Introduction

One of the most important indicators the level of a person’s culture, his thinking, his intelligence is his speech. It serves as the main means of communication with other people, is the basis human thinking and acquiring new knowledge. Speech is accessible to listeners due to the materiality of its signs. (sound for oral communication, and graphic for written). Therefore, the study of the sound side of language is an integral part of linguistics. This section is called phonetics. It is the science that studies the sounds made by humans and their actual or audible forms. The work of the speech organs aimed at producing speech sounds is called articulation. In this essay we will look at the articulation of frontal consonants in English and Russian.

The purpose of this essay is to consider and analyze the differences in the articulation of front-language English and Russian consonants. By dictionary definition linguistic terms Consonant sounds are speech sounds consisting either of noise alone, or of voice and noise that is formed in the oral cavity, where the stream of air exhaled from the lungs encounters various obstacles.

The classification of consonants is based on: the participation of voice and noise, the place of noise formation, the method of noise formation and the absence or presence of palatalization.

Front-lingual consonants are determined by the place where the noise is produced. These are lingual consonants, which are divided into anterior lingual, which include dental and palatal (or anterior palatal), midlingual and posterior lingual.

Speech sounds can be explored with various points vision. They can be studied based on the apparatus that produces these sounds. This direction is called articulatory. Accordingly, the nature of the implementation of certain characteristics in different languages can vary greatly.

Articulation of consonants

The human vocal (articulatory) tract consists of articulatory organs - those organs human body, which are used in the process of speech production. These include: the lungs, the larynx, in which the vocal cords are located, organs located in the supraglottic region (pharynx, oral and nasal cavities, uvula, soft and hard palate, tongue, teeth, lips). According to their own physical characteristics, which are especially important for the production of consonant sounds, the organs of articulation are divided into mobile (tongue, lips, uvula) and fixed (soft and hard palate, teeth).

Articulation (from Latin articulo - “I dismember”) - in phonetics, the totality of the work of individual pronunciation organs in the formation of speech sounds. All active pronunciation organs take one part or another in the pronunciation of any speech sound. The position of these organs necessary for the formation of this sound, form its articulation, the separability of sounds, the clarity of their sound.

Sounding speech is the result of the sequential interaction of four articulatory processes: 1) the formation of an air stream, which is formed at the moment when air is forcefully pushed out of the lungs; 2) the process of phonation (sound), when the air flow begins to vibrate as it passes through the vocal cords; 3) the process of articulation itself, when vibration in a stream of air acquires special form thanks to resonators formed in the oral and nasal cavities by the organs of articulation; 4) propagation of an air wave of a special shape into the environment.

Articulation of sound consists of 3 stages:

(attack) - preparation speech apparatus to the utterance of a sound, or the beginning of articulation;

(middle part) - the pronunciation itself, maintaining the position of the organs necessary for pronunciation;

(indentation) - the end of articulation, which represents the completion of a sound, at which the organs of speech change their location to pronounce the next sound or go into a state of rest.

In real conditions, it is usually not individual sounds that are pronounced, but a speech chain, then the excursion of the next sound is superimposed on the recursion, and sometimes even on the excursion of the previous sound.

The temporary formation of consonants is traditionally described as a sequence of these three phases - excursion, endurance and recursion, where the first and third phase are, respectively, the transition from the neutral position of the articulating organs to the position necessary for pronouncing a given consonant - endurance - and, conversely, a return to the neutral position .

When studying the articulation of consonants in a continuous speech streamit is discovered that the excursion coincides in time with the articulation of the preceding sound, and the recursion coincides with the articulation of the sound following the consonant; the holding phase also reveals a dependence on the properties of surrounding sounds. In some cases, these combinations represent an articulatory-indivisible whole: for example, the combination [fs] in Russian. the word “ovsa” can be described as a sequence of a short [f]-shaped excursion, duration, exposure, where both consonants are articulated simultaneously, and a short [s]-shaped recursion.

