lexical combination. Features of violation of lexical compatibility

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Introduction

Conclusion

Introduction

Combination dictionaries provide a systematic description of the combination properties of words in a language. Information about the ability of a word to combine in a certain way with certain words is an important linguistic knowledge, because one of the most important conditions for active language proficiency is the ability to “link” words with each other to express certain thoughts. Knowledge of the basic combinations gives an idea of the meaning of the word and helps to use it correctly in speech.

In 1978, the "Educational Dictionary of the Compatibility of Words in the Russian Language" was published. The main task of this dictionary is to promote the development of speech ... of students by providing them with the most important words of the Russian language in the contexts most characteristic of them. In the second edition, the name of this dictionary was partially changed - "Dictionary of the compatibility of words of the Russian language" (1983), and the addressing of this edition has also changed: now the dictionary is intended primarily for teachers of Russian as a non-native language and philologists.

Here is how the dictionary entry of the dictionary of compatibility is organized: Discipline, type of discipline, g. Firmly established order.

Good, excellent, exemplary, ideal, strict, firm, strong, high, bad, weak, low, conscious, labor, military, party, Komsomol, school, state ... discipline.

Labor discipline (labor discipline).

Discipline where: (preposition "in" with preposition p.) - in the classroom, at school ...; (the preposition "on" with the preposition) - in the classroom, in the classroom ...

/Non/ observance, maintenance, violation, question, discussion of...discipline. The question of discipline (the question of discipline).

Observe, maintain, strengthen, establish, adjust, raise, violate, undermine ... discipline. Strive for high discipline. Train someone to high discipline. Discipline improved, increased, weakened, became better (worse).

1. Characteristics of word compatibility dictionaries

In the dictionaries of compatibility is presented special aspect system characteristics of the meanings of words - syntagmatic, which is realized in the description of two types of compatibility - syntactic and lexical.

The most complete description of the syntagmatics of the main lexical layer of the Russian language (about 2500 words) is given in the Dictionary of Word Combination in the Russian Language, edited by P. N. Denisov and V. V. Morkovkin. It reveals both lexical compatibility in its most typical manifestations and syntactic valence of words. The dictionary includes nouns, adjectives and verbs as head words. The main content of the dictionary entry is a series of free combinations, which include the heading word. The heading word gets a short word in the dictionary grammatical description and interpretation of meaning. The use of phrases is illustrated by examples from fiction, journalistic and popular science works, as well as from colloquial speech. Representing a set of syntagmatic characteristics lexical items, the dictionary provides the basis for correct construction statements, so the combinability dictionary belongs to the active type dictionaries.

A number of dictionaries describe, first of all, syntactic compatibility, valence, that is, the ability of a word to enter into certain types syntactic links, implement its value at a specific position. The syntactic valency of a word is often revealed in management models. This feature of the meanings is reflected in the dictionary of D. E. Rosenthal "Management in the Russian language", which presents those cases of the verb and nominal management, which can cause difficulties for speakers and writers due to possible variability. The reference dictionary solves two problems: 1) prevention and correction of errors (grammar task); 2) choice the best option(stylistic problem).

Dictionary of V. I. Krasnykh "Russian verbs and predicates" solves important task learning syntactic compatibility such verbs and predicatives as speak, tell, think, remember, fear, admire, known, understandable, seen, heard, etc. The explanatory sentence with such words plays the role of a structural-semantic distributor. The dictionary gives a systematic and fairly complete description of the compatibility of verbs and impersonal predicatives in -o with explanatory subordinate clauses and indefinite form verbs. Over 600 dictionary entries with verbs and more than 200 - with predicatives contain an interpretation, an indication of possible compatibility with certain allied means (as well as with demonstrative words) and an indefinite form of the verb, speech illustrations. Wed:

PROVE, I prove, -eat, -yut, prove, I will prove, you will prove, St. To whom and without additional To confirm something with facts, arguments, by arguments, facts, etc. to convince, to assure of smth. With unions that, as if (only her) and allied words.

Everyone told me that I was wrong, but I was sure that I was right. There is no need to prove how important knowledge of a foreign language is for any specialist.

A number of dictionaries describing the management of Russian words are addressed to foreigners studying Russian. So, the dictionary of N. N. Prokopovich and others "Nominal and verbal control in modern Russian" contains 1219 core words selected based on the frequency of their use, and their typical phrases formed according to the method of control. The dictionary of A. K. Demidova includes 800 most common Russian verbs with an indication of their compatibility, constructions common in the literary language and the language of scientific works. The dictionary of V. M. Deribas is an educational dictionary-reference book of verb-nominal phrases, arranged according to their two components (verb - noun). Questions are given for word combinations, reflecting the valency of core words.

Educational goals are also pursued by the "Manual on the lexical compatibility of words in the Russian language." It includes about 1900 words (nouns, adjectives, verbs) in their typical and common combinations with other words (about 40 thousand phrases are given).

