most of which lies above 1000 m above sea level. The lowland strip, narrow in its middle part and reaching a width of 300-400 km in the north and south, is located only along the coast of the Indian Ocean. The Great and Western fault valleys stretch across the entire plateau in the meridional direction. The Great Fault Valley begins at the Red Sea, crosses Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanganyika, Nyasalendi ends at the Zambezi. At the bottom of this valley there are lakes, of which the most significant are Lakes Rudolf and Nyasa. From the northern end of the lake. Nyasa leaves the Western fault valley; at its bottom lie lakes Tanganyika (after Baikal - the deepest lake in the world), Kivu, as well as Edward and Albert^ rivers connected to each other. Semliki. Between the highlands of these two valleys is located the largest lake in Africa - Victoria, second in area (68 thousand km 2) only to the Caspian Sea and Lake Superior in North America. Near the deep depressions of the lakes are the most high mountains mainland: Kilimanjaro (6010 m), Kenya (5195 m), Rwenzori (5100 m), etc.

The continent's two largest rivers, the Nile and the Congo, originate in Eastern Tropical Africa. Source of the Nile, r. Kagera is born in the mountains northeast of the lake. Tanganyika, at an altitude of 2120 m above sea level. It flows into the lake. Victoria, from which it flows under the name Quivira, forming the Ripon Falls immediately after its exit. Further on the river passes the lake. Kyoga and behind the Murchison Falls (about 40 m high) flows into the lake. Albert and then flows due north. On the border of Rhodesia and Tanganyika, one of the sources of the river originates. Congo - r. Chambesi, which flows into the lake. Bangweolo. Flowing from it, this river receives the name Luapula, and in its further course it merges with the Lua Laba and forms the Congo. By southern border Northern Rhodesia, crossing Mozambique, flows the third largest rivers Africa - Zambezi. Other significant rivers in this part of the continent include the Ruvuma, Rufiji with its tributary Ruaha, Pangani and Tana. There are a lot of smaller rivers, and almost all of them flow from west to east, to the Indian Ocean. Navigation is possible only on some rivers. The river is navigable along its entire length. Shire, connecting the lake. Nyasa with the lower reaches of the Zambezi and the ocean. A huge waterway in southern Africa, the Zambezi is navigable only for separate areas between thresholds; along the river Tana small steamships can rise 100 km from the mouth. Water transport It is now widely developed only on lakes.

The diversity of the relief corresponds to the diversity of climate and vegetation. On the peaks of Kilimanjaro, Kenya and Rwenzori there are eternal snows and glaciers, and the plateau is characterized by a mild tropical climate. There are neither tall nor low temperatures, the average monthly temperature varies: in Zomba from 16.1 in July to 23.3° in November; in Dar es Salaam between 23.3 in July - August and 27.8° in January - February; in Entebbe, on the northwestern shore of the lake. Victoria, the amplitude of oscillations is even smaller - from 21.1 to 22.8°. The climate here is of eternal spring. The year is divided into seasons depending on the amount of precipitation. The average rainfall throughout the East African plateau does not exceed 1140 mm per year. Wetter areas are located on the western and northern coasts of the lake. Victoria: Bukoba, for example, receives up to 1,780 mm of rainfall per year. The driest: the Turkana plains adjacent to the lake. Rudolph, which receive no more than 100-125 mm of annual precipitation; areas located south and north of these plains - up to 375 mm; the Laikipia plateau (Kenya) - up to 700 mm, and the western part of Northern Rhodesia, where, for example in Colombo, at Victoria Falls, the average annual precipitation does not exceed 740 mm.

In the Zomba region, the year is sharply divided into two seasons: rainy and dry; The amount of precipitation by month ranges from 2.5 mm in August to 278.0 mm in January. Near Mombasa, the year is divided into four seasons: two rainy, of which one is long, the other short, and two dry; The amount of precipitation by month ranges from 20.3 mm in January to 348.0 mm in May. In Naivasha, near the lake of the same name at the bottom of the Great Fault Valley, precipitation is distributed more or less evenly throughout the year - a minimum of 27.9 mm in January and a maximum of 162.5 mm in April. There are also two rainy seasons, but they are not particularly noticeable.

The characteristic landscape of East Tropical Africa is savannah, sometimes turning into dry steppes and semi-deserts. There are no deserts in the proper sense of the word, with the exception of the western part of the Turkana plains. The East African steppes are covered with tall, tough grasses, up to a meter in height, but they do not grow as densely as in the savannah; during periods of drought they turn yellow and often die. In savannas, among dense and tall grasses, there are more or less significant groups of trees, sometimes reaching 20 m in height; In some places they form small forests - this is an area of ​​park savanna.

In the humid areas of Mezhozerye, large areas are covered with marsh vegetation: reeds, reeds and papyruses cover standing waters with a continuous carpet. This is primarily the lake area. Kyoga and the northwestern coast of the lake. Victoria, the deltas of the Ruvuma and Rufiji rivers, as well as small areas on the coast against the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. Kagera and other rivers flowing into the lake. Victoria from the west, flow along channels 8-13 km wide, half overgrown with papyrus, which rises 2.5-3 m above the water level; All around there are large expanses of standing water, chains of small lakes and, in places, tropical forest.

At the foot of the mountain ranges there are virgin forests of the equatorial type, similar to the forests of the Congo Basin: huge trees, multi-tiered vegetation, dense undergrowth. As you climb the mountains, you can observe a complete change of vertical plant zones. At an altitude of about a thousand meters, the virgin tropical forest gives way to a park savanna, followed by a savanna with very tall grasses, where trees are very rare. This is an agricultural zone; there are many settlements surrounded by fields and plantations. At an altitude of 2-3 thousand, and sometimes 4 thousand m, forests characteristic of a temperate climate reappear: less high, not so dense and with weaker foliage. They are followed by a zone of alpine meadows, and at an altitude of about 5 thousand m, a zone of eternal snow and glaciers begins.

The natural conditions of Eastern Tropical Africa create a natural basis for a wide variety of human economic activities. Along with delicate tropical and subtropical crops, temperate crops can be grown here. climate zone. Bananas, sugar cane, rubber plants, oil palms, sweet potatoes, cassava, ground nuts, rice, sesame seeds, cotton, cocoa, coffee, tea, tobacco, corn, barley, millet, peas and beans, ordinary potatoes and wheat - this is far from a complete list of crops growing in different areas of East Tropical Africa. Agriculture is possible everywhere, and only in the northern regions of Kenya does irrigation require complex hydraulic structures.

