Term vocabulary(gr. lexikos- verbal, dictionary) serves to designate vocabulary language. This term is also used in narrower meanings: to determine the totality of words used in one or another functional variety of the language ( bookstorevocabulary ), in a separate work ( vocabulary "Words about Igor's Campaign"); you can talk about the vocabulary of the writer ( vocabulary Pushkin) and even one person ( The speaker has a richvocabulary ).

Lexicology(gr. lexis- word + logos- doctrine) is a section of the science of language that studies vocabulary. Lexicology can be descriptive, or synchronous (gr. syn- together + chronos- time), then she explores the vocabulary of the language in its state of the art, and historical, or diachronic (gr. dia- through + chronos- time), then its subject is the development of the vocabulary of a given language.

The course of the modern Russian language deals with descriptive lexicology. The synchronous study of vocabulary involves the study of it as a system of interrelated and interdependent elements at the present time.

However, the synchronous system of language is not fixed and absolutely stable. There are always elements in it that are fading into the past; there are also just emerging, new ones. The coexistence of such heterogeneous elements in one synchronous section of the language testifies to its constant movement and development. Descriptive lexicology takes into account this dynamic balance of language, which is a unity of stable and moving elements.

The tasks of lexicology include the study of the meanings of words, their stylistic characteristics, the description of the sources of the formation of the lexical system, the analysis of the processes of its renewal and archaization. The object of consideration in this section of the course of the modern Russian language is the word as such. It should be noted that the word is in the field of view of other sections of the course. But word formation, for example, focuses on the laws and types of word formation, morphology is the grammatical doctrine of the word, and only lexicology studies words on their own and in a certain connection with each other.

The lexical system of the Russian language

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interrelated and interdependent units of the same level. Study of lexical system language reveals an interesting and many-sided picture of the life of words, connected with each other by various relationships and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - a lexico-phraseological system mother tongue.

Not a single word in the language exists separately, isolated from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes, which includes, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

Other lexical groups are formed on purely linguistic grounds. For example, the linguistic features of words make it possible to group them into parts of speech according to lexico-semantic and grammatical features.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language. In the most general terms, the systemic relations in it can be characterized as follows.

In the lexical system of the language, groups of words are distinguished, connected by a common (or opposite) meaning; similar (or opposed) stylistic properties; united common type word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive reserve vocabulary, etc. Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are unified in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, feature, action, etc.). Such systemic relations in groups of words united by a common feature are called paradigmatic(gr. paradeigma example, example).

Paradigmatic connections of words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is divided into many microsystems. The simplest of them are pairs of words connected by opposite meanings, i.e. antonyms. More complex microsystems are made up of words grouped based on similarity in meaning. They form synonymous rows, diverse thematic groups with a hierarchy of units, compared as specific and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words merge into extensive lexico-grammatical classes - parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic paradigms in each language are quite stable and are not subject to changes under the influence of the context. However, the semantics of specific words may reflect the features of the context, which also manifests itself system communications in vocabulary.

One of the manifestations of the systemic relations of words is their ability to connect with each other. Compatibility words is determined by their subject-semantic connections, grammatical properties, lexical features. For example, the word glass can be used in combination with words ball, glass; possible combinations glass jar (bottle, dishes), even glass saucepan (frying pan)- from fire-resistant glass. But impossible - "glass book", "glass patty" and so on, since the subject-semantic connections of these words exclude mutual compatibility. You can't link words either. glass and run, glass and far: this is opposed by their grammatical nature (an adjective cannot be combined with a verb, a circumstantial adverb). lexical feature the words glass is its ability to develop figurative meanings, which allows you to build phrases hairglass smoke(Es.), glass sight. Words that do not have this ability ( refractory, metal cutting and below), do not allow metaphorical use in speech. The possibilities of their compatibility `already.

Systemic connections, manifested in the patterns of combinations of words with each other, are called syntagmatic(gr. syntagma- something connected). They are revealed when words are combined, i.e. in certain lexical combinations. However, reflecting the connection between the meanings of words, and, consequently, their systemic connections in paradigms, syntagmatic relations are also determined by the lexical system of the language as a whole. The features of the compatibility of individual words largely depend on the context, therefore, syntagmatic connections, to a greater extent than paradigmatic ones, are subject to changes due to the content of speech. Thus, lexical syntagmatics reflects the change in realities (cf., for example, glass pan), expanding our understanding of the world around us ( walk on the moon), figurative energy of language ( glass smoke hair).

The systemic connections of words, the interaction of different meanings of one word and its relationship with other words are very diverse, which indicates the great expressive power of vocabulary. At the same time, we must not forget that the lexical system is integral part larger language system, in which certain relations of the semantic structure of the word and its formal grammatical features, phonetic features, as well as the dependence of the meaning of the word on paralinguistic(gr. para- about, near + linguistic, linguistic) and extralinguistic(lat. extra- over-, out- + linguistic) factors: facial expressions, gestures, intonation, functioning conditions, time of fixation in the language, etc.

The general language system and the lexical system, as its integral part, are identified and learned in speech practice, which, in turn, has an impact on changes in the language, contributing to its development and enrichment. The study of systemic relationships in vocabulary is necessary condition scientific description of the vocabulary of the Russian language. Decision theoretical problems gets direct access to practice both in compiling various dictionaries, and in developing literary and linguistic norms of word usage, and in analyzing the methods of individual authorial use of the expressive possibilities of a word in artistic speech.

Word in the lexical system

All words of the Russian language are included in its lexical system, and there are no words that would be outside it, perceived separately, in isolation. This obliges us to study words only in their systemic connections, as nominative units, one way or another. bound friend with a friend, close or identical in some respects, but in some ways opposite, dissimilar. The characterization of a word can be more or less complete only if its various systemic connections are established with other words that are included with it in certain lexico-semantic groups.

Take, for example, the adjective red. Its main meaning in modern Russian is "having the color of one of the primary colors of the spectrum that comes before orange", "the color of blood". In this meaning red synonymous with words like scarlet, crimson, crimson, red; it has no antonym. In MAC 1, the second meaning of this word is also given: red(only in full form) - "extreme left by political convictions": [Vlasich] liberal and counted in the countyred , but it also turns out to be boring for him(Ch.). In this case, the word is included in the synonymic series: red - left, radical; has antonyms: right, conservative. The third meaning is relatively recent: "pertaining to revolutionary activity", "associated with the Soviet system": Shortly before this, the Whites were driven out of Krasnovodskred parts(Paust.). The synonymic relations of words also change: red - revolutionary, Bolshevik, and antonyms: white - white guard - counter-revolutionary.