"Educational Dictionary for foreign schools, 4000 most common words of the Russian language" (ed. N. M. Shansky) includes the words necessary for active command of speech. Frequency dictionaries, minimum dictionaries for non-Russian students were used as selection sources. A distinctive feature of this dictionary is that the semantics of a word and its use are revealed in the dictionary through speech illustrations-phrases.A specific feature of phrases is that they consist mainly of words included in this dictionary.In some cases, the semantics of a word is revealed visually, with the help of photographs and tables with drawings. the application is given a row thematic groups vocabulary and abbreviations.

There are dictionaries that describe educational purposes) compatibility of terminological vocabulary. So, socio-political vocabulary in its typical combinations is presented in the dictionary "Stable phrases of the Russian language".

The "Educational Dictionary of Compatibility of Socio-Political Terms" deserves special attention. The dictionary, edited by V. V. Morkovkin, opens a series of educational dictionaries for the compatibility of terms in the most important branches of science and technology. It is built on strictly developed principles of a typical lexicographic project. The main unit of the dictionary is a phrase formed by filling in one of the syntactic positions at the heading word and satisfying the criterion of semantic completeness. The most important social and political terms are included in the dictionary as heading units. In total, the dictionary describes about 1000 terminological units. The main part of the dictionary entry is an ordered list of phrases that characterize the compatibility properties of the heading unit. With the help of special labels, the compatibility of derivatives from heading words is described. The ability of heading units to enter into synonymous relations is consistently noted. Designed for foreign students who studied socio-political disciplines in the universities of the USSR, the dictionary expressively presents ideologemes Soviet era. Compare, for example, a fragment of a dictionary entry representing the typical compatibility of the word capitalism:

Active-type dictionaries include N. I. Ubin's Dictionary of Amplifying Phrases. Its peculiarity is that of all the typical combinations, only those that contain the semantic sign of intensity are selected for it. The dictionary contains 10400 Russian and 12500 English amplifying phrases. AT dictionary entry the direct part is given heading words, their lexical intensifiers and translation equivalents. In the reverse part of the dictionary, the material is grouped around intensifier words. As a monolingual dictionary of lexical compatibility, it is intended mainly for choosing the necessary words and combining them correctly in the text (cf .: the aroma is thick, intoxicating, sharp, piercing, intoxicating, persistent, heavy; merciless satire, scourging, caustic, burning, evil, sharp, sharp).

The special nature of the presented material is distinguished by the "Dictionary of combinations equivalent to a word" by R. P. Rogozhnikova. It contains 650 stable combinations of the Russian language, equivalent (equivalent) to a word in meaning and function in speech. The phrases included in the dictionary perform the functions of auxiliary modal words, as well as adverbs, predicatives, pronouns and interjections. They are distinguished by an unchanging form, unity of meaning, and usually one main emphasis, for example: as if, during, during, in particular, it would seem, as if, one of these days, are perceived as a single whole and are equivalent to a word, performing the same function in speech , but not being words, since they themselves consist of two or more words, significant and auxiliary. At the same time, they cannot be called phraseological combinations: they do not have the figurative meaning that is characteristic of phraseological combinations. In speech, such combinations are reproduced as ready-made units. The most commonly used combinations are selected in the dictionary. They are accompanied by stylistic characteristics and speech illustrations.

2. Violation of lexical compatibility

Dictionary of compatibility -- a dictionary containing material on lexical compatibility.

Semantic errors

Violation of lexical compatibility is caused by semantic errors of two types - logical and linguistic.

Logical errors are associated with not distinguishing between concepts that are close in any respect. Often people do not distinguish between areas of activity, cause and effect, part and whole, related phenomena.

So, in the sentence "Residents of the seaside city witnessed a large theatrical performance", an error is found in the phrase "witnesses of the performance". The word "witness" means "eyewitness" - this is the name of a person who finds himself at the scene of an incident. This word is associated with the sphere of judicial and legal activity. In the field of theatrical and concert activity, which is referred to in the proposal, the word "spectator" is used. This error is associated with a lack of distinction between areas of activity.

The erroneous combination “prices have risen in price” is associated with a lack of distinction between the related concepts of “prices” and “goods”: goods rise in price, and prices rise. Examples of similar errors in the sentences can be given: “The timely start-up of the plant causes concern”; “52 trees have been planted in the park”; "As a result of the plague, people left the city." All these errors are not explained by a distinction between related phenomena: they fear not that the combine will be launched, but that it will not be launched at the scheduled time; lay not trees, but a park; people leave the city not as a result, but because of the plague. Possible corrections in these cases: “There is concern that the plant will not be launched at the scheduled time”; “52 trees planted in the park”; "As a result of the plague, the city was deserted."

Linguistic errors are associated with not distinguishing denoting words that are in any semantic relations. These are mostly synonyms and paronyms.

Not distinguishing between synonyms, words that are close or coinciding in meaning, leads to errors in use. For example, the words "role" and "function" in the sense of "work, circle of activity" are synonymous, but genetically they are associated with different designations: the role - with the sphere of theater and cinema, and the function - with logic. Hence the established lexical compatibility: the role is played (played), and the function is performed (performed). The words "brave" and "bold" are synonymous, but "brave" is associated with outward manifestation called quality, and "bold" - both with external and internal, therefore, a thought, a decision, an idea can only be bold, but not brave.