Articulatory properties of consonants:

obligatory presence of an obstruction in the vocal tract; from an acoustic point of view, consonants are characterized as sounds, during the formation of which important role noise sources are playing

Consonants (not only sonants, but also noisy ones) can form the apex of a syllable, but the syllable-forming function is not typical for them and cannot be realized in combination with a vowel.

The articulatory classification of consonants is based on such features as:

An active organ that forms an obstacle. On this basis, consonants are divided into labial (labiolabial and labiodental), anterior lingual (which are divided into apical, when the active organ is the tip of the tongue; dorsal - the front part of the back of the tongue; kakuminal - raising the entire edge of the front part of the tongue; retroflex - bending tip of the tongue back). In addition to the anterior part of the back of the tongue, its middle or posterior part actively articulates, then the midlingual and posterior lingual are formed. During the formation of uvulars, a small tongue acts - the uvula (uvula) or the entire velum palatine. There are also pharyngeal (compression of the pharynx) and laryngeal, or laryngeal (closing or bringing together vocal cords).

Method of barrier formation. If the passage of the air stream along the vocal tract stops completely, stop consonants are formed, which can be plosive (if the stop opens instantly) or affricates (if after the bow the articulating organs do not open completely and a narrowing remains between them); the obstruction can only narrow the vocal tract - in this case, fricative consonants are formed; When an active organ vibrates, trembling consonants are formed.

Position of the soft palate. When the soft palate is raised, closing the passage of air into the nasal cavity, oral consonants are formed, and when it is lowered, nasal consonants are formed.

A passive active body participating in the formation of an obstacle. Thus, lingual consonants according to the active organ can be characterized as dental (dental), alveolar (supradental), palatal, velar.

The number of constrictions in the vocal tract during the formation of consonants. According to this feature, consonants can be monofocal or bifocal.

Place of passage of the air stream during the articulation of consonants. (middle and side), etc.

The articulations of front-lingual consonants vary across languages. Depending on the position of the tip of the tongue, they are also divided into dorsal (from Lat. dorsum - back), apical (from Lat. apex - apex) and cacuminal (from Lat. cacumen - sharp end, top). Dorsal ones are formed by bringing the front part of the back of the tongue closer to the upper teeth and alveoli (for example, Russian [t, n, s]), while the tip of the tongue is lowered to the lower teeth. When apical sounds are formed, together with the front part of the back of the tongue, the tip of the tongue rises towards the upper teeth and alveoli (for example, English). When cuminal sounds are formed, the tip of the tongue is raised, and the front part of the back of the tongue is somewhat concave inward (for example, Russian [r]).

Comparison of English and Russian consonant systems

English and Russian languages ​​belong to the same language family. Indo-European languages. English belongs to the group of Germanic languages, and Russian belongs to the East Slavic group, but they both belong to the Indo-European family. Belonging to the same language family explains the great similarity between these languages, both in the system of vocalism (vowels) and in the system of consonantism (consonants).

The Russian language belongs to a pronounced consonantal type, since the basis of its sound structure is consonants: 36 consonants and only 6(5) vowels.

Differences in place of articulation:

In the Russian language there are all groups of consonants at the place of articulation, with the exception of glottal ones (present in English).

In Russian, compared to English, there are more dental consonants, but few alveolar ones. IN English language, on the contrary, there are few dental consonants.

A feature of the system of consonant sounds in the Russian language is their opposition based on hardness/softness. In addition to the main articulation, hard consonants are characterized by the rise of the back of the tongue to the soft palate (velarization), and soft consonants by the rise of the front of the tongue to the hard palate (palatalization).

In English, velarization and palatalization of consonants are not independent, but positional in nature, since they depend on the phonetic environment and do not affect the distinction of meaning. English consonants [ʃ], [ʒ], [ʧ], , [w], “light” and “dark” [l] are always pronounced with additional articulation: [ʃ], [ʒ], [ʧ], , “light” [l] - with palatal, and [w] and “dark” [l] - with velar.