Wild animals do not suffer from the bite of the tsetse fly, but are carriers of trypanosomes. In some areas of Africa, particularly in the Zambezi basin, attempts were made to combat the spread of the disease by mass destruction of wild animals. Among domestic animals, only goats, donkeys and mules are immune.

The riches of the earth's interior have not yet been explored. Currently, diamonds are mined in Tanganyika, Northern Rhodesia and Uganda, tin in Uganda and Tanganyika, copper, lead, zinc, vanadium and magnesite in Northern Rhodesia. Iron ores are found everywhere, but have no industrial significance. Coal was discovered in the south of Tanganyika. Eastern Tropical Africa is rich in “white coal” - it is possible to build powerful hydroelectric power stations on the waterfalls and rapids of its rivers. Eastern Tropical Africa is undoubtedly rich in its potential opportunities edge.

Stages of development. After the end of World War II, there were only three independent states in this region: Ethiopia, Liberia and the Union of South Africa (SA), which was proclaimed the Republic of South Africa (SA) in 1960.

During the war and after its end, the economies of African countries developed very quickly. Foreign investment in the mining industry, transport and energy production, and agriculture has increased. If in 1938, African countries gave the metropolitan countries a tribute of 1 billion dollars a year, then in 1955 it increased to 5.44 billion dollars. In African countries, social changes occurred very quickly. There are more workers, townspeople, national entrepreneurs, and intelligentsia. The number of workers in the 50s exceeded 10 million people. Trade unions, public organizations and parties were formed in each country. African youth, having completed their studies in the cities of Europe and America, began to take part in the national liberation movement.

In the second half of the 20th century. The national liberation struggle of the peoples of Africa went through several stages:

Mid 40s - mid 50s. The period of the organization of national forces, the formation of socio-political groups, the beginning of the struggle;

Mid-50s - 1960 In Tropical Africa, Ghana (1957) and Guinea (1958) embarked on the path of independence. In 1960, a serious blow was dealt to the foundations of the colonial system; it became the Year of Africa: 17 states achieved freedom;

60s - 70s. The peoples of Guinea-Bissau, Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe won freedom in an armed struggle against the colonialists;

80 - 90s. Eradicating violent tactics and remnants of colonial power. Namibia, South Africa, Eritrea achieved freedom.

Thus, Africa was freed from colonial dependence and 52 sovereign states were formed.

Development problems. Many countries in the African region are classified as underdeveloped (Somalia, Chad, Central African Republic, Angola, Eritrea, etc.). During the period of independence, the economies of African countries began to develop noticeably. Gross domestic product growth reaches an average of 3-4% per year, but this figure is not typical for all countries. In 24 African countries the situation has not improved. This is due to several reasons. Firstly, tribal and semi-feudal relations in Africa were not completely destroyed. More than 100 million peasants use primitive tools. Secondly, the population grew rapidly. Ethnic, territorial and political conflicts, civil wars also hampered their development.

One of the richest countries in Africa is Nigeria with a population of about 115 million people. From the late 60s to the 90s, it experienced several military coups. After elections in March 1999, civil authority was established here. It was headed by O. Obasanjo.

IN beginning of XXI V. Africa was gripped by the process of creating a multi-party system. Although the roots of authoritarianism and military dictatorships have not yet been completely torn out, the process of democratization of society is underway. Of course, due to various factors, it has its own characteristics. Firstly, the creation of many small political parties that bear the stamp of tribalism, clanism, confessionalism or even factionism. Thus, there were 30 parties in Nigeria, 47 in Mali, 122 in Madagascar, 176 in Cameroon, 70 in Togo, 78 in Chad, 160 in Benin, and 260 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Many of them turned out to be unviable and soon disintegrated. Nevertheless, the emergence of parties reflecting the interests separate groups, remains strong. Secondly, many of them do not have clear program guidelines and do not have grassroots organizations, and have little connection with the masses. During political struggle They are more engaged in demagoguery or exposing each other’s mistakes and shortcomings.

Further, calling themselves democratic, if they come to power they begin to pursue a policy of authoritarianism. All this stems from the disunity of African society, the lack of political culture, and the weakness of parties in organizational terms. Sometimes the opposition manages to create united coalitions and even defeat ruling parties that have been in power for a long time. Thus, in Kenya, the national rainbow coalition led by M. Kibaki managed to defeat D. Arai Moi, who was president for 24 years (2002). But in Kenya, in 2007, a scandal occurred when the opposition led by R. Odinga challenged the results of the presidential elections. Only after bloody clashes in the country, with the assistance of the UN and OAU, was it possible to relieve tensions.

Zimbabwe- a relatively developed country even during the colonial period - during the 27 years of R. Mugabe's rule, it found itself far thrown back. At the beginning of 2008, the presidential elections, according to the opposition, brought them victory in the first round, but the authorities, through fraud, held the second round without the participation of the main opponent. Mugabe retained his post, but Western powers declared a boycott of the country. After much wrangling, with the assistance of the Union of Africa, the opposition leader was allowed to take the post of prime minister, and thus there was relative calm in the country.

For almost half a century, D. Ratsiraka was the president of Madagascar. In 2001, his rival M. Ravalomanana received more votes, nevertheless Ratsiraka tried not to cede power. Many Africans are experiencing food shortages and armed clashes have broken out. Only with the participation drinking water African countries managed to resolve the conflict and the winner became president. In 2006, Ravalomanani was again elected president.

At the same time, in some countries there are political parties with national programs (Botswana, Zambia, Kenya, Congo, Mali, Mozambique, Angola, Namibia, Tanzania, South Africa). Socialist slogans have disappeared from party programs, and instead they talk about the development of a market economy.

In April 2007, presidential elections were held in which Umar Yar'Adua won. That same year, on December 30, presidential elections were held in Kenya. The victory of the current head of state, Mwai Kibeki, was declared, but his rivals did not recognize it, which led to unrest in the country and the death of many people.

In South Africa, a split occurred in the ruling African National Congress. In the spring of 2009, its leader D. Zuma became president.

Foreign policy. African countries who have become independent belong to the “third world”. They participate in the non-aligned movement. With the participation of K. Nkrumah (Ghana), J. Nyerere (Tanzania), Emperor Haile Selasie (Ethiopia), K. Kaunda (Zambia), S. Toure (Guinea), M. Keita (Mali), L. Senghor (Senegal) , leaders of Arab countries G. A. Nasser (Egypt), Hassan II (Morocco), A. bin Bella (Algeria), etc. On May 25, 1963, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was formed. In 1980-1990 economic cooperation gave rise to integration processes in the regions. There are several organizations operating on the mainland. African countries maintain close relations with former metropolises.