The fourth meaning of the word (like all subsequent ones) is given with a stylistic mark: outdated poetic - "good, beautiful, beautiful": Notred hut corners, andred pies. It is in this sense that this word appears in combination Red Square(the name of the square was given in the 16th century.) The fifth meaning - folk poetic: "clear, bright, light" - is preserved in combinations red sun, spring-red: Oh, summerred ! I would love you if it were not for the heat, yes dust, yes mosquitoes, yes flies(P.). Both the fourth and fifth meanings in the dictionary are interpreted with the help of synonyms; you can also name antonyms for them 1) ugly, plain, unsightly; 2) pale, colorless, dull.

The sixth meaning appears only in the full form of the adjective and is given with the obsolete mark - "ceremonial, honorary" - red porch. In our time, it has become significantly archaic and therefore is not perceived surrounded by synonyms and antonyms, but retains its meaning only in stable combinations red injection- "the corner in the hut where the icons hang." So the semantics of the word (gr. sema- sign) determines its place in the lexical system of the language.

One and the same word, characterized by different features, can be assigned to several structural-semantic categories. So, red is on a par with the words naming colors ( yellow, blue, green), and belongs to the category quality adjectives. The proximity of meanings allows us to build the following word-building series: red, red, reddish, redness, blush; paint, paint, beautiful, decorate, beauty. Relationships of words of this kind are called derivational(lat. derivatio- withdrawal, withdrawal). Derivational relations connect single-root words, as well as those that have a common historical root. These words also reflect the associative convergence of words.

The original Russian nature of the word red combines it with other non-borrowed words (as opposed to foreign words in origin). The ability to use in any style of speech gives reason to attribute the word red in its main meaning to interstyle neutral vocabulary, while in the last three meanings (see above) this word belongs to certain stylistic groups of vocabulary: obsolete, poetic, folk poetic and archaic.

There are many stable phrases of a terminological nature in which this word becomes special: red line,red tie.

The combination of words can be based on denotative connections (lat. denotare- designate), since all words denote a particular concept. Concepts, objects (or denotations) themselves suggest their grouping. In this case, the basis for the allocation of lexical groups are non-linguistic characteristics; words denoting, for example, colors, taste sensations (sour, bitter, salty, sweet), sound intensity ( loud, quiet, muffled, shrill) etc.

Another basis for identifying systemic relationships of words is their connotative meanings (lat. cum/con- together + notare- mark), i.e. those additional values ​​that reflect the assessment of the relevant concepts - positive or negative. On this basis, you can combine, for example, the words solemn, high ( sing, imperishable, stain, sacred), lowered, playful ( faithful, goof off, uncover), affectionate, diminutive ( sweetheart, sweetheart, baby), etc. Such a division is based on linguistic and stylistic features.

According to the sphere of use, words are divided into groups that reflect their distribution in a limited area and consolidation in a particular dialect, professional use by representatives of a certain type of activity, etc. Significant layers of vocabulary are opposed by its active or passive role in the language: some words in our time is almost never used (they are forgotten or not mastered enough), others are constantly used in speech; compare: mouth, cheeks, persi, forehead - lips, cheeks, chest, forehead.

Thus, the study of the lexical system of a language reveals the multidimensional and diverse life of words. Their systemic connections imprinted the history of the language and the people themselves. The development and interaction of the meanings of a word and its relationship with other words deserve the most serious study. It can be carried out in several directions.

1. Within a single word - analysis of its meaning (or meanings), identification of new shades of meanings, their development (up to a complete break and the formation of new words).

2. Within the vocabulary - combining words into groups based on common and opposite features, description different types semantic links(synonyms, antonyms, etc.).

3. Within the general language system - the study of the dependence of the semantic structure of a word on grammatical features, phonetic changes, linguistic and non-linguistic factors.

Question 1

Lexicology as a science of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Sections of lexicology

Lexicology - from the Greek. leksis, leksicos - word, expression; logos - teaching. This science considers the vocabulary (lexical) composition of the language in different aspects. Lexicology considers the vocabulary of a language (lexicon) from the point of view of what a word is, how and what it expresses, how it changes. Phraseology adjoins lexicology, which is often included in lexicology as a special section.

Lexicology is divided into general, particular, historical and comparative. The first, called in English general lexicology, is a section general linguistics who study the vocabulary of any language, what belongs to lexical universals. General lexicology deals with the general laws of the structure of the lexical system, the issues of the functioning and development of the vocabulary of the languages ​​of the world.

Private lexicology studies vocabulary specific language. Private lexicology (special lexicology) deals with the study of issues related to the vocabulary of one, in our case English, language. So, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while particular lexicology will deal with the features of English synonyms or antonyms.

Both general and particular problems of vocabulary can be analyzed in various aspects. First of all, any phenomenon can be approached from a synchronic or diachronic point of view. The synchronic approach assumes that the characteristics of the word are considered within certain period or any one historical stage of their development. Such a study of vocabulary is also called descriptive, or descriptive (English, descriptive lexicology). Diachronic, or historical, lexicology (historical lexicology) deals with the study of the historical development of the meanings and structure of words.

Contrastive lexicology is engaged in comparing the lexical phenomena of one language with the facts of another or other languages. The purpose of such studies is to trace the ways of intersection or divergence of lexical phenomena characteristic of the languages ​​chosen for comparison.

Historical lexicology traces changes in the meanings (semantics) of a single word or a whole group of words, and also explores changes in the names of objects of reality (see below for etymology). Comparative lexicology reveals similarities and differences in articulation objective reality lexical means different languages. Both individual words and groups of words can be matched.

Main tasks lexicology are:

*) definition of a word as a meaningful unit vocabulary ;

*) a characteristic of the lexico-semantic system, that is, the identification of internal organization language units and analysis of their connections (the semantic structure of the word, the specifics of distinctive semantic features, the patterns of its relations with other words, etc.).

The subject of lexicology, as follows from the very name of this science, is the word.

Sections of lexicology:

Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of the language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of the language, methods of nomination.

Semasiology - studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types lexical meanings, the semantic structure of the lexeme.

Phraseology - studies phraseological units.

Onomastics is the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.

Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.

Lexicography - deals with the compilation and study of dictionaries. It is also often referred to as applied lexicology.

The concept of the term "modern Russian literary language".

Traditionally, the Russian language has been modern since the time of A. S. Pushkin. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of the Russian national language and the literary Russian language. The national language is the language of the Russian people, it covers all spheres of speech activity of people. In contrast, literary language is a narrower concept. Literary language is the highest form of language existence, exemplary language. This is a strictly standardized form of the national national language. The literary language is understood as the language processed by masters of the word, scientists, public figures.

Question 2

The word is the basic unit of language. Word signs. Definition of a word. Word types. Word functions

The word is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to each language. Characteristic features words - integrity, separability and free reproducibility in speech.

Given the complexity of the multidimensional structure the words, modern researchers, when characterizing it, use a multidimensional analysis, point to the sum of a variety of linguistic features:

phonetic (or phonemic) formality and the presence of one main stress;

lexico-semantic significance the words, its separateness and impermeability (the impossibility of additional inserts inside the words without changing its value)

idiomatic (otherwise - unpredictability, unmotivated naming or its incomplete motivation);

related to certain parts of speech.