Not distinguishing between paronyms, i.e. words that partially coincide in sound also lead to errors in use; most of the paronyms are single-root words that differ in suffixes or prefixes and, as a result, shades of meaning, as well as stylistic coloring. For example, a misdemeanor (offense) is an act (action committed by someone); guilty (who committed a crime) - guilty (guilty of something, violating the rules of morality, politeness, etc.); pay (for something) - pay (for something).

Paronyms may be associated with different options common root. For example, short (small in size, the opposite of long) - short (stated briefly, in a few words). That's why they say short text, but brief retelling text. Borrowed words may also appear in paronymic relations: parity (equality) - priority (primacy, advantage), dequalification (loss of qualification) - disqualification (deprivation of qualification), etc. To distinguish between paronyms foreign origin it is necessary to refer to dictionaries of foreign words.

The following are frequency pairs of paronyms:

Run - run have general meaning“to carry out, to put into practice”, for example, to fulfill (fulfill) an order, but the second verb has a book character;

Long - long coincide in the meaning of “ongoing, long”, for example, a long (long) conversation, a long (long) pause, but “long” indicates the length in time, and “long” emphasizes the procedural meaning of the noun; "long" is usually combined with the names of time periods (long night, long winter), and "long" - with the names of actions and conditions designed for a long time (long flight, long-term treatment);

Agreement - an agreement differs in that "agreement" means a written or oral agreement, a condition on mutual obligations (a treaty of friendship and cooperation), and "agreement" - an agreement, achieved through negotiations (an agreement to include the issue on the agenda);

Truth (truth, actual state of affairs) - truth (correspondence to truth). For example, the desire for truth is the truth of the assumptions put forward;

Ordinary - ordinary differ in that the first word emphasizes unremarkable, unremarkable, and the second - typical. For example, an ordinary person is an ordinary day.

To identify the specifics of words related by paronymic relations, it is necessary to correctly represent the morphological composition of the word and the method of its formation. For example, in pairs, learn - master, complicate - complicate, make heavier - make words with the prefix o- more important high degree manifestations of action. In pairs hygienic - hygienic, logical - logical, practical - practical, economic - economical, differing in suffixes -ichesk- / -n-, the second adjective denotes a sign that can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent ( quality adjective). This implies compatibility: a hygienic norm - a hygienic fabric, logical laws - a logical conclusion, practical application - practical clothing, economic policy - an economical device.

Stylistic mistakes

Stylistic errors are a violation of the requirements of the unity of the functional style, the unjustified use of emotionally colored, stylistically marked means. Stylistic errors are associated with ignoring the restrictions that its stylistic coloring imposes on the use of a word.

The most common stylistic mistakes include:

1. The use of clericalism - words and phrases characteristic of the official business style. For example, "As the revenue side of my budget increased, I decided to buy a new car for permanent use" - "I began to receive a lot of money, so I decided to buy a new car."

2. The use of words (expressions) inappropriate style coloring. So, in a literary context, the use of jargon, vernacular, abusive vocabulary is inappropriate; in a business text, colloquial and expressively colored words should be avoided. For example, "The trustee of charitable institutions fawns over the auditor" - "The trustee of charitable institutions fawns over the auditor."

3. Mixture of styles - unjustified use in one text of words, syntactic constructions characteristic of different styles Russian language. For example, a mixture of scientific and colloquial styles.

4. Mixing vocabulary from different historical eras. For example, "On the heroes of chain mail, trousers, mittens" - "On the heroes of chain mail, armor, mittens."

5. Incorrect sentence construction. For example, "Despite his youth, he good man". There are several ways to correct these errors. Firstly, change the word order in the sentence: "There are many works that tell about the author's childhood in world literature" - "In world literature there are many works that tell about the author's childhood."

6. Secondly, redo the sentence: “From other sporting events, let's talk about the bar” - “From other sporting events, barbell competitions should be highlighted.”

7. Pleonasm - verbal excess, the use of words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view. In order to avoid pleonasm, you must do the following:

Replace the word with a single root, for example, a monumental monument - a monument;

Remove the word from the phrase, for example, the main essence is the essence, valuable treasures are treasures;

Remove a word from the text without reducing the quality. For example, "Operation is the way in which an action is performed" - "Operation is a way of performing an action"; "Building a model in accordance with known rules" - "Building a model according to the rules."

8. Tautology - the use of single-root words within the boundaries of one sentence. For example, "Tell a story"; "Ask a question." Ways to correct tautologies are:

Replace one of the words with a synonym. For example, “Torrential downpour did not stop all day” - “Torrential rain did not stop all day”;

Remove one of the words. For example, "Along with these signs, there are a number of others" - "Along with these signs, there are others."

The tautology is easily detected when reading the text aloud. Overused words usually include which, so that and can.

9. Lexical repetitions in the text. For example, "In order to study well, students must pay more attention to learning." Words that are repeated should be replaced with synonyms, nouns can be replaced with pronouns, or a repeating word can be removed altogether, if possible - "To achieve success, students must pay more attention to classes."