In 2002 African states decided to create a Union of Africa with the aim of integrating their economies and, through cooperation, overcoming the acute socio-economic crisis. It is no secret that due to the neocolonial policies of the West, as well as the weakness of the political elite and the corruption of many leaders, African countries have not been able to overcome their backwardness. Although in the 60-90s there was an increase in production, Africa’s wealth ended up either in Western banks, or was eaten up by bureaucrats that had increased in numbers tens and hundreds of times, or were pocketed by corrupt regimes. In the Central African Republic (CAR), Liberia, Uganda, Mali, Congo, Chad, and Ethiopia, embezzlers ruled for many years. Figures such as Idi Amin (Uganda), Mengistu Haile Mariam (Ethiopia), Musa Traore (Mali) enjoyed the patronage of the USSR, and Mobutu Sese Seko (Congo), EK. T. Bokassa (CAR), X. Habré (Chad) was under the guardianship of the United States.

The continent suffers from tribal and religious tensions. In the 90s, a terrible clash between the Hutu and Tutsi tribes took place in Rwanda and Burundi, which spread to neighboring Uganda and Congo, where their fellow tribesmen live.

More than 1.5 million people died. Christian-Muslim massacres frequently rock Nigeria, Africa's most populous country (more than 100 million people).

The dominance of foreign companies, ineffective leadership, increased military spending and other factors led to a large ... debt in Africa: from 31.6 billion dollars in 1975 to 370 billion dollars by 2000. Although a number of developed Western countries began to write off some of them debt, but African countries bear almost half of the debt of all developing countries in the world. World organization Health Authority (WHO) notes with alarm the increasing incidence of AIDS in Africa.

In the mid-80s and 90s, there was a trend towards strengthening democracy in Black Africa. Odious regimes fell in Congo, Chad, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Mali. Many embezzler dictators fled to other countries. Their names are covered in shame.

In 2003, dictatorship in Liberia was eliminated. Relative calm has been restored in Rwanda and Burundi.

In recent years, the activity of Islamic extremists has been intensifying in a number of African countries (Chad, Somalia, Nigeria, Senegal, etc.). In Ethiopia, Congo, Nigeria, separatist organizations are raising their heads. On the coast of Somalia sea ​​pirates pose a serious threat to merchant ships. Cases of black racism are on the rise in South Africa. Ibid. local residents use violence against immigrants from neighboring countries.

Africa's problems attract the attention of great powers, the EU, and the UN. In 2004-2007 they wrote off the debts of the continent's poorest countries and reviewed and proposed new schemes for their development. In 2008, large sums were allocated to supply countries suffering from food shortages. The natural resources of Africa are arousing growing interest from both the former metropolises, the USA, China, Japan, Russia, and India, which is leading to a new round of rivalry between them. Kazakhstan still has diplomatic relations with South Africa.

LATIN AMERICA COUNTRIES

Main trends in the socio-economic and political development of Latin American countries in the first post-war decades. A characteristic feature of the development of Latin American countries has become the process of carrying out various economic, political, legal and sociocultural reforms. Depending on the level of economic and political development, these countries are divided into three groups.

The most developed countries in Latin America are Argentina, Uruguay and Chile, which took the path of capitalism earlier than others. This group includes Brazil and Mexico. Later, Venezuela and Colombia joined them. Their development is characterized by great dynamism. Overall, these seven countries account for 80-85% of the region's economy. They determine the appearance and level of its development.

The second group of countries - Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and small states Central America and the Caribbean. The manufacturing industry is less developed in them, agriculture predominates, and patriarchal remnants are more noticeable.

The third group consists of the least developed countries of the Central American subregion and the Caribbean (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Belize, Haiti), as well as Paraguay. In these countries, agriculture dominates with significant patriarchal remnants, there remains a strong dependence on foreign monopolies, a low standard of living, poverty for the vast majority of the population, instability political life, the role of the army is significant (with the exception of Costa Rica). The dominance of the American trading and manufacturing company United Fruit Company (USFCO) in this subregion has become a feature of its economy.

A common feature The economy of the countries of the region was the predominance of the agricultural and raw materials export economy. It has traditionally been associated with the bourgeois-landlord oligarchy and foreign capital. The implementation of agrarian reforms led to changes in the structure of production. The rapid growth of local industry due to a reduction in imports from the warring countries led to the development of “import-substituting industrialization.” In turn, the number of workers and employees at enterprises, which were replenished by migrant peasants, increased. The city becomes the center of political life.

The political situation in the region in the post-war period was characterized by instability and fragility of constitutional, democratic forms of government, party and political structures. The armed forces put pressure on constitutional governments and carried out coups d'etat, replacing one government with another.

The Catholic Church retains a significant role in the social life of the region. The region is home to about half of the world's Catholics. In areas with a compact Indian population, a significant weight of Indian traditional society, its communal structure.

National reformist movements in Latin America. In the post-war decade, nationalist and reformist parties were created. They used a revolutionary vocabulary that was accessible to the sentiments of the broad masses. The most popular national reformist parties included: in Peru - the Aprist People's Party, in Venezuela - Democratic Action, in Bolivia - the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement, in Mexico - the Institutional Revolutionary Party, in Costa Rica - National Liberation, etc.

The most massive national reformist movement was Peronism in Argentina. The most influential figure of that time was General Juan Domingo Pero, who became the President of Argentina after the war (1946-1955). Peron's policy was based on the ideas of justicialism and a special Argentine path of development. “Justicialism” (from Spanish - “justice”) was the concept of the unity of all layers of the Argentine nation under the slogan of “Greater Argentina”.

Being a military man, X. Peron chose an authoritarian method of governing the country. Along with the Peronist Party, the government also included trade unions. A number of radical reforms were carried out: railways, telephones, the Central Bank, and other enterprises were nationalized, and national capital was encouraged. Social legislation has provided broad social rights workers, their guarantee was the constitution adopted in 1949. But in September 1955, as a result of the military coup X. Peron was forced to flee the country.

Peronism played a positive role in national revival and development. This is evidenced by the return of X. Peron comes to power after a 17-year military regime in Argentina.

In Mexico, democratic reforms were carried out by the government of L. Cardenas, the goal of which was the national revival of the country. National reformism was firmly rooted in the Mexican labor movement. After the war, the Institutional Revolutionary Party became the leading and most popular and massive party in Mexico. Trade unions - the confederation of workers in Mexico - actively cooperated with the government and the party.