In the modern lexicology of the Russian language, the brief definition proposed by D. N. Shmelev seems to be quite motivated: word- this is a unit of name, characterized by a complete design (phonetic and grammatical) and idiomatic.

There are several types of words. According to the method of nomination, four types of words are distinguished: independent, functional, pronominal, interjections.

According to the phonetic feature, words are distinguished: single-stressed, unstressed, multi-stressed, complex.

According to the morphological feature, words are distinguished: changeable, unchangeable, simple, derivative, complex.

By motivation: unmotivated and motivated.

According to the semantic-grammatical feature, words are grouped into parts of speech.

From the point of view of structural integrity, words are distinguished as integral and segmented.

In the semantic sense, words are single-valued and polysemantic, absolute and relative, requiring an addition and transitive verbs. In a sentence, the word enters into subtle semantic relationships with other words and elements of the composition of the sentence (intonation, word order, syntactic functions).

WORD FUNCTIONS

communicative function

nominative function

aesthetic function

language function

communication function

message function

impact function

IMPACT FUNCTION. Its implementation is a voluntarily function, i.e. expression of the will of the speaker; the function is escresive, i.e. messages to the statement of expressiveness; emotive function, i.e. expression of feelings, emotions.

COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of communication and communication;

NOMINATIVE FUNCTION. The appointment of the word to serve as the name of the subject;

COMMUNICATION FUNCTION. The main function of the language, one of the sides of the communicative function, which consists in the mutual exchange of statements of members of the language community.

MESSAGE FUNCTION. The other side of the communicative function, which consists in the transfer of some logical content;

AESTHETIC FUNCTION. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of artistic expression;

FUNCTION OF THE LANGUAGE. The use of potential properties of language means in speech for various purposes.

Question 3

The lexical meaning of the word. Lexical Meaning Structure

Lexical meaning - the correlation of the sound shell of the word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. The lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another. The lexical meaning reveals the signs by which general properties for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes differences that distinguish a given object, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: "African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs”, that is, those signs that distinguish a giraffe from other animals are listed.

Question 4

Lexical value types

Comparison of various words and their meanings makes it possible to single out several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

According to the method of nomination, direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.

*) The direct (or main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the words table, black, boil have the following basic meanings, respectively:

1. "A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs."

2. "Colors of soot, coal."

3. "Bubbling, bubbling, evaporating from strong heat" (about liquids).

These values ​​are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language meant "throne", "reign", "capital".

The direct meanings of words less than all others depend on the context, on the nature of the connections with other words. Therefore, direct meanings are said to have the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the least syntagmatic coherence.

*) Portable (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.

Active dictionary. The part of the vocabulary of a language that is most actively used in speech.

Antonymy. Relationships of semantically opposite but related units (sememes) formally expressed by different lexemes.

Antonyms. Words in the same part of speech that are opposite in meaning.

Anthroponym. Name of a person (personal name, patronymic, surname, nickname, pseudonym).

Anthroponymy. A branch of onomastics that studies anthroponyms.

Argo. The language of individual social groups (professional, youth, criminal).

Argotisms. Vocabulary, socially limited in use: words or expressions from slang.

Archaisms. Part of the passive vocabulary: obsolete vocabulary, displaced from active use synonyms.

Archisema. Generic, main seme (in component analysis).

Aphorism. A stable saying (winged words, proverbs, sayings).

Non-equivalent vocabulary. Words that name realities that are absent in other cultures; non-translatable vocabulary; the same as exotics.

word valency. The ability of a word to combine with other words.

Barbarism. Undeveloped lexical borrowing (word or expression).

Word options. Formal (phonetic and grammatical variants) or semantic (lexico-semantic variants) varieties of the same word.

Phraseology options. Phraseologisms with a variable composition of components.

internal form of the word. Method of motivating the meaning of a word: motivated connection of sound and meaning (etymology, etymologization).

East Slavic vocabulary. Native vocabulary common to East Slavic languages ​​(Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian).

Hypernym. Generic word in relation to specific.

Hyponymy. Paradigmatic semantic relations of inclusion (genus and species, hyper-hyponymic) between semes, formally expressed by different lexemes.

Hyponyms. Words that are in hyper-hyponymic (generic) relationships.

The grammatical structure of the word. Formal (in the form of word forms) expression of a word, its grammatical meanings.

Grammar variants of the word. Formal grammatical modifications of the word (inflectional, morphological or formative).

grammatical meaning. Component of the semantics of a word: a generalized meaning, additional to the lexical one, expressing various relationships (to a person, number, type, tense, etc.), formally expressed by a word form (grammatical form of a word); semantic differences between word forms.

Deixis. Indicative (deictic) function of the word.

Deictic vocabulary. Words that perform a demonstrative function (deixis).

Denotation. The object of reality, denoted by the word.

denotative meaning. The component of the lexical meaning: the relation of the word to the designated object (denotation) as a class.

Derivatives. Derived words (or meanings); words (or meanings) that are in a relationship of word-formation or semantic derivation.

Derivation. The relation of formal or semantic derivative of words; formation of new words and meanings.

Definition. Word definition, dictionary interpretation.

Deetymologization. Loss of a motivated connection between sound and meaning (the inner form of the word).

Dialect. Territorial variety of language, dialect.

Dialectisms. Vocabulary, territorially limited in use; words from any dialect (dialect), dialect vocabulary.

dialect dictionaries. Type of explanatory dictionaries: dictionaries describing the vocabulary of any dialect.

disjunctive opposition. Semantic (or formal) opposition of discrepancy between the plan of content (or plan of expression) of words.

Differential Semes. Distinctive (vs. integral) or specific (vs. generic) semes in component analysis.

Dominant. The main word of the synonymic series, stylistically neutral and the most capacious in meaning.

Doublets. Absolute (full) synonyms.

Jargon. social variety speech, slang.

Jargon. The words jargon, argotism.

Borrowing. A word or expression adopted from another language.

Significant words. Words that perform a nominative function and have an independent lexical meaning.

Meaning of the word. The plan of the content of the word, semantics (lexical and grammatical): the meaning contained in the word, the content associated with the concept as a reflection in the mind of objects and phenomena (signs, actions, relations) of the objective world.

ideographic synonyms. conceptual, incomplete synonyms: different shades of meaning.

Ideographic dictionary. Linguistic Dictionary describing vocabulary by systematized (thematic) groups; the same as the thematic dictionary.

Idiolect. Individual style individual native speaker.

Idiom. Phraseologism, usually unmotivated; the same as phraseological fusion.

Idiomatic. Unmotivated connection between the plan of expression and the plan of the content of the word (sound and meaning)

Invariant. A language unit abstracted from specific implementations (variants) (phoneme, morpheme, lexeme).