In English there are no fricative velar consonants characteristic of the Russian language.

Differences in the type of obstacle and the method of noise generation:

The classification of consonant sounds, taking into account the type of obstruction and the method of noise formation, is basically the same in both languages. The main difference is the existence of a category of trembling consonants.

There are more approximants in English compared to Russian different places of education.

In English, the distinctive feature for noisy consonants is the strength of articulation. English voiced consonants can be considered as such only in the intervocalic position, since in other phonetic contexts they are partially or completely devoiced.

In the Russian language, the distinctive feature for noisy consonants is the work of the vocal cords, and Russian voiced consonants are always full-voiced, with the exception of the position at the end of a word, when they are completely stunned, for example:oak[dup].

Both in English and in Russian, voiceless consonants are articulated more intensely than voiced ones, and are characterized by a stronger air stream. However, tension/laxness of consonants for the Russian language is a concomitant feature.

Front-lingual consonants of English and Russian languages

Consonants are sounds that are formed with the participation of voice and noise or noise alone.

Front-lingual consonants (linguales priores) are human consonant sounds, in the pronunciation of which the front part is the active organ. The tongue with these sounds can have either, or, or, otherwise - lateral. The participation of various passive speech organs is also in connection with articulations. With the help of the speech organs, the front part of the tongue performs its articulations.

Forelingual sounds of coronal articulation can be pronounced either with the tip of the tongue positioned between the upper and lower teeth (so-called or interdental sounds), or when the tip of the tongue is positioned on the back surface of the upper teeth (the so-called, or postdental sounds), or when the tip of the tongue is positioned on, or when the tip of the tongue is positioned on the hard palate behind the alveoli (the so-called sounds, or kakuminal). With dorsal articulation, anterior lingual sounds are pronounced not by the tip, but by the anterior part of the blade of the tongue adjacent to it; the very tip of the tongue lies at the lower teeth.

This is how the front-lingual spirants of the Russian language s and z are pronounced; Front-lingual dorsal t and d are also possible, but usually they are not found, except for the t that is part of the complex consonant c = t + s. Lateral anterior lingual sounds, or lateral ones, are also possible, in which, in addition to lateral or lateral articulation of the tongue, there is always a dorsal or coronal one.

When classifying consonants according to the active articulator (speech organ), domestic phoneticians distinguish five types for the English language, one of which is frontal. This is when the tip of the tongue comes close to the teeth ([Ɵ], [ð]), alveoli ([t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l]) or their posterior slope ([ʃ ], [ʒ],[ʧ], [r].

In Russian, front-lingual consonants are divided according to the place of formation on the dental and anteropalatine. In the production of dental sounds, an obstruction is created by the approach of the front and tip of the tongue to the teeth, teeth and alveoli or alveoli. The vast majority of front-lingual sounds belong to the category of dental sounds: [d-d", t-t", z-z", s-s", n-n", l-l", ts]. Anteropalatals are formed by raising the anterior part of the back of the tongue or its tip towards the alveoli and the anterior part of the hard palate, these include [f, w, h, r-r"].

The main differences in the articulation of frontal consonants in English and Russian languages

The articulation of all sounds in the language is regulated by a certain, constant supported by the position of the speech organs, called the articulatory pattern. Let us consider in detail the difference between the articulation of frontal consonants in English and Russian.

Since in English the tip of the tongue at the moment of phonation is pulled away from the upper front teeth and raised towards the alveoli, and the bulk of the tongue lies deeper in the oral cavity than in Russian, all alveolar and postalveolar consonants, namely [t], [d], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [ʧ], , [n], [l], [r], are apical, i.e. e. pronounced with the tip of the tongue active. There are no consonants in English that are pronounced with the tip of the tongue down. Apical plosives [t], [d] and affricates [ʧ] are pronounced with a very weak stop with a minimal area of ​​contact with the passive articulator, which results from the retraction of the tip of the tongue from the teeth.