10. Substitution of the concept. This error occurs as a result of missing a word. For example, “Patients who have not visited the outpatient clinic for three years are laid out in the archive” (we are talking about patient cards, and from the text of the proposal it follows that the patients themselves were handed over to the outpatient clinic).

11. This error, which arose as a result of the author's stylistic negligence, can be easily corrected: it is necessary to insert an accidentally omitted word or phrase. For example, "Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm" - "Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm."

12. Choice of single or plural. Often there are problems with the use of the singular or plural. Examples correct use combinations are: two or more options, three or more forms, there are several options, there are some options.

For correct use, agreement in meaning is increasingly used: if a single whole is meant, then the singular is used, and if it is necessary to emphasize individual objects, the plural is used.

13. Agreement of words in a sentence. Often there are errors in the agreement of words in a sentence, especially with regard to the control of verbs. For example, "This section talks about opening, working and saving a document" - "In this section describes the procedures for opening and saving documents, as well as working with them.

14. Creation of verbal nouns. You should be careful to create verbal nouns, because. many of the created words are not in the dictionary, and their use is considered illiterate (order - ordering, not ordering; collapse - folding, not folding).

15. Stringing identical shapes. You should avoid stringing the same case forms, for example, using the words “to” and “which”. For example, "In order to avoid the possibility of danger" - "To avoid the occurrence of danger."

16. Poverty and monotony of syntactic constructions. For example, “The man was wearing a burnt padded jacket. The quilted jacket was roughly darned. The boots were almost new. Moth-eaten socks” - “The man was dressed in a roughly darned burnt padded jacket. Although the boots were almost new, the socks were moth-eaten.

Stylistically unjustified use of tropes. The use of tropes can cause a variety of speech errors. Unsuccessful imagery of speech is a fairly common flaw in the style of authors who have poor pen skills.

For example, “The judge was just as simple and humble.

3. Errors in the use of borrowed words

dictionary compatibility syntactic lexical

AT last years The Russian language is intensively replenished with borrowed words. This is because the country has entered a new socio-political formation, as well as free market relations. Language always responds quickly and flexibly to the needs of society. It can be said without exaggeration that there was a linguistic explosion. However, there is nothing wrong with this, because borrowed words are the result of contacts, relationships between peoples and states.

The presence in one language of words from other languages and their use in speech - objective reality. The number of such words is constantly increasing due to the penetration of new words and the expansion of the scope of old ones, used in a narrow sense.

Unfortunately, when using borrowed words, many mistakes are made (spelling, orthoepic, grammatical, lexical), which are explained by the special position of foreign words: in a new language for themselves, they have weak family ties(or do not have them at all), therefore their root is vague for most native speakers, the meaning is unclear, but their modernity is felt in comparison with familiar Russian or borrowed words that have long been mastered.

The most common type of error is associated with the unreasonable use of a foreign word, which does not introduce anything new in comparison with its Russian or a borrowed synonym that has long been mastered. For example, “The presentation of the perfume took place last Friday; The perfume sold well." If the word "perfume" has the meaning of a particular type of perfume, or denotes some class of perfumery, which includes the perfume in question, a comment should be made; if the word "perfume" is used in its direct meaning of "perfume", then the need for its use in this text is highly doubtful.

Another type of error is the stringing of borrowed words, which can "stun" the reader with the scientific presentation. For example, "There should be a selection of property profitability." The difficulty of understanding is associated with the use of two borrowed words in a row, and each of them is used incorrectly. The word "breeding" means "a section of agronomy and livestock science that deals with the breeding of new varieties and breeds (selection method)". The word "profitability" means "the property to be cost-effective (profitable, profitable)." Apparently, the word “selection” is used here, in its direct translation from English as “selection”, but such a meaning has not yet been formed in Russian, in addition, it is not combined with the word denoting “property”, therefore, such a use is perceived like a logical fallacy. It should be written: "There should be a selection of the most cost-effective (profitable) types of property."

Very often ignorance of the exact meaning of a borrowed word leads to errors. For example, "Crime and Punishment" is a cult novel by Dostoevsky. The word "cult" has two meanings:

1. an adjective to the word "cult" in the sense of "service to a deity and related actions, rituals" (cult objects);

2. widely known, popular; causing the worship of his adherents (cult film).

It is obvious that in the above phrase the word "cult" is used in the sense of the word "popular", which is incorrect. It should be written: "Crime and Punishment" is a popular novel.

Most pleonastic combinations occur precisely when borrowed words are used. For example: “short briefing” (“short” is included in the meaning of the word “briefing”, therefore it is superfluous), “landscape” (the word “locality” is superfluous), “ top priority" (the word "main" is superfluous).