Foreign vocabulary. Words borrowed from another language.

Integral Semes. Identical, coinciding semes (vs. differential in component analysis) in the meanings of different words, uniting them into lexico-semantic groups.

International vocabulary. Words of common origin that function in at least three non-closely related languages.

Original vocabulary. Words originating in material base own language (as opposed to borrowings).

Historicisms. Part of the passive vocabulary: obsolete vocabulary that has gone out of use along with the designated realities; outdated concepts.

Historical dictionary. A dictionary describing the history of words in a diachronic aspect.

Tracing paper. The word (or meaning) of the native language, created on the model of a foreign language.

Tracing. Borrowing a foreign language model for the formation of a new word (word-building tracing paper) or meaning (semantic tracing paper).

Stationery. Vocabulary formal business style; stationery stamps, cliches.

Picture of the world. Man's conception of the world.

categorical value. Component of the semantics of a word: a generalized meaning (abstracted from a specific lexical one) of words belonging to one part of speech; semantic differences between lexico-grammatical categories (parts of speech).

Quazantonyms. Incomplete, inaccurate antonyms.

Quasi-synonyms. Incomplete, inaccurate synonyms.

Book vocabulary. Vocabulary of book styles of speech (scientific, journalistic, official business).

Component analysis. Dividing the lexical meaning into smaller units of meaning - semes (generic and specific, distinctive), or semantic factors.

Convertibles. Words that call the same thing, but with different point perspectives that are inversely related.

Conversion. Semantically inverse relations of units (sememes) denoting one situation, formally expressed by different lexemes.

Connotation. Additional (to the lexical) semantic, evaluative, expressive. or stylistic shades of meaning.

Structurally-conditioned meaning. A meaning whose implementation in speech is possible only in a certain syntactic construction.

Context. Verbal environment: a segment of speech that makes it possible to accurately establish the meaning of a word.

Culture concept. Element of the conceptual picture of the world: a single concept (usually abstract), especially important for a given culture.

Conceptual picture of the world. Reflection of the real picture of the world through the prism of concepts and ideas of a person as a representative of a certain culture; conceptual, cultural picture of the world.

Winged words. Stable sayings that entered the language from certain literary sources.

lexeme. Invariant unit lexical level language: the totality of all variants of a word, its forms and meanings; unit of the expression plan (as opposed to sememe, semanteme).

Vocabulary. The vocabulary of the language (or part of it).

Lexicalization. The transformation of a combination of words into a stable phrase that functions as an equivalent of a single word.

Lexico-grammatical relation of the word. The relation of a word to a certain part of speech (part-of-speech relation).

Lexicography. A section of linguistics that deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.

Lexicology. Section of linguistics, the subject of which is the word (lexicon) in semantic, systemic and functional aspects.

Lexico-semantic group (LSG). A relatively closed series of lexical units united by the identity of the archiseme.

Lexico-semantic variant (LSV). A word in one of its lexical meanings.

lexical category. The unity of the generalized lexical meaning and relevant forms its expression characterizing a certain class of lexical units (polysemy, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, conversion, homonymy, paronymy).

Lexical system. A hierarchically organized (paradigmatically and syntagmatically) set of interrelated and interdependent lexical units.

Lexical compatibility. Compatibility of words, due to their lexical meaning.

The lexically associated value. A meaning that can only be realized in combination with the words of a certain group.

Lexical meaning (LZ). Component of the semantics of the word: individual subject-conceptual content of the word; semantic differences between words.

Interstyle vocabulary. The same as neutral: vocabulary that is used in any style, not stylistically colored.

Metaphor. The use of a word in a figurative sense based on similarity; hidden comparison.

metaphorical transfer. Type of semantic derivation: transfer based on similarity.

metonymic transfer. Type of semantic derivation: transfer based on adjacency.

Metonymy. The use of the name of one object instead of the name of another based on adjacency.

Polysemy. The presence of a word with several interconnected lexical meanings that have arisen as a result of semantic derivation.

Modality. Word function: an expression of the speaker's attitude to the reported, characteristic of a certain category of words - modal words.

modal words. Lexico-grammatical category (class) of words expressing the attitude of the speaker to the reported (reality, probability, doubt, etc.).

Monosemia. The same as unambiguity.

Morphologically related meaning. A meaning that can only be realized in a certain grammatical form of a word.

Motivated word. A word with a derived stem or a clear internal form.

Word motivation. Motivated connection between meaning and name (indication of why given value expressed by this combination of sounds); motivating sign (a sign underlying the name); internal form the words.

The naming function of the word. Same as nominative.

National-cultural component. A component of the semantics of a word that reflects national-cultural knowledge and concepts, connotations, revealed in comparison with other languages.

Neutral vocabulary. Same as interstitial.

Neologisms. Vocabulary of the passive dictionary: new words, meanings, phrases that have not yet become widely used.

Incomplete vocabulary. Vocabulary that does not completely coincide in semantics with the corresponding words of another language, differing in background knowledge.

The nominative function of the word. The main function of the word: the ability to be the name of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

Nomination. The process (and result) of naming: the formation of language units that perform a nominative function.

Normative dictionary. Dictionary of the literary language.

Zero opposition. In paradigmatics - the relation of identity, coincidence of the plan of content (or plan of expression) of lexical units.

Regional dictionary. The same as the dialect dictionary.

Common Slavic vocabulary. Words inherited by the Old Russian language (and other Slavic languages) from the base language (Proto-Slavic).

Common vocabulary. Vocabulary, the use of which is not limited to any area (social, professional or territorial use).

Coloring. Additional shades of meaning that are superimposed on the main, subject-conceptual meaning of the word and perform an emotional-expressive or evaluative function.

Homographs. Graphic homonyms: words that coincide in spelling, but differ in pronunciation (stress).

Homonymy. Semantic relations of unrelated semes, formally expressed by identical lexemes.

Homonyms. Words of the same part of speech that have the same spelling and sound, but different meanings.

Homophones. Words that sound the same but are spelled differently.

Homoforms. Words that match only in separate forms.

Onomasiology. A branch of linguistics that studies nomination (from meaning to sign, denomination), systemic connections of words united by a common component of meaning.

Onomastics. Section of lexicology devoted to the study of proper names (anthroponyms and toponyms).

Onomathema. The word as an element of the lexical system.

Opposition. The opposition of two lexical units, revealing differences in terms of content (semantic opposition) and / or in terms of expression (formal opposition).

The main meaning of the word. The most common meaning, not contextually determined.

Basic vocabulary. Lexical base of the language: primitives, most common words language.

Hue of value. Meaning that has not taken shape as an independent one (use); a separate feature, a component of lexical meaning.

Paradigmatics. Systemic relations between words based on oppositions (identities, oppositions, intersections, mismatches, inclusions), semantic or formal.

