colonial wars. 19th century colonial wars

Italian soldiers during the Italian Turkish war Colonial warfare is war for the purpose of conquering or holding colonies. Opponents of the country of the colonizer in this conflict can act as the local population of the colonized / colonized country, ... ... Wikipedia

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Spanish-Portuguese-American Colonial Wars 1808-29- SPANISH PORTUGUESE AMERICAN COLONIAL WARS 1808-29 By these wars is meant the struggle for the independence of the Spanish. and Portuguese. colonies in America (Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay) with their metropolises (see map ... Military Encyclopedia

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• All wars in the world. Middle Ages, A. V. Shishov. Present volume popular science publication "All the Wars of the World", written by the famous military historian A. V. Shishov, is dedicated to the Middle Ages. This era incredibly rich in military-political ...
• Spices, Kolkova Tamara Alexandrovna. Spices are plants or parts of plants that contain a lot of aromatic substances, essential oils, mineral salts and vitamins. For many centuries, spices, herbs and vegetables have been an integral part of…

Having agreed to grant independence to one part of the colonies, the Western powers tried to keep their other part by force of arms. Long colonial wars began, which the ruling circles of Holland, England and France waged in their former possessions: Indonesia, Malaya, Indochina.

Having verbally recognized the independence of Indonesia, the Dutch colonialists in the summer of 1947 presented her with an ultimatum, demanding the formation of a joint "federal" Dutch-Indonesian government, in which Holland would play decisive role, as well as the immediate return of previously nationalized enterprises. When Indonesia rejected the ultimatum, the Dutch troops stationed in Indonesia launched hostilities that lasted over two years. Only in November 1949, as a result of the mass opposition of the Indonesian people and the support of the world public opinion The Netherlands recognized Indonesia as an independent state, but until 1963 it continued to keep part of the Indonesian territory under its rule - West Irian (on the island of New Guinea).

In Malaya, British troops disarmed the people's anti-Japanese army and restored the rule of the colonialists. Separated from Malaya largest port and the city of Singapore, the British proclaimed it an independent territorial unit, which since 1959 has become a self-governing state. Malay patriots started guerrilla war against the colonialists. It continued intermittently until 1955. Only in the spring of 1956 did the British government declare that it was ready to recognize the independence of Malaya. The official declaration of independence followed in August 1957.

On June 25, 1950, the offensive of the troops of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea began a war between North and South Korea, which further aggravated the international situation. The US government accused the Democratic People's Republic of Korea of ​​aggression and sent its armed forces to Korea, which took part in the hostilities on the side South Korea. The troops of England, France, Canada and some other US allies joined the American troops, although in small numbers. American diplomats passed a resolution at a meeting of the UN General Assembly condemning the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and declaring US troops and their allies operating in Korea as UN troops.

The Korean War lasted over three years. First, the People's Army of the DPRK established control over 90% of the territory of South Korea, but the American command landed a large landing force in Korea and went on the offensive. By October 1950, US troops occupied a significant part of the DPRK, occupied its capital, Pyongyang, and approached the borders of China. Then the military units of the Chinese People's Republic officially acting as volunteers. Together with the Korean People's Army, they drove their opponents back to the borders of the DPRK. Commanding US troops in Korea, General MacArthur proposed to use atomic bomb, but the US government rejected this proposal, which threatened the most dangerous consequences. In the summer of 1951, peace talks, which two years later, on July 27, 1953, ended with the signing of an armistice. The forces of the belligerents remained on the front line, which took place in areas close to the 38th parallel, i.e. almost on the same lines from which the war began.

The longest and bloodiest of all the colonial wars of this period was the war of the French colonialists in Indochina, on whose territory Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia are located. It lasted almost 8 years, from 1946 to 1954. During this war, rightly called the "dirty war", the colonialists resorted to torture and murder of patriots, to mass repression against the civilian population. At the same time, they made extensive use of political maneuvers, creating puppet governments of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia under their control. In 1949, the French government announced the granting of independence within the framework of the French Union to South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. These states received the right to self-government, but French troops remained on their territory, controlled the armed forces and foreign policy.

The war of the French colonialists against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ended in their defeat. In March 1954, part of the Vietnamese people's army surrounded the fortified area of ​​Dien Bien Phu, where the main forces of the French expeditionary corps. The US government, to which France turned for help, offered to drop an atomic bomb on Dien Bien Phu, but the French government refused such an offer, one of the immediate results of which would be the death of the French garrison. After a two-month siege, the Dien Bien Phu garrison capitulated.