A borrowed word that has a Russian synonym is usually higher in style (somewhat more formal), so it is not well suited for interpersonal confidential communication, for describing inner peace person, his feelings, moods. Foreign words are more suitable for information about political events, scientific phenomena, to communicate organizations and states. For example, an alliance is an alliance: an alliance of liberals and democrats, an alliance of the governments of Moscow and the Moscow region, but an alliance of hearts, an alliance of friends. Thus, borrowed words are stylistically more limited use than their Russian synonyms. Ignoring this feature of borrowed words leads to stylistic errors. For example, “Literature itself as a total value is under threat”, where instead of the word “total” one should use the words “universal” or “eternal”.

Among borrowings there is a special group of words denoting concepts that are characteristic of a completely specific country (a number of countries) or people. Such borrowings are called exoticisms. For example, prairies are flat steppe spaces in North America, and savannahs are plains in South America and Africa, covered with grassy vegetation, among which groups of trees and shrubs are scattered. Exoticisms are quite appropriate in texts describing the reality with which these words are correlated (here it is necessary to ensure that the prairies do not end up in South America, and the savannas - in North).

The Russian text also contains foreign inclusions and barbarisms. Foreign inclusions are words, phrases, sentences in foreign language single use. Acquiring a regular character and taking shape in Cyrillic, they become barbarisms, for example: happy end (happy end), weekend (week end), shop (from shop - shop). For many foreign words barbarism is the first stage of entry into the language (show, marketing). But a word or expression can be fixed in the language precisely as barbarism, while having a Russian synonym, for example: nihil - nothing, tkte-a-tkte - alone. It is necessary to distinguish between the use of barbarisms to describe non-Russian reality, when they act as a characterological means, similar in function to exoticisms, and to describe Russian reality. The first, if they are not widely known, are accompanied by explanations. When describing Russian reality, barbarisms are used exclusively as expressive means(Vivat, Russia!) and are not allowed in strictly informative texts.

I would also like to note that the incorrect use of borrowed words leads to the following errors:

1. Violation of orthoepic norms.

This section includes errors in the pronunciation of borrowings, as well as incorrect placement of stress in foreign words. For example, "expert instead of expert, kv" artal instead of quart "al, cat" alog instead of catal "og", kilo "meters instead of kilo" meters.

2. Violation of spelling norms. For example, the word "billiard" instead of "billiards".

3. Violation of grammatical norms. For example, "two shampoos", "two shoes" is the wrong gender.

4. Violation of the norms of word compatibility. For example, "Only here there were interesting nuances."

Conclusion

Analyzing the above, we can distinguish a number of features of the violation of lexical compatibility, namely:

Errors are predominant in relation to grammatical and stylistic norms proper. The leading types of violations in the field of vocabulary are the use of words in an unusual meaning, the indistinguishability of the meanings of synonyms and paronyms;

Are characterized by "genre stability";

Possess "quality stability". This is a misnomer and combination.

subject to misuse in more words of certain parts of speech (primarily verbs that have specific features lexical meaning, as a rule, the presence differential feature that specifies compatibility), words that are in certain system connections(significant number of synonyms, branched semantic structure, etc.).

The combination of words plays especially important role in artistic speech. Humorists often resort to violation of lexical compatibility to give speech a comic connotation. In search of unexpected images, vivid speech expression, poets especially often expand their lexical compatibility. However, in colloquial speech, a violation of lexical compatibility can become an annoying speech error.

When using words that have an extreme limited opportunities lexical connections, violation of compatibility often becomes the cause of the comic sound of speech.

In conclusion, we can say that an attentive attitude to the word, to the peculiarities of lexical compatibility in the Russian language will help to avoid such errors in speech, and in other cases, it will allow using unusual combinations of words to create vivid images or as a source of humor.

List of used literature

1. Bragina A.A. Neologisms in Russian. M. - 1995.

2. Demidova A. K. Management of the most common verbs in modern Russian: A guide for foreigners. -- M.: Higher. school, 1969. - 260 p.

3. Deryagina S.I. Educational dictionary of verb-nominal phrases of the Russian language (based on socio-political texts). - M.: Rus. yaz., 1987. - 160 p.

4. Manual on the lexical compatibility of words of the Russian language: Dictionary-reference book / Comp.: T. I. Anisimova, 3. E. Ivanova, R. V. Ulyanko; Ed. T. P. Pleshenko, L. F. Sakovets. -- Minsk: Higher. school, 1975. - 304 p.

5. Rogozhtova R. P. Dictionary of combinations equivalent to the word: Adverbial, service, modal unity. -- M.; Rus. yaz., 1983. - 44 p.

6. Dictionary of word compatibility of the Russian language: About 2500 dictionary entries / Ed. P. N. Denisova, V. V. Morkovkina. -- M.: Rus. yaz., 1983. - 688 p.

7. Ubin I. I. Dictionary of amplifying phrases of the Russian language and English. -- M. Rus. yaz., 1987. - 304 p.

8. Educational dictionary of compatibility of socio-political terms (with equivalents in English language/ 3. S. Kuznetsova, . V. Fokina, I. N.

9. Fomenko Yu.V. Types of speech errors. Novosibirsk - 1994.

10. Zeitlin S.N. Speech errors and their prevention. M. - 1982.

11. Tsop K. A., Muratov L. M. Educational dictionary of terms compatibility: Finance and Economics / Ed. hands V. V. Morkovkina. -- M.: Rus. lang.. 1988.