Reformist alternative. “Union for Progress.” Since the second half of the 50s, revolutionary and armed insurgent movements have gained momentum, the goal of which was a radical solution numerous problems. Among them - crisis phenomena in the global economy, falling prices for exports of goods from Latin American countries, deterioration in the financial sector, rising prices, high level unemployment. The situation was complicated by the demographic explosion - population growth, which exacerbated social tensions.

In addition, the unfavorable political climate of dictatorial regimes served as a prerequisite for the rise of the revolutionary democratic movement. As a result, dictatorships in Peru, Colombia, Honduras, and Venezuela were overthrown. In Argentina, the military transferred powers to the constitutional president, Fropdisi. An anti-dictatorship movement developed in Nicaragua, Guatemala and Bolivia.

The “Union for Progress” program was the embodiment of the ideas of national reformism. This program for the economic, social and political modernization of Latin America was proposed by US President John Kennedy as part of the “new frontier” policy and adopted by the 19 Latin American republics in August 1961. It was planned to allocate $100 billion over 10 years. Of these, 20 billion dollars were provided by the United States and 80 billion by the Latin American countries themselves.

The rise of the anti-dictatorship struggle. Cuban revolution. The most striking events of the 50-80s in the fight against dictatorial regimes were the revolutions in Cuba, Chile, and Nicaragua.

Revolutionary struggle in Cuba against the dictatorial regime of F. Batista began in the 50s. The rebel troops were led by a young lawyer, Fidel Castro Ruz, the son of a wealthy landowner. He renounced his class, had enormous will, courage, and aroused universal admiration among the Cubans. The first attempt was an unsuccessful attack on a military barracks in Santiago on July 26, 1953.

The rebel army, whose leadership included famous revolutionaries, including the Castro brothers, Che Guevara, Valdez Menendez and others, fought a guerrilla war in the mountains in the east of the island. The Batista regime collapsed. On January 1-2, 1959, Havana was occupied by rebel army units. The country began revolutionary changes and the construction of socialism. A totalitarian regime gradually emerged, based on a one-party system, the dominance of one ideology, and the cult of the leader.

In Cuba, the private sector in the countryside was liquidated, all small industrial enterprises, trade and services were nationalized. After the resolution of the Caribbean Crisis of 1962, Cuba's diplomatic and economic relations with the countries of the region were restored. Cuba entered the non-aligned movement. To this day, it remains one of the last socialist countries in the world.

In 2005-2007 F. Castro began to step away from power due to illness. In 2008, he resigned as a representative State Council. All his powers passed to his brother Raul Castro.

Revolutionary development in Latin American countries. The victory of the Cuban Revolution had a strong influence on the liberation movement in Latin America.

In the 60-70s, mass movements for national liberation were organized in Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico. As a result, leftist forces came to power in these countries. The elected presidents, in the interests of their countries, pursued an independent national course, including in international politics. Panama regained sovereignty over the canal zone through a treaty with the United States (1977).

The Chilean Revolution (1970-1973) was the apogee of revolutionary and democratic changes. In 1969, left-wing parties and organizations created the Popular Unity bloc led by socialist Salvador Allende. The victory in the presidential elections on September 4, 1970 allowed the formation of the Government of Popular Unity.

One of the first laws in the economic sphere was the Law on the Nationalization of Large Foreign Enterprises. Building socialism was the goal of transformation in Chile.

On September 11, 1973, a military coup took place, the Government of Popular Unity was overthrown, and Allende himself was killed. The military junta of General Augusto Pinochet (1973-1990) came to power in Chile.

The revolution in Nicaragua resulted in a Central American conflict, which became the object of confrontation between two superpowers - the USA and the USSR. The main prerequisites for the revolution were the backwardness syndrome - the costs of the dependent agro-export economic model and the anti-people policy of the Somoza clan. Revolutionary struggle in the form of guerrilla warfare began in Nicaragua in the late 1950s. In 1961, a single political organization was created - the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). In 1979, as a result of successful military operations, the Sandinistas overthrew the dictator.

After several years of internal difficulties of the transition period and the threat of external intervention from the United States and other neighboring states, in 1984 the Sandinistas, led by one of the leaders of the FSLN, D. Orth, again won the general elections. In 1990, presidential powers were transferred to V. Chamorro, a right-wing candidate. However, in 2000, D. Ortega was again elected president.

The policy of modernization of military regimes of the 70-80s. The overthrow of the Popular Unity government in Chile was not the only defeat of the democratic left. Leftist nationalist governments were overthrown in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala, Honduras, Uruguay, and Ecuador. In the mid-70s, the situation as a whole in the region changed: military dictatorial regimes of an authoritarian type (military juntas) were established.

Repressive regimes brutally dealt with leftist forces and the opposition. Gradually, general economic transformations forced them to evolve towards policy liberalization.

The peculiarities of authoritarian military regimes were influenced by changes in world development caused by scientific and technological revolution, the growth of internationalization of the economy, and the strengthening of neoliberal market regulation. New role military in Latin America was explained by the growth in the number of proletarian and middle urban strata in society, which led to the replenishment of the officer corps with people from these low-income strata. Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, educated officers were able to understand the reasons for the backwardness of their countries and adopted new doctrines to limit dependence on foreign capital and local oligarchy.

Thus, the military authorities of Argentina and Brazil, by reducing the public sector and strengthening the private sector, stimulated export production, actively attracting foreign capital. Impressive successes in the Brazilian economy was called the “Brazilian miracle”: annually for 7 years the GDP growth rate was 11%. Economic reforms in Chile and stable GDP growth rates have led to talk of a Chilean “economic miracle”. The result of the evolution of the A. Pinochet regime in Chile were nationwide days of protest and a referendum in 1988. 53% of Chileans voted against the dictator, and in December 1989, the leader of the Christian Democratic Party P. Eilwin was elected president, to whom on March 11, 1990. A. Pinochet transferred power.

The fall of dictatorships and the restoration of democratic regimes (80s - early 90s). By the mid-80s, an evolution of military-authoritarian regimes took place. There was growing dissatisfaction in countries with the ongoing mass repression, there are no democratic freedoms, human rights are violated. This was increasingly opposed by the opposition, which was supported by the broad masses of the people. Dictatorships were losing social and political support. The process of eliminating dictatorships has accelerated.

In 1983, the civil opposition candidate R. Alfonsin won the presidential elections in Argentina, which put an end to military rule. In 1985, in Brazil and Uruguay, the military transferred power to civilian presidents. In 1986, Haiti fell to the tyrannical dictatorship of the Duvalier family. At the same time, the dictatorships in Guatemala and Honduras fell, and in 1989 the Paraguayan dictator A. Stroessner was overthrown.