In July 1954, at a meeting of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, the USA, Britain, France, the People's Republic of China and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in Geneva, agreements were signed on the cessation of hostilities in Indochina. The territory of Vietnam was temporarily divided by a demarcation line along the 17th parallel: troops of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam were to concentrate to the north of this line, and troops of the South Vietnamese government to the south. Subsequently, free elections were to be held throughout Vietnam under the supervision of an international commission. However, the holding of free elections was disrupted, and the demarcation line turned into a border between the DRV and South Vietnam for a long time.

The Geneva Accords have not been fully implemented. However, they put an end to the war in Indochina and contributed to the independence of the countries of the Indochinese Peninsula. France finally recognized the independence of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and withdrew its troops from there.

The African continent remained unknown to Europeans for a long time. However, with the advent of the 15th century, the Portuguese began to search for a way to the spice-rich country of India. Such campaigns led to the study of the coast of Africa, because, going around this mainland, the researchers sought to get to the east.

Natives from Portugal began to create in order to enrich themselves for the further journey. Then the enslaved peoples helped not only to organize expeditions, but also to seize new lands.

However, the Portuguese colonization was not extensive, they established their dominance, mainly in some coastal areas. The Portuguese were more interested in:

• slave trade;
• mediation in trade;
• exchange of goods not always equivalent.

From the 17th century, Holland actively launched its expansion, which made a base for further expeditions. At the same time, other overseas states began to encroach on African lands:

• Denmark;
• Sweden;
• Spain;
• France;
• England;
• Courland;
• Brandenburg and others.

Africa became very attractive to the invaders, since there was an expensive commodity on its lands - slaves, most often sent to America, where they had to make goods for Europe. Temptingly attracted also unique natural conditions and wealth:

• gold;
• Ivory;
• diamonds;
• spices.

Therefore, over time, colonization became widespread, and colonial wars became a common thing, without which the process of enslavement never did.

Colonial wars in Africa

The countries of the Mediterranean were the first to establish their power in Africa, and those who were further in Europe followed them over time, since the sole possession of such vast territories could lead to a change in the distribution of forces among European countries.

Wars on African lands took place not only between the invaders and the local population, but also between the colonialists themselves. At first, with the help of trade wars, Europeans sought to establish their superiority in trade and colonies.

During this time (17-18 centuries), the attackers plundered new lands, even if they were foreign colonies. At the same time, piracy flourished near African coast. Trade wars were profitable because the invaders could take valuable goods from the colonies, either through unequal exchange or simply by force.

Such a struggle between European states was aimed at developing their own industry of each of the colonialists, and at expanding the sphere of his influence.

Although Portugal and Spain were the first to set their sights and ambitions on Africa, their supremacy was thrown off by the early 17th century. Then the largest colonialists were:

• Holland;
• England.

The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the capture of the Cape Colony by the British, after which they carried out various wars for the extermination of indigenous peoples for another half a century, which made it possible for the said colony to expand its borders.

France conducted colonial wars in Africa in the north, as a result, all of Algeria submitted to it.

In the west, the United States bought land in order to establish a settlement for Africans there. This territory was called Liberia, and in 1847 became independent republic. Only she retained independence in times mass colonization, which was just beginning, all other states fell under someone's power.

Widespread enslavement began with active geographical research deep in Africa. If the Portuguese were able to study in detail the coast of the continent, now the Europeans were infiltrating the African states by land, studying their way of life and natural conditions.

This process took place in the direction from the South and North Africa, as well as Senegal and the Gold Coast inland. Most of the colonists were from Holland, there were also representatives of Germany, England and France.

All this time locals how could they repulse the invaders, which can be seen * in the movie "Farewell Africa" ​​* however, cruel colonists most often destroyed not only all the rebels, but also entire nations or states. The enslaved inhabitants were deprived of land, property and even livestock.

It was the Dutch, who were called Boers, who were distinguished by special cruelty and savagery. They thoughtlessly mocked the captured peoples, so even other colonists did not always support them. Explicit Conflict existed between the Boers and the British. The latter nevertheless won and received the Dutch lands in southern Africa, because the Dutch could not cope with their power and take a step towards modern ways management.