Paremiology. A branch of linguistics (or phraseology) that studies proverbs.

Paremia. A stable expression that has a complete meaning (unlike a phraseological unit), which has the character of a whole statement (proverb or saying).

Paronymy. Semantic relations of close but not identical semes, formally expressed by close but not identical lexemes.

Paronyms. Words with the same root that are similar in sound but different or similar in meaning.

passive dictionary. Words that are rarely used in speech due to the fact that they have either already gone out of use (going out) or have not yet come into use (outdated or new).

Transfer. A method of semantic derivation, which consists in transferring a name from one concept to another based on their similarity (metaphor) or contiguity (metonymy).

Figurative meaning. A secondary, derived meaning, which (unlike the direct one) is indirectly connected with the named object, by means of comparison with another object.

Word expression plan. The formal side of the word as a two-sided unit of the language: phonetic and grammatical formation.

Proverb. A figurative allegorical expression, laconic in form, not containing (unlike a proverb) an instructive meaning, often syntactically incomplete.

Word position. Relations between lexical units in the syntagmatic (linear) series, in the context.

Polysemy. Semantic relations of close, but not identical, sememes, expressed by the forms of one lexeme; the same as polysemy.

Litter. Lexicographic (dictionary) indication, usually in the form of an accepted abbreviation, for semantic, stylistic, grammatical, etc. characterization of the word.

Proverb. A kind of proverb, a figurative finished saying of an edifying nature.

Potential seed. A seme that is not relevant (and therefore not reflected in the interpretation of the meaning), but which can be updated in stable combinations, figurative meanings etc.

Pragmatics. An aspect of semantics that takes into account the expression in the word of the speaker's relationship to the named object.

Predicative-characterizing value. The same as syntactically conditioned: a meaning that is usually realized only in a predicative or semi-predicative function (predicate, address, application) and contains evaluative connotation, more often negative, less often positive.

private opposition. In paradigmatics, the relation of inclusion (genus and species, part and whole) of the content plan or the plan of expression of lexical units.

Derived value. A secondary meaning resulting from semantic derivation motivated by a primary meaning.

vernacular. A socially conditioned variety of the Russian language, in which means are realized that are outside the literary norm inherent in mass urban speech.

Spacious vocabulary. Vocabulary with reduced stylistic and expressive coloring, characterized by a touch of rudeness.

Professional vocabulary. Vocabulary characteristic of a particular professional group, used in the speech of people united by a common profession.

direct meaning. The meaning of the word, which (unlike the figurative) is directly, directly related to the called object.

Spoken vocabulary. Words used in casual conversation, characteristic of everyday (mainly oral), everyday speech; colloquial vocabulary.

Value expansion. Method of semantic derivation: change (increase) in the scope of the concept - from specific to generic.

Referent. Same as denotation; the subject of thought that the speaker has in mind.

The autonomy of the word. The ability of a word to be used independently, as a separate language unit, in speech.

Free value. The meaning of a word that is not limited by lexical and grammatical compatibility.

Associated value. The meaning of the word, determined by the context (lexically related), stable turnover (phraseologically related), grammatical form (morphologically related), grammatical construction(by design) or syntactic function(syntactically conditioned).

Sema. In component analysis - the minimum unit of content, lexical meaning, usually corresponding to some attribute of the named object.

Semanteme. A unit of content plan, the entire content of a word (lexeme).

Semantics. The semantic side (content plan) of any significant language unit (morphemes, lexemes, phrases, sentences).

semantic derivation. The formation of new meanings for the word.

Semantic structure of the word. The semantic structure of a word from the point of view of its semantic components (meanings, semes).

semantic field. A hierarchical system of many lexical units united by a common meaning; a set of words and expressions that form a thematic series.

Semasiology. A branch of linguistics that studies the semantic side of language units, semantics (from sign to meaning).

Sememe. Content plan unit: one of the meanings of the word (lexico-semantic variant).

Significat. The conceptual content of the word.

Significant value. The component of the lexical meaning: the connection of the word with the designated concept, significat, conceptual meaning.

Synecdoche. A kind of metonymy: transfer based on the adjacency of the whole and part of the whole.

Synonymous line. A series of words connected by synonymy relations, headed by a dominant.

Synonymy. Semantic relations of identical or extremely close semes, formally expressed by different lexemes.

Synonyms. Words of one part of speech, extremely close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing in shades of meaning (conceptual, or ideographic synonyms) or use in speech, expressive and stylistic coloring (expressive-stylistic synonyms).

Syntagma. Word as a component of a phrase.

Syntagmatics. Relationships between syntagms.

Syntactically defined meaning. A meaning that is realized only in a certain syntactic function of a word, usually a predicate.

Slavisms. The same as the old Slavs.

Slang. Words and expressions used by persons of a certain profession or social group; the same as jargon.

Dictionary entry. Part of the dictionary devoted to the characteristics of one language unit, introduced by the heading word.

The vocabulary of the language. The whole set of words and phraseological units of the language.

Vocabulary. Systematized collection of words with linguistic commentary.

Word. The main minimum independent significant nominative unit of the language, which has a solid form and idiomaticity.

Word usage. The choice and use of words in speech.

Word form. A word in a separate grammatical form.

Service function. The function of expressing various relations called significant words, performed by auxiliary words (conjunctions, particles, prepositions), in contrast to significant words.

Meaning. The meaning that the word receives in a given speech situation.

The semantic structure of the word. The same as the semantic structure of the word.

Old Church Slavonicisms. Words borrowed by the Old Russian language from the Old Slavonic language.

Stylistic coloration of the word. The use of a word in a specific functional style(bookish or colloquial).

Structural meaning. A formal characteristic of the lexical meaning, its structure, determined by the paradigmatic and syntagmatic connections of the word.

Narrowing the meaning. Method of semantic derivation: change (reduction) in the scope of the concept - from generic to specific.

Thematic group. group of words different parts speeches united by a common theme.

Term. A word or phrase denoting a specific scientific concept.

Terminology. The set of terms of a certain field of knowledge.

Dictionary. A linguistic dictionary in which the meanings of words (and phraseological units) are explained and interpreted.

Toponym. Name of a certain geographical feature: water (hydronym), relief (oronym), settlement (oikonym), etc.

Toponymy. A section of onomastics devoted to the study of toponyms.

Outdated vocabulary. Vocabulary of the passive dictionary: obsolete words (archaisms and historicisms).

optional seme. Irrelevant, non-main seme, usually not reflected in the interpretation of the lexical meaning.

Optional component of a phraseological unit. Optional component phraseological unit, which can be omitted in speech.

phonetic form of the word. The sound form of the word.

Phraseologism. The same as the phraseological unit.

phraseological unit. Lexically indivisible, semantically integral, stable in its composition and structure, a separate unit of language, reproduced in speech.