For the first time in the history of the continent, power passed almost everywhere to constitutional governments, and they restored democratic freedoms. However, states found themselves in difficult economic conditions. Modernization, continued under new conditions, failed to improve the socio-economic and political situation. At the same time, the financial, economic, scientific and technical dependence of the region increased, and contradictions between states intensified.

Contemporary issues development of Latin American countries. Integration processes. Focus on external factors, financial and economic support from outside are a characteristic trend in the development of the economies of the countries of the region. Huge foreign debt is constantly growing. If in 1970 it amounted to 20 billion dollars, in the 80s - 400 billion, then by mid-2000 it increased to 770 billion dollars.

The main direction of the current political and economic efforts of Latin American governments is the search for an alternative. Soberly assessing their position in the world, they understand that alone the countries of the continent are doomed to complete lawlessness, especially in relations with the United States. Life itself forces them to improve the ways of regional integration. The general trend in the development of integration is to combine efforts to protect common interests. A feature of economic integration in Latin America is the existence of several trade and economic groupings.

In the 60s, the largest integration associations were the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAST) and the Central American Common Market (CAOC). LAST includes 11 South American countries and Mexico. CAOR consists of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.

In 1967, the states of the region signed the Treaty of Tlatelolco (named after the area of ​​the Mexican capital where it was signed) to create a nuclear-free zone. In the course of integration, subregional groupings emerged. In 1969, the Andean group (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile) appeared within LAST, and Venezuela joined it. In 1995, the Andean Group was transformed into the Andean Integration System.

In 1975, the Latin American Economic System consisting of 25 states was created to promote their economic cooperation.

Brazil and Argentina entered into an Economic Union Agreement in 1986. In March 1991, it was transformed into the South American Common Market (MEREOSUR) within Brazil,

Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay (70% of South America). On January 1, 1995, MERCOSUR became a Customs Union, where 90% of goods were exempt from customs duties.

There is another trend in the integration process of Latin American states. It lies in rapprochement and, in the future, integration with the United States, up to the creation of a common free trade zone with them in the Western Hemisphere.

Currently, integration associations in Latin America, especially MERCOSUR, are rapidly developing ties with the European Community. Over the past 10 years, trade turnover has increased fivefold.

In 2004-2008 in a number of countries (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Mexico, etc.), anti-American politicians came to power as a result of elections. They are trying to get rid of the dominance of North American monopolies. This policy is actively supported by Cuba and especially Venezuela.

Lecture 42

Topic: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX - BEGINNING OF THE XXI centuries.

1. The division of the world into two warring blocs in the second half of the 1940s - early 1950s.

2. Confrontation between NATO and the Department of Internal Affairs.

3. Cold War politics.

4. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe.

5. Problems of disarmament. The peace movement and the US-Soviet agreements.

6. Integration processes in the world.

7. International terrorism at the present stage.

1. The North Atlantic Alliance (NATO) was formed in 1949 by representatives of 12 countries: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Great Britain and the United States of America. Greece and Turkey joined NATO in 1952, the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955, Spain in 1982. The Treaty of the North Atlantic Alliance, signed in Washington on April 4, 1949, provided for mutual defense and collective security, initially against the threat of aggression from Soviet Union. It was the first post-war union created by the United States of America. The reason for creating the treaty was the increasing scope of the Cold War.

NATO was developed in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, which provided for the right of collective self-defense by regional organizations. This committed NATO member nations to the defense of all of Western Europe and the North Atlantic. In addition, the treaty was also developed with the aim of deepening the political, economic and social ties between its members.

The main body determining NATO policy is the North Atlantic Council, which meets in Brussels (until 1967, when meetings took place in Paris). The NATO Military Committee consists of senior military representatives from each NATO member country (except Iceland, which has no armed forces and is represented by a civilian, and France, which withdrew from the military alliance in 1966 while remaining a NATO member). The armed forces of NATO member countries include a peacetime designated commander who, in the event of war, will carry out local orders from the military committee.

In 1955, 6 years after the formation of NATO, the Organization was founded Warsaw Pact(OVD), which included European states socialist camp, except for Yugoslavia, which traditionally adhered to a policy of non-alignment. Within the framework of the Department of Internal Affairs, a unified command of the Armed Forces and a Political Advisory Committee were created - a body coordinating the foreign policy activities of countries of Eastern Europe. Representatives of the Soviet army played a decisive role in all military-political structures of the Department of Internal Affairs.

2. The creation of NATO was a consequence of the Cold War and therefore all its activities were aimed at a tough confrontation with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries. In 1949, the US atomic monopoly was eliminated, which led to a sharp increase in the tendency of competition and an increase in the production of weapons of mass destruction.

The first major international crisis after the Second World War, related to the Korean War, began a year after the formation of NATO in 1950. The US military command intended to use atomic weapons against the DPRK; it was restrained only by the fear of similar retaliatory measures from the USSR. In the current situation, the USSR considered it necessary to provide military-technical assistance to North Korea. In addition to the USSR, the PRC and other socialist countries provided assistance to the DPRK. By mid-1951, the situation in Korea had stabilized and peace talks, as a result of which an armistice agreement was signed on July 27, 1953.

Thanks to the change of the top leadership of the USSR and the so-called Khrushchev Thaw, in 1954 a meeting of the foreign ministers of the USA, Great Britain, France and the USSR was held on a number of issues about collective security in Europe and a number of crises. By 1954, US military forces were stationed in 49 foreign countries. Since Western representatives promoted the defensive nature of NATO at the meeting, after the meeting the Soviet government came up with a proposal for the USSR to join NATO and conclude a treaty on collective security in Europe with the participation of the United States. All these proposals were rejected by the West. NATO refused all further initiatives of the Soviet Union to begin negotiations on concluding a non-aggression pact between NATO and the Warsaw Pact countries and declared these initiatives propaganda. At the same time, in 1955-1960. The USSR unilaterally reduced the number of its armed forces by almost 3 million people, bringing it to 2.4 million people.

After creation thermonuclear weapons in the 50s, the USSR directed its efforts towards establishing military-strategic parity with the USA, which occurred at the turn of the 60s-70s.