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More on the topic of Lexical compatibility and related difficulties:

12. Lexico-phraseological norms of the modern Russian literary language. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics. The main categories of the section. Lexical compatibility. Contamination. Typology of lexical errors. Errors related to the incorrect use of polysemantic words
Lexical style. Lexical compatibility. Lexical compatibility
Violation of lexical compatibility as a stylistic device
Violation of lexical compatibility as a speech error
37. Grouping words according to form. Lexical homonymy and related phenomena. Functional characteristics of homonyms.
11. Lexico-phraseological norms of the modern Russian literary language. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics. The main categories of the section. Lexical combination of words. Word accuracy. Contamination. The specificity of explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language.

Word matching and accuracy

The accuracy of speech requires not only knowledge of the semantics of words, but also the ability to take them into account. compatibility - the ability to connect with other words in context. It is in the context, in combination with other words, that the semantics of the word is realized, clarity and certainty are acquired. It is known that the compatibility of words is determined by their lexical features, grammatical properties, stylistic coloring. In accordance with this, three types of compatibility can be distinguished: lexical, grammatical (syntactic) and stylistic. The boundaries between them in specific acts of communication are very fuzzy; all types of compatibility are organically interconnected.

Lexical compatibility determined by the semantic features of the word. Depending on the lexical meaning of the word, there are two main types of it - free and not free, limited by a fairly strict list of words. In the first case, we mean the compatibility of words with a direct, nominative meaning. It is due to the subject-logical nature of words, it is based on the semantic incompatibility of lexemes. For example, the verb to take is combined with words denoting objects that can be "taken in hands, grabbed with hands, teeth, any devices": take a stick, pen, spoon, knife, glass, lamp, branch, etc. Such lexical connections correspond to real, logical connections and relations of objects, concepts, expressed by matching words.

The boundaries of the lexical compatibility of words with a nominative, or direct, meaning are determined primarily by the subject-logical relationships in reality of the denotations of the corresponding words.

The combination of words that are semantically incompatible with each other leads to alogisms (ringing silence, an ordinary miracle, a smart fool, dragging fast, etc.).

Non-free compatibility is due to intra-linguistic, semantic relationships and relationships. It is typical for words with phraseologically related meanings. Compatibility in this case selective, lexemes are not combined with all semantically compatible ones. For example, the adjective inevitable is combined with the nouns death, death, failure, but not combined with the nouns victory, life, success, etc.

The rules of lexical compatibility are of a dictionary nature, they are individual for each word and are not yet sufficiently codified and fully codified. Therefore, one of the most common mistakes in speech is the violation of norms.

Stylistically unmotivated, unintentional violations of lexical compatibility lead to inaccurate speech, and sometimes to unjustified comedy. For example: At the meeting, the achieved shortcomings were sharply criticized (the lexeme lack is not semantically combined with the lexeme achieved).

Grammar The (syntactic) compatibility of a word is determined by its grammatical meaning, belonging to a particular class or category. The laws of grammatical compatibility are manifested, for example, in the fact that adjectives are easily combined with nouns (an interesting interlocutor, a cheerful person, green leaves, etc.) and are not combined with cardinal numbers and verbs. Or the compatibility of collective nouns majority, minority is limited to words denoting objects that can be counted (most students, workers, cities, parks, etc.), and words like group, population, people, intelligentsia, in the collective meaning of which the concept of what -the number of homogeneous single objects. The combinations of the majority / minority type of time, space, and rest that occur in speech are erroneous.

Stylistic compatibility associated with the stylistic connotations of language units. Stylistically marked words are freely combined with lexemes that have identical coloring. Neutral words that have bookish and colloquial synonyms are freely combined only with neutral ones (N + N): to talk nonsense, a bad habit, to be stubborn in vain, to tell the truth; bookish - with bookish (K + K): speak the truth, vainly persist, persecute, sing of valor; colloquial - with colloquial (R + R): chatting nonsense, bad habits. Combinations of words with different stylistic coloring are limited in use. So, the phrases to utter stupidity (N + K), bad habits (N + P), vainly stubborn (K + P) are permissible only with a specific stylistic purpose.

Stylistic restrictions on the compatibility of words, in comparison with grammatical and lexical ones, do not have the character of absolute, "hard" norms. In this case, much depends not only on the stylistic marking of words, but also on the specific conditions of their use. The combination of stylistically contrasting words is justified in a playful or ironic context. Here, stylistic restrictions are deliberately violated in order to create irony, humor, satire. For example, I. Ilf in "Notes" next to the high word radiant uses a vulgar mug: "They wandered knee-deep in the water of the Pacific Ocean, and a magnificent sunset illuminated their radiant-drunk hari ...".

Unmotivated violation of the boundaries of stylistic compatibility leads to stylistic inconsistency, stylistically unjustified comedy, i.e. to stylistic errors. Whether the combination of stylistically heterogeneous words is a mistake or a stylistic device can only be determined on the basis of an analysis of a specific text.