Phraseologically related meaning of the word. Meaning, the realization of which is possible only as part of a stable phraseological combination.

Phrasebook. Dictionary describing and explaining phraseological units.

phraseological expression. A stable semantically divisible turnover, reproduced in speech.

phraseological unity. A type of phraseological unit, the figurative meaning of which is partially motivated by its constituent components.

phraseological combination. A type of motivated phraseological unit, which includes a component with a phraseologically related meaning.

Phraseological fusion. A type of phraseological unit, the meaning of which is not derived from the meaning of its constituent components; idiom.

Phraseology. A branch of linguistics that studies phraseological units.

word function. The role played by the word in language and speech, its purpose.

The completeness of the word. The inseparability, impenetrability of the word, the impossibility of inserting other units into it or rearranging them (as opposed to separately formed phrases and phraseological units).

Frequency Dictionary. Dictionary leading numerical characteristics the use of words in speech.

Equivalent opposition. In paradigmatics: the relation of intersection, partial coincidence of words in terms of content or expression.

Exoticisms. Words and expressions borrowed from other languages ​​and denoting exotic realities alien to Russian culture.

expressive vocabulary. Expressive-stylistic words.

Expressive coloring. Connotations expressing affection, irony, disapproval, disdain, familiarity, etc.

Emotive vocabulary. Interjection words that do not name any emotions, feelings, but only signal them.

Emotional coloring. The same as expressive coloring.

Enantiosemy. Expression of opposites, antonyms of meanings in the same word.

Etymological dictionary. A dictionary that explains the origin of words.

Etymology. Branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words and meanings; origin of the word; etymological meaning, internal form of the word.

Ethnographism. Type of dialectism: the name of the realia existing in a certain territory.

Linguistic picture of the world. A certain, usually everyday, "naive" (unscientific) view of the world, expressed language means(primarily lexical).

linguistic personality. Any native speaker who expresses in his dictionary and his speech (discourse) a certain vision of the surrounding reality (pictures of the world).

Lexicology (from the Greek lexikós ‘related to the word’ (lexis - ‘word’) and logos ‘word, teaching’) is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary (vocabulary) of a language and the word as a unit of vocabulary. One of the main tasks of lexicology is the study of the meanings of words and phraseological units, the study of polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and other relationships between the meanings of words. The scope of lexicology also includes changes in the vocabulary of the language, reflection in the vocabulary of social, territorial, professional characteristics of people who speak the language (they are usually called native speakers). Within the framework of lexicology, layers of words are studied, distinguished for various reasons: by origin (original and borrowed vocabulary), by historical perspective ( obsolete words and neologisms), according to the sphere of use (national, special, colloquial, etc.), according to stylistic coloring(interstyle and stylistically colored vocabulary).

Lexicology as the science of the word, its meaning and the vocabulary of the language

Vocabulary is a set of words of a language, its vocabulary (lexical) composition. Sometimes this term is used in a narrower sense - in relation to individual layers of the vocabulary ( obsolete vocabulary, socio-political vocabulary, Pushkin's vocabulary etc.). The basic unit of vocabulary is the word.

Vocabulary is directly addressed to reality, therefore it is very mobile, greatly changes its composition under the influence of external factors. The emergence of new realities (objects and phenomena), the disappearance of old ones leads to the appearance or disappearance of the corresponding words, a change in their meanings. Lexical units do not suddenly disappear. They can be preserved in the language for a long time as obsolete or obsolete words (historicisms, archaisms). New words ( neologisms), having become commonly used, entrenched in the language, lose their novelty property. The vocabulary of the national language always interacts with the vocabulary of other languages ​​- this is how borrowings appear. Vocabulary changes happen all the time, so exact amount It is fundamentally impossible to count all the words of a language.

The vocabulary reflects social, professional, age differences within the language community. In accordance with this, various layers of words are distinguished. Various social and professional associations of people along with commonly used use vocabulary in communication limited use . For example, in the speech of students you can often hear words related to student jargon, people of one profession use a specific word for this profession. special vocabulary- terms and professionalism. In the speech of a person who speaks a literary language, features of one of the Russian dialects may appear (dialects themselves, or dialects, are studied by the science of dialectology). Such inclusions qualify as dialectisms. Each language has groups of words with different stylistic characteristics. Stylistically neutral words can be used in any style of speech and form the basis of the vocabulary. Stylistically colored words stand out against their background - they can belong to the "high" or "low" style, they can be limited certain types speech, conditions speech communication(scientific, official business, book vocabulary etc.).

The subject of our study is the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language. AT broad sense the modern language is considered from Pushkin to the present day, in the narrow one - its lower limit is pushed back to the middle of the 20th century.

The definition of "literary" also requires clarification. Literary language should not be confused with the language of literature. The concept of "Russian literary language" is opposed to the concept of "national (national) Russian language". AT national (national) vocabulary includes all the above vocabulary layers (including dialects, vernacular, jargon). The basis of the literary language is literary vocabulary and phraseology, beyond its scope are vernacular, jargon, dialect words. The literary language is characterized by normalization and codification, that is, the written legitimacy of this norm, which is fixed in normative dictionaries and reference books. The peculiarity of the literary language in general and its vocabulary in particular is that it is not assigned to any limited (territorially, socially, professionally) group of people or a situation of communication. Therefore, the literary language is not just one of constituent parts national language, but the highest form of its existence.

In the dictionary of native speakers, there are active and passive vocabulary. Active vocabulary includes words that we know and use. To the passive - words that we know, but do not use in our speech.

With all the diversity and multiplicity of composition, permeability, mobility, internal heterogeneity of the lexical level of the language, it is a well-organized system. The concept of "systematic vocabulary" includes two interrelated aspects. Firstly, vocabulary is included in the general system of the language, correlates with phonetics, morphemics, word formation, morphology, and syntax. Secondly, consistency is inherent in vocabulary and from the point of view of its internal organization. Words are combined into different groups depending on their meaning. So, combinations of words can be distinguished based on semantic similarities and differences - antonymic pairs, synonymous rows. A complex microsystem is polysemantic word. On the basis of a common semantic component, words are combined into groups: for example, the words lake, river, stream, canal, pond, etc. form a group of words with a common meaning ‘reservoir’.

Thus, the meanings of words form a system within a single word (polysemy), within the vocabulary as a whole (synonymy, antonymy), within the entire language system (links of vocabulary with other levels of the language). The specifics of the lexical level of the language are the orientation of the vocabulary to reality (sociality), the permeability of the system formed by words, its mobility, and the impossibility of an accurate calculation of lexical units associated with this.

Word

The word is studied in different sections of linguistics, as it has a sound design, meaning, grammatical characteristics, that is, it combines the features of different aspects of the language. In lexicology, the word is considered primarily as an independent linguistic unit that has a meaning.