In Russian, similar sounds are [t], [d], [t"], [d'], [s], [z], [s"], [z"], [n], [n'], [ts], [h'], [w], [sh"], [zh] are laminal and dental, i.e. are pronounced with the active scapular part of the tongue, which forms a barrier with the base of the upper front teeth. The tip of the tongue remains passive. In Russian, only [р], [р’], [л] and [л’] are apical, i.e. articulated by the tip of the tongue. The position of the tip of the tongue predominantly at the lower teeth helps to move the front part of the tongue forward, which leads to an increase in the contact zone during the articulation of sounds: it can be expanded and capture the alveolar part. This gives Russian consonants a different acoustic coloring. English dental [Ɵ], [ð] are articulated differently: by the tip of the tongue and the edges of the upper front teeth.

English consonants, the articulation of which does not depend on the position of the tip of the tongue depends, such as labiolabial, labiodental, velar, are also pronounced with an orientation to the articulatory structure (the tip of the tongue is moved back and raised, the front part of the tongue is lowered, the lips are stretched). This position of the articulators leads to an increase in the volume of the oral resonator, therefore the acoustic picture of sounds of identical type in the Russian and English languages ​​is noticeably different.

Despite the general tendency to maintain some degree of lip extension during phonation, it is nevertheless necessary to note a noticeable tendency recent years round lips when producing [ʃ], [ʒ], [ʧ], and [r]. It's still in to a greater extent increases the volume of the oral resonator, which undoubtedly affects the perceived quality of consonants.

Conclusion

In order to clearly understand the difference in the pronunciation systems of foreign and native languages, it is necessary to know the features of their articulatory base. The articulatory base refers to the features of the mechanism for producing sounds (both vowels and consonants), determined by anatomical structure speech apparatus.

This mechanism includes: the method of supplying the air necessary to produce sound, the shape of the resonator (mainly oral), the position of the tongue, the position of the lips, etc.

The English articulatory base is characterized by the following features:

exhaled air is supplied in short, abrupt portions, in contrast to the Russian smooth manner;

the anatomical features of the structure of the speech resonator determine the apical position of the tongue, when only its very tip is active in the production of consonant sounds (as opposed to the front part in Russian - blade); V English version the tongue seems to be pulled back more and has difficulty reaching the teeth and alveoli; in addition, the back of the tongue is spread out and has a flat shape;

the upper lip is slightly stretched in a smile (a phonetic smile) and does not change its position during the pronunciation process, i.e. the lips do not move in horizontal plane, so that their corners remain motionless (stiff upper lip); in Russian the lips are very mobile: they are strongly rounded and protruded; sounds pronounced with protrusion and rounding of the lips are called labialized;

the distance between the jaws in English pronunciation is narrower than in Russian.

These features affect the quality of English vowels and consonants, including the presence of apical articulation in all anterior lingual sounds, the lack of softening: .

In English and Russian there are differences between frontal consonants, such as:

differences in place of articulation;

differences in the type of obstacle and the method of noise generation;

Bibliography

1. Arakin V.D. “Comparative typology of English and Russian languages: a textbook for universities” / V. D. Arakin. - L.: Education, 2008. - 258 p.

2. Afanasyeva O.V., Rezvetsova M.D., Samokhina T.S. “Comparative typology of English and Russian languages ​​(workshop).” – M.: FIZMATLIT, 2000. – P. 62-81.

3. Vereninova Zh.B. “The phonetic base of the English language in comparison with the phonetic base of the Russian language: Tutorial" Ed. – Rosto, 2007. – 278 p.

4. Girutsky A. A. “Introduction to linguistics Textbook” Editor L.E. Krukovsky.

5. Gurevich V.V. “Theoretical grammar of the English language. Comparative typology of English and Russian languages.” – M.: Flinta: Science, 2003. - P. 116-125.

6. Rivlina A.A. “Comparative typology of English and Russian languages: Textbook for universities: Education, 2007.” – 162 s.