The most dangerous international crisis arose in the fall of 1962 in connection with the situation around Cuba. During World War II, the United States built 434 naval bases and 1,933 army and strategic air bases. American armed forces were located on all continents, American missiles with nuclear warheads deployed in Western Europe, Turkey and other countries were aimed at several dozen large cities of the USSR and socialist countries. After the revolution in Cuba and the coming to power of a socialist government there, the Soviet Union, taking advantage of Cuba's proximity to the United States, began deploying missiles there capable of carrying nuclear warheads. In response to this, the United States pulled its fleet to the island (one of the largest US military bases, Guantanamo Bay, is located on Cuban territory) and issued an ultimatum to withdraw Soviet troops from Cuba. At the negotiations that began, a compromise was reached and Soviet missiles were withdrawn from Cuba.

The leaders of the USA and the USSR during the Caribbean and Korean crises, despite mutual hostility, managed to avoid a direct military clash, which would likely have led to a nuclear war with all its consequences. Subsequently, the world community became aware that in the 50s. In the USA, secret plans were developed to start a war against the USSR, which included atomic bombing of dozens of Soviet cities. Violating international law, American military aircraft have been flying for several years. high altitude flew in the airspace of the USSR for reconnaissance purposes,

With the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Warsaw Pact in 1991, NATO's role in European military affairs became uncertain. The focus of NATO's activities in Europe has shifted towards cooperation with European organizations - such as the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) - with the aim of planning policies with "less threat to continental security". NATO is also working towards the inclusion of former Warsaw Pact countries and CIS countries.

Currently, NATO's role has changed somewhat. The European Union, which is based on NATO member states, seeks to limit US interference in European affairs. For its part, the United States, which today does not have a sufficiently strong political and military counterweight throughout the world and is practically unlimited in its actions, stated that it does not need the support of its policies from any interstate alliances and do not intend to bind themselves to any international obligations. In the first years of the 21st century. NATO leaders in continental Europe - Germany and France - pursued a policy of rapprochement with Russia and the creation of a European community capable of resisting US dictatorship.

3. The Cold War policy was proclaimed in W. Churchill’s keynote speech on March 5, 1946 in the American city of Fulton, in which he called for the creation of an Anglo-American alliance to fight “world communism led by Soviet Russia.” Beginning in 1946, there was talk of a “cold war” (as opposed to a nuclear “hot war”) between two blocs of countries. The essence of this policy was to aggravate international tension, create and maintain the danger of a “hot war” (“brinkmanship”). The goal of the Cold War was to suppress by economic and political methods the USSR as the most possible competitor of the United States in the struggle for world domination, to justify huge government expenditures on the maintenance of the army and the production of weapons, to justify the neocolonial policy of the United States and its fight against workers, anti-racist and liberation movements.

The Cold War consisted of: the formation of a system of military-political alliances (NATO, SEATO, CENTO, ANZUS, etc.) directed against the USSR and its allies. In contrast to these blocs, the countries of the socialist bloc were united under the leadership of the USSR into the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA, 1949) and the defensive Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO, 1955);

Creation of a wide network of military bases in all strategically important points of the world;

Accelerating the arms race, including nuclear and other types of weapons of mass destruction;

The use of force, the threat of force or the accumulation of weapons as a means of influencing the policies of other states (“nuclear diplomacy”, “politics from a position of strength”);

Use of economic pressure (discrimination in trade, etc.); intensification and expansion of subversive activities of intelligence services; encouraging putschs and coups d'etat;

Ideological propaganda (“psychological warfare”);

Africa is a huge continent, the main inhabitants of which are people, which is why it is called “black”. Tropical Africa (about 20 million km 2) covers a vast territory of the continent, and divides it with North Africa into two parts unequal in area. Despite the significance and vastness of the territory of tropical Africa, there are the smallest of this continent, whose main occupation is agriculture. Some countries are so poor that they do not have railways, and movement on them is carried out only with the help of cars, trucks road transport, residents move on foot, carrying loads on their heads, sometimes covering considerable distances.

Tropical Africa is a collective image. It contains the most paradoxical ideas about this region. These include the humid and tropical deserts of Africa, and huge wide rivers, and wild tribes. For the latter, the main occupation is still fishing and gathering. All this is tropical, which would be incomplete without its unique flora and fauna.

Tropical forests occupy a large area, which, however, decreases every year due to the deforestation of this precious pearl of nature. The reasons are prosaic: the local population needs new areas for arable land, in addition, the forests contain valuable tree species, the wood of which brings good profits on the market in developed countries.

Covered with vines, with dense lush vegetation and unique endemic flora and fauna, they are shrinking under the pressure of Homo sapiens and turning into tropical deserts. The local population, mainly engaged in arable farming and livestock farming, does not even think about high technology - it is not for nothing that the coat of arms of many countries still contains the image of a hoe as the main tool of labor. All residents of large and small villages, except men, are engaged in farming.

The entire female population, children and old people, grow crops that serve as the main food (sorghum, corn, rice), as well as tubers (cassava, sweet potato), from which flour and cereals are then made, and cakes are baked. In more developed areas, more expensive crops are grown for export: coffee, cocoa, which is sold to developed countries as whole beans and pressed oil, oil palm, peanuts, as well as spices and sisal. The latter is used to weave carpets, make strong ropes, ropes and even clothes.

And if it is so difficult to breathe in the humid equatorial forests due to the constant evaporation of large-leaved plants and the mass of water and air moisture, the tropical deserts of Africa are practically devoid of water. The main area that turns into desert over time is the Sahel zone, which stretches across 10 countries. For several years, not a single rain fell there, and deforestation, as well as the natural death of vegetation, led to the fact that this territory turned into a barren wasteland almost scorched by the winds and covered with cracks. Residents of these places have lost their basic means of livelihood and are forced to move to other places, leaving these territories as zones of environmental disaster.

Tropical Africa is a unique part, comprising a vast territory, unique and original. It is completely different from North Africa. Tropical Africa still remains a territory full of secrets and mysteries; it is a place that, once seen, one cannot help but fall in love with.

The second largest continent in the world (after Eurasia) is Africa. Its subregions (their economy, population, nature and states) will be discussed in this article.

Options for dividing the continent's territory

The territory of Africa is the largest geographical region of our planet. Therefore, the desire to divide it into parts is quite natural. The following two large areas are distinguished: Tropical and North Africa (or Africa north of the Sahara). There are quite large natural, ethnic, historical and socio-economic differences between these parts.

Tropical Africa is the most backward region of the developing world. And in our time, the share of agriculture in its GDP is higher than the share industrial production. 28 of the 47 least developed countries in the world are located in Tropical Africa. Also here is maximum amount countries that are landlocked (there are 15 such states in this region).

There is another option for dividing Africa into regions. According to him, its parts are Southern, Tropical and Northern Africa.