The main features of the word- grammatical formality, impenetrability (phonetic formalization), phraseological meaning.

Grammar is that the word, in contrast to the morpheme, is characterized as a certain part of speech with the corresponding grammatical features.
impenetrability(phonetic formalization) consists in the fact that a word, unlike a phrase, is such a sound complex, inside which another word cannot be inserted, parts of this complex (morphemes, syllables) cannot be arbitrarily interchanged. In addition, this sound complex can usually be limited to pauses of any length and has one accent.

Phraseological meaning lies in the fact that the meaning of a word is not the sum of the meanings of its parts - morphemes (like phraseological units, the meanings of which also do not add up to the meanings of their constituent components - words, for example, make an elephant out of a fly). Thus, the meanings of derived words usually include not only the meanings of the morphemes that make up the word, but also the so-called "incremented" meaning components that do not have a formal expression. For example, in the meaning of the word waterfall there is a semantic component ‘water fall’, but a waterfall is not any fall of water, the meaning of the word is not limited to this meaning. The word plantain does not mean everything that is located along the edges of the roads, but only a certain type of plant - an insignificant, peripheral feature is fixed in morphemes, and the central component of the meaning ‘plant’ is not formally expressed. The words bruise, white hare are similar in structure, but their meanings ‘bruise’ and ‘hare’ are not deducible from the meanings of morphemes. For non-derivative words phraseological meaning can be understood as unpredictability, unmotivated meaning of a word by its external form.

All native speakers usually easily isolate words in the flow of speech, they are aware of them as independent, separate language units. Despite this, it is not easy to define a word, because it is impossible to do this based on any one of its properties: the word is both a phonetic whole and a unit that has meaning - lexical and grammatical, in a sentence it has a syntactic function, and also a whole a number of diverse features.

The problem of isolating and defining a word as a unit of language has two aspects. Firstly, it must be separated from other significant linguistic units, to draw a line, on the one hand, between a word and a morpheme, on the other hand, between a word and a combination of words, that is, to resolve the issue of separateness, separability of a word in a speech chain. Secondly, it is necessary to solve the problem of the identity (unity) of the word: to delimit inflection from word formation and polysemy from homonymy. So, with inflection and polysemy, the identity of the word is not violated: different grammatical forms, or word forms ( home, home, home, home, home, home), as well as different meanings of the word, make up one word. In cases of word formation and homonymy, the identity of the word is violated: new words are produced during word formation ( house, house, little house, brownie, home), different words are homonyms - words that coincide in sound and spelling and differ significantly in meaning. It is also necessary to take into account the presence of spelling, phonetic, derivational variants of words ( piano - piano, zero - zero, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, tourist - tourist).

The difficulty of defining a word lies not in the indefiniteness of the word, but in its versatility. The definition of a word is possible if we recognize the presence of intermediate, transitional phenomena in the language, the factor of systemicity is also important: in some cases, the selection of a word is possible only if it is taken into account.

For example, with no one is traditionally considered a combination of two words - a single, albeit segmented, word form of a pronoun with a preposition. On the one hand, it is written with no one "in three words", that is, with two spaces, but on the other hand, it clearly correlates with other forms of the instrumental case ( no one, no one) and with the pronoun no one. The latter is a systemic factor and is decisive in recognizing the combination of two words with no one.

Summarizing the above, we can give the following definition: the word is the basic unit of the language, which serves to designate (name) objects, signs, relations of reality, while it is characterized by a combination of grammatical, phonetic and semantic signs. The word can be represented in the language by a set of word forms and meanings, consists of morphemes, from which it differs in independence and free reproducibility in speech, is building material for a sentence, in contrast to which it is not a complete statement.

Meaning of the word

The word is a two-way unity: it combines form (a certain sound or letter complex) and meaning. A sound or letter sequence becomes a word only when it acquires a meaning.

Distinguish between lexical and grammatical meaning. The Russian language is characterized by their combination in one word. The lexical meaning is individual and, together with the sound shell of the word, delimits it from other words.

Grammatical meanings- generalized language values ​​that characterize a word as an element of a certain class (part of speech), in contrast to the lexical meaning, they are mandatory for all words of this class, have a regular expression: a set of opposed repeating grammatical forms. So, for example, the meanings of gender, number, case of adjectives are necessarily and regularly expressed in the corresponding endings. Lexical meaning inherent in the word as a whole, but is contained in its basis. At the same time, lexical and grammatical meanings are closely soldered in the word. Some grammatical meanings sometimes limited in their manifestations to certain lexical groups. Thus, there is a relationship between the nature of the lexical meaning of a word and the presence of plural forms in it. For example, the nouns stupidity and rudeness in the meanings ‘property of being stupid’ and ‘property of being rude’ do not have plural forms: The stupidity of this remark was obvious; Rudeness is her main flaw; in more specific meanings, there are forms of both numbers: do something stupid, do something stupid, say something rude, say something rude.

Lexical meaning- reflection in the word of the phenomena of reality. Being attached to a certain sound-letter complex (name), the meaning together with it forms a word.

The main function of the word is nominative (from Latin nominatio ‘naming’): the word names the phenomena of reality. Depending on the method of nomination, four types of words are distinguished:

1) significant words , which can independently and directly designate the phenomena of reality, that is, perform a nominative function. This is the main and most numerous type of words, it includes nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.;

2) pronominal words designate the phenomena of reality indirectly, relying on the speech situation or on neighboring statements;

3) function words express various relationships between words or sentences, they can indicate the phenomena of reality, only when used together with independent (significant and pronominal) words, they perform a connecting function in a sentence;

4) interjections do not name, but express the phenomena of reality (usually emotions), serve as a kind of "symptoms", signs of emotions, do not enter into grammatical connections with other words in the sentence.

The word not only names the phenomenon of reality, but also generalizes, its lexical meaning is correlated both with the phenomena of reality and with the corresponding concepts. The concept of an object, phenomenon, quality, etc. is a generalized reflection in the minds of native speakers of the basic ideas about the properties of a phenomenon. So, calling objects of different sizes, colors, purposes, etc., a bucket, we digress from individual features specific items and focus on their main features. Specific Items, the phenomena of reality have many characteristics, but the concept reflects only the essential ones, which make it possible to distinguish one phenomenon from another. The relationship between meaning and concept is very close.

In addition to the conceptual meaning of a word, it can include emotional-evaluative, expressive components. So, the meanings of the second words in pairs horse - nag, assistant - accomplice contain an additional negative-evaluative component of meaning. The words child and baby correspond with the same concept, but the second noun has an emotional-evaluative component of meaning, which in this case is expressed by a diminutive suffix.

The lexical meaning of a word is determined not only by the relationship with the concept, but also by the relationship of the word with other words, that is, its place in the lexical system of the language.

Words can be combined into groups based on the common meaning (for example, in synonymous series). The meaning of the word to some extent depends on the composition of such a group.