7. Rosenthal D.E. Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. "Modern Russian language". – M.: Rolf, 2001. – P. 139-156.

8. Jacobson R., Fant G.M., Halle M.. Introduction to speech analysis in the book: NL."v. 2. M., 1962; 3 and nder L.R. General phonetics, M., 1979.

9. Educational and reference material “RUSSIAN PHONETICS” Prepared by G.E. Kedrova, E.B. Omelyanova, A.M. Egorov http://www.philol.msu.ru

10. Website https:// www.slovar.cc

11. Website http:// www. ru. w ikipedia.org

When classifying consonants, three characteristics are taken into account that determine the quality of the consonant:

Acting body.

According to the active organ, they are distinguished:

Labial consonants. Formed when active participation lips. Labial consonants are divided into labiolabial and labiodental. The first ones are formed by closing lower lip from the top. These include: [l], [l’], [b], [b’], [m], [l]. The latter are formed by bringing the lower lip closer to the upper teeth. These include: [f], [f’], [v], [v’].

Linguistic consonants, which are divided into the following groups.

Front lingual consonants. They are formed with the active participation of the front part of the back of the tongue. Front-lingual consonants are divided into two groups: dental and palatodental. When forming dental consonants, the front part of the tongue closes or approaches the upper teeth. These include: [t], [tgt;], , "[s], [s'], [z], [z"Z, [ts], [k], [i"], [l], [l "]. When forming palatal-dental consonants, the front part of the tongue rises to the front part of the palate and there a barrier is created in the area of ​​the alveoli. These include: [ні], [ж], [ш']

Middle lingual consonants. The consonant [j] is the middle lingual consonant, and according to the passive organ the middle palatal one, in the Russian language. When it is formed, the middle part of the tongue rises to the anterior palate.

Rear consonants. Rear-lingual, and according to the passive organ, posterior-palatal, sounds [k], [g], [zh], [k’], [g’]; [zh’] are formed by closing ([k, g]) or bringing together ([zh’]) the back of the tongue with the fixed back palate.

Glottal consonants. There are no glottal consonants in Russian, but in English there is only one – [h].

According to the method of education they distinguish:

1. Stop consonants. Consonants sounds when articulation in which the organs of speech are in such a position that the flow of air from the lungs is completely blocked by a closure created in the oral cavity or in larynx. Stop consonants are divided into:

explosive , during the articulation of which the velum is raised, and air passes through the oral cavity, and the opening of the bow occurs sharply and resembles an explosion; in Russian - [b, p, d, t, g, k]

affricates - the opening of the stop does not occur abruptly and is similar to the articulation of fricative consonants; in Russian - [ch, ts]

nasal (nasal, occipital), during the articulation of which the velum palatine is lowered and the air exits through the nose; in Russian - [m, n]

2. Fricative consonants. They are formed by incomplete convergence of the active and passive organs of speech, as a result of which a narrow gap remains between them through which air passes; the noise is generated by the friction of air against the walls of the crack. Friction consonants are divided into:

Middle - the gap is maintained along midline a curved tongue, the sides of which are pressed to the palate. [v], [f], [f’] [z], [s], [z’], [s’], [g], [w], [x], [x].

Lateral - a bow is created in the middle (the tongue comes into contact with the hard palate or upper teeth), and the air exits through the side gap. [l], [l']

3. Trembling consonants. Trembling consonants are consonants, during the formation of which the tip of the tongue either closes or opens with the alveoli during the passage of an air stream (vibrates). Trembling ones in Russian include: [р], [р’].

1. Noisy- Consonants formed by noise accompanied by a voice (voiced consonants) or with the help of noise alone (voiceless consonants). All consonants, except sonorants, are noisy

2. Sonant(sonorant sound) - a consonant sound in the formation of which the voice ( music tone) prevails over noise, for example - p, l, m, n.