Usually, even the new methods of government in the colonies did not affect the aggressiveness of exploitation, because the amount of wealth produced had to constantly increase. Therefore, the locals have always been oppressed, which, naturally, inclined them to various wars for your release.

COLONIAL WARS, wars for the seizure of countries and territories in order to turn them into colonies and maintain dominance in them, as well as for the redistribution of colonies. colonial wars - essential element formation of the world capitalist system. They originated during the Great geographical discoveries when hitherto unknown lands became the object of armed seizures European states and began the formation of colonial empires. Colonial wars unfolded, as a rule, in overseas territories, for their conduct, the presence of large navies acquired paramount importance. In the first half of the 16th century, the Spaniards enslaved a significant part of Central and South America, the Portuguese took possession of a vast territory in Asia and Africa; Spanish and Portuguese colonial empires developed. From the end of the 16th century, the Netherlands, having taken a dominant position in the world market, took possession of most of the Portuguese colonies, but, in turn, lost their colonial hegemony as a result of the Anglo-Dutch wars of the 17th-18th centuries. In the 18th century, the main struggle for colonies unfolded between Great Britain and France (see the Seven Years' War of 1756-63). In the 19th century, there was an intensive seizure of the still remaining free countries and territories. Great Britain waged colonial wars in South Asia and other areas. France conquered a large part of Indochina and East Africa. Colonial wars in Africa were launched in the 2nd half of the 19th century by Germany and Italy. Some features of the colonial war had Caucasian war 1817-64, Kokand campaigns, Khiva campaigns and a number of other wars of the Russian Empire.

For the conduct of colonial wars, the armies of the metropolitan states were used, colonial troops were created, which, as a rule, had a decisive superiority in weapons and often waged war on the conquered territories to exterminate entire peoples. Colonial wars were considered "small wars" for the conquerors in terms of the forces and means involved, and the loss of personnel.

By the end of the 19th century, a colonial system had developed, covering 54.9% of the territory and 35.2% of the world's population. Colonial wars became a means of preserving and redistributing colonial territories and spheres of influence of the imperialist powers (see the Spanish-American War of 1898, the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902, etc.). In the 20th century, the colonization of individual countries continued [for example, the Italo-Ethiopian war of 1935-36 (see Italo-Ethiopian wars); Spanish-Reef war in Morocco 1921-24, Franco-Spanish-Reef war 1925-1926]. Colonial wars were waged in order to acquire new sources of raw materials and markets, to expand the sphere of investment of capital. In many ways, these reasons were caused by the First World War 1914-18 and World War II 1939-45.

After World War II, the national liberation struggle of the peoples intensified, and the disintegration of the colonial system began. During this period, the metropolitan states waged colonial wars to preserve their colonies (France - in Algeria, Cameroon, Morocco, Tunisia, Madagascar; Great Britain - in Burma, Malaya and Kenya; Portugal - in Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique; South Africa - in Namibia, etc.) or to restore the colonial regime in young nation states ah (France - in the countries of Indochina, the Netherlands - in Indonesia). With the elimination of the colonial system by the end of the 20th century, more than 90 independent nation-states arose. With them active participation international legal norms condemning and prohibiting colonial wars were developed. Nevertheless, with the collapse of traditional colonialism, the former metropolises and other developed countries, and at the end of the 20th century, within the framework of the policy of neo-colonialism, more than once resorted to armed intervention to establish in the newly-free states what they wanted. political regime, to ensure its dominance over the still remaining dependent territories (for example, the US aggression against Grenada in 1983).

Lit .: Marx K. English cruelties in China // Marx K., Engels F. Works. 2nd ed. M., 1958. T. 12; Engels F. The English army in India //Ibid.; Tarle E. V. Essays on the history of the colonial policy of Western European states: (end of the 15th - beginning of the 19th century). M.; L., 1965; Malinovsky G. V. Modern local wars imperialism against peoples fighting for national independence. M., 1972; Armed struggle of the peoples of Africa for freedom and independence. M., 1974; Mnatsakanyan M. O. Colonialism and its historical forms. M., 1976; Armed struggle of the peoples of Asia for freedom and independence, 1945-1980. M., 1984; Kirshin Yu. Ya., Popov V. M., Savushkin R. A. Political content modern wars. M., 1987.