We now turn to consideration of regionalization itself, that is, the identification of large macroregions (subregions) of the continent of interest to us. It is currently believed that there are only five of them. Africa has the following subregions: Southern, Eastern, Central, Western and Northern Africa (on the map above). At the same time, each of them has specific features of the economy, population and nature.

North Africa

North Africa goes to Red and Mediterranean Sea, as well as to Atlantic Ocean. Thanks to this, its connections with Western Asia and Europe have been established since ancient times. Its total area is approximately 10 million km2, where about 170 million people live. The Mediterranean "façade" defines the position of this subregion. Thanks to him, North Africa is adjacent to South-West Asia and has access to the main sea ​​route, which runs from Europe to Asia.

Cradle of Civilization, Arab Colonization

The sparsely populated areas of the Sahara Desert form the “rear” of the region. North Africa is the cradle of the civilization of Ancient Egypt, which made a great contribution to culture. Mediterranean part of the continent in ancient times was considered the granary of Rome. To this day, among the lifeless sea of ​​stone and sand, you can find the remains of underground drainage galleries, as well as other ancient structures. Many cities located on the coast trace their origins to Carthaginian and Roman settlements.

Arab colonization, which took place in the 7th-12th centuries, had a huge impact on the culture of the population, its ethnic composition and way of life. And in our time, the northern part of Africa is considered Arab: almost the entire local population professes Islam and speaks Arabic.

Economic life and population of North Africa

The economic life of this subregion is concentrated in the coastal strip. The main manufacturing enterprises are located here, as well as the main agricultural areas. Naturally, this is where almost the entire population of this subregion lives. Mud houses, with earthen floors and flat roofs, predominate in rural areas. The cities also have a very distinctive appearance. Therefore, ethnographers and geographers distinguish the Arab type of city as a separate type. It is characterized by division into old and new parts. North Africa is sometimes called the Maghreb, but this is not entirely accurate.

Economy

There are currently 15 independent states in this subregion. 13 of them are republics. Most states North America are underdeveloped. In Libya and Algeria, the economy is slightly better developed. These countries have significant reserves of natural gas and oil, which today are hot commodity on the world market. Morocco is engaged in the extraction of phosphorites used in the production of fertilizers. Niger is a major uranium producer, but remains one of the poorest countries in North Africa.

The southern part of this subregion is very poorly populated. The agricultural population lives in oases in which the main commercial and consumer crop is the date palm. Only nomadic camel breeders can be found in the rest of the area, and even then not everywhere. There are gas and oil fields in the Libyan and Algerian parts of the Sahara.

A narrow “strip of life” only along the Nile Valley wedges itself into the desert far to the south. For the development of Upper Egypt, the construction of the Aswan hydroelectric complex on the Nile with the technical and economic assistance of the USSR was very important.

West Africa

The subregions of the continent we are interested in are a rather extensive topic, so we will limit ourselves to them brief description. Let's move on to the next subregion - West Africa.

There are zones of savannas, tropical deserts and humid equatorial forests which are located between and the Sahara Desert. It is the continent's largest subregion by population and one of the largest by area. The natural conditions here are very diverse, and the ethnic composition of the local population is the most complex - various peoples of Africa are represented. This subregion was a major slave trading area in the past. Currently, agriculture is developed here, represented by the production of various plantation consumer and cash crops. There is also industry in the subregion. Its most developed industry is mining.

Population of West Africa

According to 2006 data, the population of West Africa is 280 million people. It is multi-ethnic in composition. The largest ethnic groups are the Wolof, Mande, Serer, Mossi, Songhai, Fulani and Hausa. The indigenous population is divided into 3 metagroups based on language - Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo and Afro-Asian. The most common European languages ​​in this subregion are English and French. The main religious groups of the population are Muslims, Christians and animists.

Economy of West Africa

All the states located here are developing countries. As we have already said, the subregions of Africa differ significantly economically. The table presented above characterizes such an important economic indicator of the countries of the continent we are interested in as gold reserves (2015 data). West African states in this table include Nigeria, Ghana, Mauritania and Cameroon.

Agriculture, as well as the mining industry, plays a leading role in creating GDP in this subregion. The minerals available in West Africa are petroleum, iron gold, manganese, phosphates and diamonds.

Central Africa

From the very name of this subregion it is clear that it occupies the central part of the continent (equatorial). The total area of ​​the region is 6613 thousand km 2. A total of 9 countries are located in Central Africa: Gabon, Angola, Cameroon, Congo and Democratic (these are two different states), Sao Tome and Principe, Chad, Central African Republic and also the island of St. Helena, which is a British overseas territory.

They are located in savannah and humid equatorial forest zones, which greatly influenced their economic development. This subregion is one of the richest areas, not only in Africa, but in the world. Ethnic composition The local population, unlike the previous region, is homogeneous. Nine-tenths of it are the Bantu peoples of Africa, who are related to each other.

Economy of the subregion

All states in this subregion, according to the UN classification, are developing. Agriculture and the mining industry play a major role in creating GDP. In this regard, Western and Central Africa similar. The minerals mined here are cobalt, manganese, copper, diamonds, gold, natural gas, oil. The subregion has good hydropower potential. In addition, significant reserves of forest resources are located here.

These are the main Central ones.

East Africa

It is located in tropical and subequatorial climate zones. East Africa overlooks the Indian Ocean, so it has maintained trade relations with Arab countries and India for a long time. Mineral wealth this subregion are less significant, but the diversity natural resources overall very great. This is what largely determines the various options for their economic use.

Population of East Africa

East Africa is a highly mosaic subregion in ethnically. The borders of many countries were set arbitrarily by former colonial powers. At the same time, the cultural and ethnic differences that the population of East Africa has were not taken into account. Due to significant social and cultural differences, there is significant potential for conflict in this subregion. Wars often broke out here, including civil ones.

South Africa

It is located in the southern part of the continent, which is farthest from Asia, America and Europe, but it opens up to the sea route that goes around the southern tip of Africa. This subregion is located in the subtropical and tropical latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. There is a significant amount of natural resources, of which mineral resources are especially prominent. The Republic of South Africa (RSA) is the main “core” of this subregion. It is the only economically developed state on the continent.

Population and economy of South Africa

A significant number are of European origin. Bantu peoples make up the vast majority of the inhabitants of this subregion. The local population as a whole is poor, but South Africa has a well-established road network, efficient air traffic, and good tourism infrastructure. Mining, as well as deposits of gold, platinum, diamonds and other minerals, form the basis of the economy. In addition, southern Africa is increasingly developing technology, tourism and manufacturing industries.