9. Basic principles of vowel classification.

Differences between vowels, according to L.R. Zinder, may relate to the following characteristics, which are reflected to varying degrees in different classifications:

presence - absence of voice (possible voiceless vowels, which are produced by a stream of air passing through the supraglottic cavities and exciting their own tones; whispering vowels are a type of voiceless vowels);

tension - non-tension (unstressed reduced vowels, common in many languages, are non-tension; the distinction based on [tension - non-tension] characterizes, in particular, the contrast in the German language between closed and open / narrow and wide vowels);

duration (these differences may depend on general phonetic conditions and be independent of them, phonemically significant; in such cases, the order of two or more degrees of duration may differ; for example, in the German language, the sign of longitude is in many cases associated with signs of closedness and tension of the vowel) ;

the most decisive for the classification of vowels are differences in the position of the tongue, best taken into account in trapezoidal diagrams (see diagrams by L.V. Shcherba, L.R. Zinder, Yu.S. Maslov, L.V. Bondarko and her co-authors, as well as MFA scheme):

in the horizontal plane differences along the row - front vowels, back and mixed (in other classifications, middle, or central; according to L.V. Shcherba, mixed and central consonants suggest a different structure of the language); one can, further, talk about the rear ones being extended, the front ones being pushed back;

in the vertical plane there are differences in the degree of rise (L.V. Shcherba notes the arbitrary nature of their differentiation and outlines 6 steps as conditional stops when slowly lowering or raising the tongue).

Also decisive for the classification of vowels are differences in the action of the lips / differences in the absence - presence of labialization (unrounded and rounded vowels);

relative homogeneity - heterogeneity of articulation (monophthongs, diphthongs, triphthongs; diphthongoids);

absence - presence of additional articulations (nasalization, pharyngealization).

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• CONSONANTS
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• CONSONANTS in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
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• CONSONANTS in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  
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• CONSONANTS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
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• CONSONANTS in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
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• CONSONANTS in Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB:
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• EXPLOSIVE CONSONANTS in big Soviet encyclopedia, TSB:
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• NASAL CONSONANTS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
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• IMPLOSIVE CONSONANTS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
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• FROGLINGUAL SOUNDS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
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• INDO-EUROPEAN CONSONANTISM in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
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• INDO-EUROPEAN CONSONANTISM in the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia:
  ? The I. proto-language in the era before its division into separate I. languages ​​had the following consonant sounds. A. Explosive, or explosive. ...
• CONSONANT SOUNDS
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• UNPAIRED CONSONANTS in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
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• MARI LANGUAGE in the Literary Encyclopedia:
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• GRAPHIC ARTS in the Literary Encyclopedia:
  DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT. The set of systems of acoustic-articulatory signs of oral or spoken speech, denoted by the term phonetics, is opposed to g., as a set of systems of optical signs, ...
• HINDI in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
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• PHONETICS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
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• URDU in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
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• SPIRANTS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
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• SIBILANTS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  (from Latin sibilo - whistle), whistling, anterior lingual fricative (fricative) consonants (for example, “s”, “z”), during the formation of which an air stream passes through ...
• SANSKRIT in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  one of the main ancient Indian languages Indo-European language family, which received literary treatment. Distributed in Northern India from the 1st century. BC ...
• in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
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• KAKUMINAL CONSONANTS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  consonants (from Lat. cacumen - sharp end, top), front-lingual consonants, during the formation of which the tip of the tongue is not only raised, but also ...
• ZULU (LANGUAGE OF THE ZULU PEOPLE) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  isiZulu, the language of the Zulu people (AmaZulu); distributed in South Africa, in the province of Natal, and areas of the Transvaal. The number of Z. speakers is about 3.8...
• in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  the fifth letter of the Russian alphabet. Represents a variant of the corresponding letter D ("good") Old Church Slavonic alphabet. According to the style in Cyrillic, it goes back to D ("delta")...
• SIZZING SOUNDS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  (gram.) - in school grammatical terminology, this is the name for the anterior lingual alveolar spirants of coronal articulation - voiceless w and voiced w, a...
• TURKISH ADVERBS AND LITERATURES in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  T. dialects are currently spoken by numerous tribes and peoples, from the Yakuts to the population of European Turkey - the Ottomans. ...
• SUPRADENTAL CONSONANTS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  (lat. Supradentales) - in modern phonetic literature, this term is used by some scientists (for example, the Swedish phonetician Lundell) to designate those front-lingual (see) consonants, ...
• STATISTICAL METHOD in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  in linguistics it was and is used quite rarely, which is explained by the relatively insignificant results obtained so far with its help. Undoubtedly...
• SPIRANT in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  (Latin Spirans = “breathing” from spiro = breathing) - in modern phonetics This is the name given to consonant sounds formed due to air friction...
• CONSONANT SOUNDS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  (lat. consonantes). - A current definition, inherited from ancient grammatical theory and expressed in a Latin term, which received a universal translation...
• RUSSIA. RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND RUSSIAN LITERATURE: RUSSIAN LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  A. Russian language is a term used in two meanings. It means: I) a set of dialects of Great Russian, Belarusian and Little Russian; II) modern...
• PALATAL SOUNDS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  or palatal (lat. palatales) - sounds of human speech (vowels and consonants), produced with the passive participation of the palate. Since the active role...