Violation of lexical compatibility as a speech error

Although in these competitions our favorite skaters were defeated spectators greet them standing (correct: to win, to be defeated)

meet modern needs (correct: meet the requirements and meet the needs)

He was charged with material damage in favor of the victims (correctly: compensated for material damage;money collected)

People's museums have improved the artistic level of expositions (correctly: level may increase go up;improve can quality).

associated with the indistinguishability of concepts that are close in any respect (fields of activity, cause and effect, part and whole, related phenomena, genus-species relations): The inhabitants of the seaside town became witnesses big theatrical performance (correct: viewer)

For the correct use of words in speech, it is not enough to know their exact meaning; it is also necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the lexical compatibility of words, i.e. their ability to connect with each other. So, "similar" adjectives long, long, long, long, long are "attracted" to nouns in different ways: long period, long period (but not long, long, long period); long way, long way; long-term fees, long-term credit. Often words with the same meaning can have different lexical compatibility (cf .: a true friend is a genuine document).

The doctrine of lexical compatibility is based on the position of Acad. V.V. Vinogradov about phraseologically related meanings of words that have single compatibility (bosom friend) or limited compatibility possibilities (stale bread, long loaf; stale person, but you can’t say “stale candy” (chocolate), “stale comrade” (father, son).

To develop the theory of lexical compatibility great importance Vinogradov singled out phraseological combinations and established the main types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language. Phraseological combinations Phraseology is engaged in, the subject of lexical stylistics is the study of the combination in speech of words that have free meanings, and the definition of those restrictions that are imposed by the language on their lexical compatibility.

Many linguists emphasize that the lexical compatibility of a word is inseparable from its meaning. Some scientists, studying the problems of lexical compatibility, come to the conclusion that there are no absolutely free combinations of lexemes in the language, there are only groups of words with different possibilities of compatibility. With such a formulation of the question, the difference between free combinations and phraseologically connected ones is destroyed.

Combining words into phrases can run into various kinds of restrictions. Firstly, words may not be combined due to their semantic incompatibility (purple orange, leaned back, water is on fire); secondly, the combination of words into a phrase can be excluded due to their grammatical nature (mine - swim, close - cheerful); thirdly, their lexical features can prevent the unification of words (words denoting seemingly connected concepts do not combine; they say to cause grief, trouble, but one cannot say to cause joy, pleasure).

Depending on the restrictions governing the combination of words, there are three types of compatibility: semantic (from the term "semantics" - the meaning of the word), grammatical (more precisely, syntactic) and lexical.

Semantic compatibility is broken, for example, in such cases: By today, there is no information yet; It is necessary to speed up the settlement of the bloodshed; My father's maiden name was Sobakin; After the death of Lensky, no duel, Olga married a hussar ... Funny combinations of words, isn't it? But if you think about it, in other cases a very undesirable underlying meaning arises: not to stop, but only to settle the bloodshed? ..

A parody example of a violation of grammatical compatibility is known: My yours does not understand ( possessive adjectives cannot be combined with verbs in the personal form). More examples: Our leader is healthy inside and out; Most of the time deputies spend on discussions.

The most drastic violation of the laws of "attraction of words" is lexical inconsistency: The voice of numbers is not comforting; In the recent past, we all had our tongues clamped down. The bright effect of "deceived expectation" is played by comedians in caustic jokes: We have won and no longer have the right to delay; Reached the yawning peaks.

Violation of lexical compatibility is often due to misuse polysemantic words. So, in its basic meaning, the word deep can be freely combined with any other, suitable in meaning: deep (that is, having great depth) well, bay, reservoir, lake, river. However, in the meaning of "reached the limit, complete, perfect", this word is combined with a few (deep autumn, winter, but not summer, not spring, deep night, silence, but not morning, not day, not noise; deep old age, but not youth). Therefore, the statement makes us laugh: In deep childhood, he was like his mother.

The word to take place is interpreted in dictionaries by means of synonyms to happen, to come true, however, unlike them, this verb is appropriate if the planned events were being prepared, planned (A meeting was held; A meeting of the candidate for the Duma with voters took place). And if the correspondent writes: Armed clashes took place on the streets of the city, one might think that armed clashes were being prepared, planned by someone. As you can see, a violation of lexical compatibility can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement.

Lexical stylistics should focus on the assessment of lexical compatibility. However, the boundaries between various types combinability is very fuzzy, therefore, in the stylistic analysis of the text, one has to talk not only about "pure" lexical combinability, but also take into account various transitional cases.

All significant words, which have free values, can be conditionally divided into two groups. Some are characterized by compatibility, practically unlimited within their subject-logical connections; such, for example, are adjectives that characterize the physical properties of objects - color, volume, weight, temperature (red, black, large, small, light, heavy, hot, cold), many nouns (table, house, person, tree), verbs ( live, see, work, know). Another group is formed by words that have limited lexical compatibility (and in the case of polysemy of words, this restriction can only apply to their individual meanings). This group of words is of particular interest.