Finally

As you can see, in general the mainland is not very developed economically. Its population is unevenly distributed. Currently, about a billion people live on the continent of Africa. Its subregions were briefly characterized by us. In conclusion, I would like to note that this continent is considered the ancestral home of humanity: the oldest remains of early hominids, as well as their probable ancestors, were found here. Exists special science African studies, which studies the cultural, political, economic and social problems of Africa.

If we talk about the economic zoning of the continent, then it must be said that it has not yet taken shape and as a result of this, Africa is simply divided into two large natural parts. These parts are called subregions– North Africa subregion and Tropical Africa subregion.

In tropical Africa there are:

1. West Africa;
2. Central Africa;
3. East Africa;
4. South Africa.

Note 1

North Africa is the cradle of ancient Egyptian civilization and its economic life is concentrated in the coastal zone. It was the granary of Rome in the ancient period of history. Here, even today, there are underground drainage galleries, and many cities on the coast originate from Roman and Carthaginian settlements. In the $7th-$12th centuries there were also Arabs here, which is why modern Mediterranean Africa is often called Arab. The population speaks Arabic and professes Islam.

Within North Africa, the area of ​​which is about $10 million sq km, is home to $170 million people. The geographical position of this subregion is determined by the Mediterranean Sea, through which the countries of the region gain access to Asia and Southern Europe. The main centers of manufacturing industry are located in the coastal zone, as well as areas of subtropical agriculture. North Africa's urbanization rate exceeds the global rate at $51%. In Libya it is generally equal to $85$%. In Algeria, there are $22 million people in the city, and in Egypt there are more - $32 million people. There was no explosive growth of cities here, because North Africa became the arena of urban life long ago. The cities of the subregion are characterized by the Arab city type. As a rule, such cities are divided into two parts - old and new.

Old part The city has a core - this is the kasbah, which is a fortification located on an elevated place. Other quarters of the old city lead from it. The buildings have flat roofs and blind fences. The bright, colorful oriental bazaars add variety to the old part of the city. This old city was called the medina, outside of which the new modern city is located.

There are $15$ independent states in the subregion, $13$ of which have a republican system. These are mostly underdeveloped states and only Libya, Algeria and Egypt stand out against this background. South part The subregion is very sparsely populated. The main commercial and consumer crop in the oases is the date palm. The rest of the territory is a deserted, lifeless space, and only sometimes you can meet nomads riding camels here. The Libyan and Algerian parts of the Sahara have hydrocarbon deposits.

Tropical Africa

Note 2

The concept of Tropical Africa fits well into the most paradoxical ideas about this territory. This is a collective image. Here are humid equatorial forests and tropical deserts, amazing animals and wild tribes, wide rivers and active volcanoes. This is a unique and original territory, full of secrets and mysteries.

This territory is often called " black Africa" This is understandable, because the population of the subregion belongs to the Negroid race. More than $600 million people live in the region, which covers an area of ​​$20 million sq km. The ethnic composition of Tropical Africa is very diverse, and West and East Africa are the most complex. Numerous but closely related languages ​​of the Bantu family are characteristic of the population of Central and South Africa. The most common language is Swahili. The Malagasy speak languages ​​of the Austronesian family. The region contains $29$ of the world's most backward countries.

The basis of life activity of the population of this subregion is mainly natural economy, which is practiced by about half of rural residents. Most of the population lives in rural areas. Agricultural work for growing cassava, yams, and sweet potatoes falls on women and children. The subregion is inhabited by the tsetse fly, due to which livestock farming is less developed. In general, the region is characterized by nomadic and semi-nomadic cattle breeding and transhumance. There are no modern livestock farms in the region.

Against the general sad background, the areas where perennial crops are cultivated stand out sharply - coffee, peanuts, hevea, oil palm, tea, sisal, spices. These are the areas commercial crop production.

There is virtually no industrialization in Tropical Africa, except for one large area mining industry. This is the copper belt of Congo and Zambia.

Manufacturing industry b is poorly developed, its structure is backward. The main industries are food production and the production of clothing and textiles.

Food industry represented in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Nigeria. In other countries of the region it is either absent or represented by individual small enterprises.

Social sphere and economics regions are at a very low level of development. An indicator of economic backwardness is the structure of GDP. The average industrial indicator for the region is $30$% of GDP, and in agriculture only $20$%. And in some individual countries, for example, Angola, Rwanda, Ethiopia, it is only $3$%.

The population is distributed unevenly throughout the subregion. There are few large millionaire cities. Only $8$ countries can boast of such million-plus people, for example, Democratic Republic Congo, Angola, Senegal, Kenya and some others. Low levels of human resources indicate a weak education system. The exceptions in this regard are Botswana, Gabon, Mauritius, and the Seychelles. More than half of the female population and 35% of the male population do not even have primary education.

Note 3

The colonial past and the specifics of the development of national capitalism during the period of political independence are features of the industry of the countries of Tropical Africa.

Global problems of Tropical Africa

Quite often in literature you can find the expression that Tropical Africa is modern "the pole of hunger" on the ground. African countries, being under colonial yoke, could not develop their economies. The rich and powerful pumped mineral resources out of its depths, without caring about the standard of living of people, without solving social problems. This colonial past still makes development difficult today.

One of the global problems of this region is food problem. Back in the $90s, experts assessed the food situation as critical. Low income levels, complicating the situation, have led to the fact that $90$% of citizens live below the poverty line. The food crisis has become chronic and protracted, and this is facilitated by deepening environmental and energy difficulties, as well as high rates of population growth. In some countries of the region, outbreaks of mass hunger have become frequent, the areas of which are expanding. In the $90s, there were food shortages in $26$ African countries, which is about half of the continent's countries. Among these states were Gambia, Ghana, Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Tanzania, Senegal, Togo, etc.

It must be said that not only natural disasters aggravate the problem of arid territories where catastrophic droughts, for example, in the $80s, an unprecedented drought in the countries of the Sudan-Sahel zone led to large casualties. In addition, in the savannah zone, the removal of sparse tree vegetation and overgrazing of livestock played a role.

Unfavorable climatic conditions played a negative role. The social and property structure of the local population has great importance in the current food situation. The elite layer, which makes up $5% of the local population, appropriates $1/3$ of the national income, in addition to the lion's share of food aid coming from outside.

Note 4

The famine of the countries of Tropical Africa has its consequences - these are migration flows of refugees beyond national borders. In the 1980s alone, according to the UN, $20 million of Ethiopians, Chadians, Ugandans and other Africans traveled outside their villages in search of food. The part of the refugees who ended up in special camps is fed by international food aid. Unfortunately, a similar process continues today.