Each word is combined with other words in a linear row. Some words do this relatively freely: their ability to form combinations with other words is limited only by the compatibility or incompatibility of the concepts they denote. For example, you can say green apples, smart man but you can't * green ideas, *smart pole because these phrases are meaningless: ideas, being intangible, cannot be characterized by color, a pillar cannot be smart or stupid. But there are cases when the actual language restrictions are imposed on the compatibility of words. We are speaking brown jacket, Brown eyes , Brown hair, but not * brown jacket, *brown eyes, *brown hair, although in all these cases the same color is indicated.

So, the lexical meaning of the word is a reflection in the word of ideas about the phenomena of reality. The lexical meaning of a word is determined by a number of factors: connection with the phenomena of the surrounding reality; correlation with concepts reflecting these phenomena of reality; finally, the relationships of the word with other words of the given language.
The meanings of words are recorded in explanatory dictionaries.

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Lexicology is the science that focuses on the vocabulary of a particular language. It has its own laws and categories. What does lexicology study? This science deals with various aspects of words, as well as their functions and development.

concept

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language and its features. Subject this section linguistics is the following:

• Functions of lexical units.
• The problem of the word as a basic constituent element of the language.
• Types and types of lexical units.
• The structure of the vocabulary of the language.

This is not a complete list of what lexicology studies. This science deals with the replenishment and expansion of the vocabulary, and also considers the connections and contradictions between lexical units.

Object of study

The word and its meaning is the basis for many sciences. Morphology deals with these issues, as well as various areas of word formation. However, if in these sciences words are a means of studying grammatical structures or studying various models for different options word formation, what lexicology studies is used directly for knowing the specifics of the words themselves. Lexical units are considered not just as a set of letters and sounds, but are complete system, which has its own connections, functions, categories and concepts. This is the object of study of lexicology. She considers not individual words, but the entire vocabulary as something whole and inseparable.

This approach has its own characteristics. This allows categorizing not only words, but also set phrases that have a certain analytical role.

word problem

The lexicology of the modern Russian language focuses on the object and subject of its study. Since the word is considered as a certain unit that has connections between its form and content, it is considered in three main aspects:

• Structural. The form of the word, its structure and constituent components are studied.
• Semantic. The meaning of lexical units is considered.
• Functional. The role of words in speech and in the general structure of the language is investigated.

If we talk about the first aspect, then lexicology is a science that establishes specific criteria for determining the difference and identity of individual words. To do this, lexical units are compared with phrases, and an analytical structure is developed that allows you to establish the invariants of the word.

Concerning semantic aspect, then this is a separate science - semasiology. She studies the relationship between the word and certain object. This is important for lexicology. She studies the word and its meaning, as well as its individual categories and types, which allows us to distinguish such concepts as monosimy (uniqueness) and polysimy (polysemy). Lexicology also deals with the study of the causes that lead to the appearance or loss of a word of its meaning.

The functional aspect considers a lexical unit as an object that is associated with other similar elements and builds a whole language system. Here the role of the interaction of vocabulary and grammar is important, which, on the one hand, support, and on the other hand, limit each other.

The concept of vocabulary

Lexicology considers words as a system that consists of several subsystems. Lexical units form groups that are different in volume, form and content. This is part of what lexicology studies. Vocabulary is studied simultaneously in two aspects: as group relations between individual units and their correct location in relation to each other. Thanks to this, vocabulary can be divided into separate categories. For example, homonyms, paronyms, synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, etc.

Additionally, almost any section of linguistics, including Russian or English lexicology, studies more voluminous groupings of words, which are called fields. Usually this is built based on the kernel of the field, for example, a certain amount keywords, and the boundaries themselves, which are a variety of paradigmatic, semantic, grammatical or other types of relationships with these lexical units.

Sections of lexicology

Like any other science, lexicology has its own system of disciplines that are responsible for certain aspects of its object and subject of study:

• Semasiology. Deals with the meanings of words and phrases.
• Onomasiology. Studying the procedure for naming objects and phenomena.
• Etymology. Explores the origin of words.
• Onomastics. Deals with proper names. This applies to both names of people and geographical names.
• Stylistics. Studying the meaning of words and expressions of a connotative nature.
• Lexicography. Engaged in ways of organizing and compiling dictionaries.
• Phraseology. Explores phraseological units and persistent expressions.

Sections of lexicology have their own categories, as well as the object and subject of study. In addition, some types of this science are distinguished. In particular, we are talking about general, particular, historical, comparative and applied lexicology. The first type is responsible for general patterns vocabulary, including its structure, stages of development, functions, etc. Private lexicology deals with the study of a particular language. historical type is responsible for the development of words in connection with the history of the names of objects and phenomena. Comparative lexicology examines words in order to identify kinship between different languages. The latter type is responsible for such processes as the culture of speech, translation features, linguistic pedagogy and lexicography.

Categories of lexical items

The vocabulary of any language is diverse and heterogeneous. Accordingly, there are categories that have their own distinctive features and features. Russian lexicology foresees the following subspecies:

• By scope: commonly used words and lexical units that are used in special situations (science, poetry, vernacular, dialects, etc.).
• By emotional load: neutral and emotionally charged units.
• By historical development: neologisms and archaisms.
• According to its origin and development: internationalisms, borrowings, etc.
• By functionality - active and passive lexical units, as well as occasionalisms.

Given the constant development of the language, the boundaries between words are fuzzy and they can move from one group to another.

Problems

Like any other science, lexicology deals with certain problems. Modern specialists distinguish the following:

• The frequency of words in the text.
• The difference between lexical units in writing and in oral speech.
• The possibilities of words that allow you to create new names for objects and phenomena.
• Changing vocabulary values.

Science also studies word compatibility options at different levels: semantic and lexical.

Ways to replenish vocabulary

Lexicology deals with the study of variants of nominations. This is understood various ways and vocabulary expansion methods. For this, both the internal resources of a particular language and the attraction of lexical units from other languages ​​can be used. Distinguish the following ways vocabulary replenishment:

• Word formation is the creation of new words.
• Construction of new meanings for already existing words: polysemy, transfer of meanings, etc.
• Formation of persistent phrases.
• Borrowing.

These methods are typical for any language, but in each case they have their own characteristics and distinctive features.

Methods

For its needs, lexicology uses general linguistic research methods. These include:

• Distribution. Responsible for defining the scope of a lexical unit, for the number of values, etc.
• Substitution. He studies the phenomena of synonymy and variation of words.
• component method. Responsible for splitting lexical units into separate components, and also deals with their general structure.
• Transformation. It is used in the process of word formation in order to determine the main component of the word.
• Used to determine the frequency of use of lexical units, as well as to calculate their semantic, paradigmatic and other types of relationships.

The information obtained using these methods is also used in other sciences, including psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, as well as a number of social disciplines.