Lexical compatibility restrictions are usually inherent in words that rarely occur in speech. Words with the maximum frequency of use (they are included in the 2500 most frequent words of the Russian language) easily enter into lexical relationships. For example, when comparing the compatibility of the words fear and fear, it turned out that the word fear is more actively combined with various verbs.

The assessment of lexical compatibility in expressive speech cannot be approached stereotypically, since there are special laws of "attraction" of words to each other. In particular, in fiction and journalistic works, the boundaries of lexical compatibility can be expanded. It has been noted that the restrictions of semantic compatibility do not apply to figurative word usage: phrases are possible that seem meaningless if the words that make them up are taken literally ( the sunset is burning, the years are flying, black thoughts). The semantic incompatibility of words is not an obstacle to creating artistic images. It is the violation of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, that underlies many classical images that have become textbook examples of epithets, metaphors, metonyms: gray winter threat(A. Pushkin); The bell cries loudly / And laughs and squeals(P. Vyazemsky); Sometimes he falls passionately in love / In his elegant sadness ...(M. Lermontov); pot-bellied nut bureau(N. Gogol); mental and moral neckline; bald syllogism(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

Violation of lexical compatibility can be an effective means of creating a comic sound of speech in a humorous context: From that day, glory befell Evstigneyka(M. Gorky); an apple with a mole; ebullient lazybones(I. Ilf and E. Petrov); on the basis of a comprehensive and double-edged squabble(I. Ilf); single fox terrier(L. Lench). Violation of lexical compatibility as bright stylistic device creating a comic effect is the basis of various jokes, aphorisms, which are usually published on the humorous pages of magazines, newspapers:

The genius was recognized alive; It is difficult to forgive other people's shortcomings, but it is even more difficult to forgive other people's virtues; our sworn friends; hardened leader; Finally, the government achieved a significant deterioration in the life of the people; Despite the fall, she pulled herself together and took fifth place in the individual championship of the Sochi Olympics.

Incompatibility makes headlines catchy, for example: Genre destined for success (about parodies); Memories of the future(movie title) Alone with everyone(play by A. I. Gelman); Sky stalkers(about helicopter pilots who worked in areas of high radiation); Turn on the silence, What was silent about in the subway; Long, serial life; A bouquet of stars (stage).

Often poets violate lexical compatibility. Unusual combinations of words in the songs of V. S. Vysotsky are expressive:

Poets walk with their heels on a knife blade

And they cut their bare souls into the blood.

In non-expressive, prosaic speech, phrases walk on heels, barefoot souls would seem impossible, absurd, but in a poetic context they amaze with their artistic power. Another example from a song by the same author:

By morning they shot the quiet mountain echo -

And tears splashed like stones from the wounded rocks...

If the author does not strive to achieve a certain stylistic goal, the violation of lexical compatibility becomes speech error. This reflects a characteristic feature of the dialectical nature of the language: in one case, the phenomenon, which is a deviation from the linguistic norm, turns out to be an effective means of creating speech expression, in the other, it is evidence of the author’s carelessness, inattentive attitude to the word. Involuntary violation of lexical compatibility is a very common speech error.

See for example: Although in these competitions our favorite skaters defeated, the audience greets them standing, says the sportscaster (but: win, lose). Maybe insomnia has come to you, / And you lie, not closing eyes blue, – the poet writes (but: you can close your eyes but not sight). The basin produced cozy impression, - the journalist notes in the essay (you can produce pleasant impression, but not cozy). This is event It was accepted villagers with joy and enthusiasm,- notes a schoolgirl in an essay about the upcoming restoration of the local temple (but: to accept can sick, person etc., and event should anyway perceive). Some words are often used in speech in the wrong combinations ( the meeting is convened, the conversation is read, increase attention, give importance, increase one's horizons and etc.).

Violation of lexical compatibility can be caused by contamination of outwardly similar phrases, for example: satisfy modern needs (mixing combinations satisfy the requirements of and meet needs) With him recover property damage in favor of the victims (material damage may be reimbursed ; recovered can be money); Improved art level expositions folk museums (level maybe rise, rise; improve can quality). More examples of contamination: take action (cf.: take action take steps); deserved fame (gained fame - earned respect); unflagging help (constant help – unremitting attention); does not matter (plays no role – irrelevant). The confusion of phrases was the reason for the joke:

Tastes could not be discussed:

Some respect apricots in brine,

Others like jam with mustard.

But all this has no role

And besides, does not matter.

(E. Svistunov)

When using words that have extremely limited possibilities of lexical connections, a violation of lexical compatibility often becomes the cause of the comic sound of speech. See for example:

Serious problems collapsed for young entrepreneurs by surprise; Leaders paid close attention to deficiencies achieved; They worked like the most notorious specialists; People came to us frustrated by the experience.

Comic in such cases arises because words that have limited lexical compatibility "suggest" variants of phrases, as a rule, with direct opposite meaning(cf.: progress made, notorious scammers, dejected with grief).

Consider examples of stylistic editing of sentences in which lexical compatibility is violated:

As you can see, stylistic editing basically comes down to replacing words, the use of which led to a violation of lexical compatibility.

lexical combination. Features of violation of lexical compatibility

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