Front lingual maxillary consonants

Articulation norms for [р], [р]

When pronouncing trembling, the anterior-lingual [r] tip of the tongue is tense and curved towards the alveoli. It vibrates under the pressure of the air stream.

When pronouncing [p "], the articulatory focus of the softened [p"] is advanced compared to [p]. When pronounced, it closes with the area of ​​the hard palate not only top part the tip of the tongue, but also the front part of the back, and gives it softness.

Articulation norms for [l], [l]

The fricative anterior lingual sonorants [l], [l "] belong to the group of so-called lateral ones, since when they are pronounced, an air stream, which creates very little friction, passes along the sides of the tongue.

During the formation of [l], the tip of the tongue rests on the front upper teeth and the area of ​​the palate above them, and is the focus of the formation of an obstacle approximately in the place where [d], [t] are closed.

Unlike [d], [t], when pronouncing the sound [l], the edges of the tongue are lowered on one or both sides and form slits for exit air flow. When pronouncing [l "], the cohesion from the teeth moves to the alveoli.

Articulation norms for front-lingual [d], [d] and [t], [t]

When pronouncing the sounds [d], [t], the lips are passive, the front back, together with the tip of the tongue, is pressed against the upper teeth with inside and the beginning of the alveoli and sharply pushes away from them. The faster you pull back your tongue, the clearer the sounds [d] > [t] sound. Due to the easing of tensions speech organs When pronouncing the sound [d], a voice appears in addition to noise.

Forelingual palatalized closed voiceless [t "] and voiced [d"] - soft sounds. They are formed due to the rise of the middle part of the back of the tongue towards the hard palate. The articulation of palatalized [d "], [t"] is complicated by similar articulation. It should be remembered that the touch must be tight, otherwise the sounds will be distorted.

Articulation norms for the formation of closed nasals [n], [n]

Close nasals [n], [n "] are articulated by the same active speech organ and in the same way as noisy voiced consonants [d], [d"].

The front part of the tongue is pressed against the upper teeth and is sharply pushed away from them. The mouth opened slightly. The difference is that when [n] is pronounced, the soft palate lowers and opens the passage simultaneously in the nasal and oral cavities. When pronouncing [n "], the middle part of the tongue approaches the hard palate.

Front lingual mandibular consonants

Articulatory norms for the formation of whistling consonants [s], [s], [s], [s]

The anterior lingual mandibular teeth are slotted [s], [s], [s "], [s"] are formed as a result of the fact that the wide tip of the tongue rests against the base of the lower teeth, the front part of the back of the tongue approaches the front teeth and alveoli, while in the middle of the tongue a narrow groove-shaped gap is formed. The edges of the tongue are pressed against the lateral teeth and part of the hard palate. The teeth are barely open. The air stream squeezes through the gap, hits the upper incisors, and as a result, a sharp noise is formed, reminiscent of whistling. Based on this acoustic feature, the consonants M "[s], [s "], [s"] are called whistling. Without the participation of the voice, a voiceless [s] is formed, and with the participation of a voice, a voiced [z]. When pronouncing palatalized [s "], [s"], the main articulation is inherent in [s], [s], but is complicated by the additional raising of the anterior and middle part of the tongue to the hard palate. tongue and lips are more tense.

Articulation norms of occlusive-friction [dz], [dz], [ts], [ts]

During the formation of the anterior lingual affricates [ts], [ts "], [dz], [dz"] the tip of the tongue first forms a cohesion with the area at the upper incisors and alveoli, and then this cohesion gradually turns into a short gap, so there is no explosion, as when pronouncing [t] and [d]. The articulation of [ts], [dz] is largely similar to [s], [s], since when pronouncing [ts], [dz] a characteristic whistle appears, behind which the consonants are called whistling. Palatalized africates [ts "], [dz "] differ from their hard counterparts in that the middle back of the tongue rises to a greater extent towards the hard palate.

Articulation norms of affricates [j], [h]

When pronouncing the affricate [j], [h], the wide tip of the tongue first closes with the anterior edge of the hard palate, and then the fusion gradually turns into a fissure. At the same time, the back of the back of the tongue approaches the anterior edge of the palate. Passing through two slits (the first - between the wide tip of the tongue and the anterior edge of the hard palate opposite the alveoli, the second - between the back of the back and the anterior edge of the soft palate), the air stream forms a characteristic noise reminiscent of hiss. Based on this acoustic feature, the consonants of the anterior lingual gingival africates are called sizzling. The voiceless [h] is formed without the participation of the voice, the voiced [j] - with the participation of the voice and noise.

Articulation norms of hissing [zh], [sh]

When pronouncing the anterior lingual sibilant fricative [zh], [sh], the wide tip of the tongue does not touch the teeth. The lips are open, the jaws are brought together, the teeth are visible. When pronouncing the sound [w], the wide tip of the tongue is raised to the palate, but does not touch it and does not vibrate. When pronouncing the sound [zh], the tongue is raised higher compared to [w]. Remember what spelling standards they are always hard, but before [and] semi-softened: runs -

run; souls - souls; tell me where the knives are.

Middle consonants

Articulatory norms of the middle linguistic consonant [and]

The consonant sonorant phoneme [i] functions in the Ukrainian language in two main allophones: [i], Ts].

Both allophones [i], [j] are pronounced in this position of the speech organs: the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate with its lateral edges, forming a rather narrow gap in the center through which a loud stream of air passes.

When the back of the tongue is maximally raised to the hard palate while maintaining the gap, the sound [j] appears. The sound C] appears in the following positions: 1) at the beginning of the composition (yama, youth, unity, her) 2) in the middle or at the end of a word after a consonant (knit, in "yun, in" is, feathers).

When the back of the tongue is raised to the hard palate, while maintaining a larger gap, the sound [i] appears, which is close to loud [i]. The sound [and] appears in the following positions: 1) at the beginning of a word before a consonant (probably went, go) 2) at the end of a word or syllable after a vowel (grove, nut, know, bike).

Rear consonants

Articulatory norms for back-lingual consonants [g], [k], [x]

When pronouncing closed [g], [k] with the back tongue, the back of the tongue closes with the soft palate. As a result of a sudden breakthrough of this cohesion by a stream of air, a specific noise is formed for the voiceless [k] and noise and voice for the voiced [g].

The posterior lingual fricative [x] has differences in pronunciation: the back of the back of the tongue approaches the posterior edge of the hard palate and the adjacent part of the soft palate, resulting in the formation of a gap through which a flow of air passes, which creates a characteristic noise.