The countries of Europe, having carried out modernization, received huge advantages in comparison with the rest of the world, which was based on the principles of traditionalism. This advantage also affected the military potential. Therefore, following the era of the Great geographical discoveries, associated mainly with reconnaissance expeditions, already in the 12th-13th centuries, the colonialist expansion of the most developed countries of Europe began. Traditional civilizations, due to the backwardness of their development, were not able to resist this expansion and turned into easy prey for their stronger opponents.

During the first stage of colonization traditional societies Spain and Portugal were in the lead. They managed to conquer most of South America. AT mid-eighteenth Spain and Portugal began to fall behind in economic development And How maritime powers were relegated to the background. Leadership in colonial conquests passed to England. Beginning in 1757, the trading East India English company over the course of almost a hundred years, it captured almost the entire Hindustan. Since 1706, active colonization by the British began North America. In parallel, the development of Australia was going on, on the territory of which the British sent criminals convicted to hard labor. Dutch East India Company took over Indonesia. France established colonial rule in the West Indies, as well as in the New World (Canada).

However, at the end of the XVIII - early XIX century Northern and South America won independence, and the colonial interests of the European powers concentrated in the East and Africa. It was there that colonialism reached its highest flourishing and power, it was there that the disintegration of the colonial system began and ended.

In the 40s. 19th century British East India Company after bloody war conquered the principality of the Punjab and other still independent parts of India, thereby completing its complete subjugation. Active colonial development of the country began: construction railways, land tenure, land use and tax reforms designed to accommodate traditional ways management and lifestyle to the interests of England.

The subjugation of India opened the way for the British to the north and east, to Afghanistan and Burma. In Afghanistan, the colonial interests of England and Russia clashed. After the Anglo-Afghan wars of 1838-1842 and 1878-1881. The British took control of foreign policy this country, but to achieve it complete submission so they couldn't.

As a result of the first (1824-1826) and second (1852-1853) Anglo-Burmese wars waged by the East India Company, its army, which consisted mainly of hired Indian sepoy soldiers under the command of English officers, occupied a large part of Burma. The so-called Upper Burma, which retained its independence, was cut off from the sea in the 60s. England imposed on her unequal treaties, and in the 80s. completely subjugated the entire country.

In the 19th century increased British expansion in Southeast Asia. In 1819, a naval base was founded in Singapore, which became the main stronghold of England in this part of the world. Less successfully for the British ended a long-standing rivalry with Holland in Indonesia, where they managed to establish themselves only in the north of Borneo and small islands.

AT mid-nineteenth in. France captured South Vietnam and made it its colony in the 80s. ousted a weakening China from North Vietnam and established a protectorate over it. At the end of the XIX century. The French created the so-called Indochinese Union, which included Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. The French governor-general was placed at the head of the union.

In the 19th century completed the colonization of Australia. On the territory of New South Wales, the colonies of Tasmania, Victoria (named after the Dutch traveler Tasman and the English Queen Victoria) and Queensland stood out, new independent settlements of Western and South Australia were formed. The influx of free settlers increased. In the middle of the XIX century. they achieved an end to the deportation of convicts to Australia. In the 50s. gold was discovered in New South Wales and Victoria. This attracted to Australia not only new thousands of colonists, but also capital. Moving into the interior of the continent, the settlers subjugated or mercilessly destroyed the local population. As a result, a century later, in the 30s. In the 20th century, out of approximately 7.8 million inhabitants of Australia, 7.2 million were Europeans and only 600 thousand were its indigenous inhabitants.

In the second half of the XIX century. all the colonies in Australia achieved self-government, at the beginning of the 20th century. they united in the Commonwealth of Australia, which received the rights of a dominion. At the same time, the colonization of New Zealand and other nearby islands took place. In 1840, New Zealand became a colony, and in 1907, another white dominion of England.

In the 19th century was subordinated most of Africa. The methods of subjugation were different - from direct military seizures to economic and financial enslavement and the imposition of unequal treaties. Control over the countries of North Africa and Egypt gave the colonial powers huge economic benefits, dominance in the Mediterranean Sea, opened the way to the south of the continent and to the East. From the 16th century the countries of North Africa, with the exception of Morocco, and Egypt were part of Ottoman Empire. At the end of the 18th century, when the military superiority of the Ottomans over Europe had already been lost, France tried to conquer Egypt and create a stronghold there for advancing to India, but Napoleon's Egyptian expedition of 1798-1801. was defeated. In 1830, France invaded Algeria and by 1848 completely conquered it. Tunisia was subjugated "peacefully" in a sharp competitive struggle between England, France and Italy, which in 1869 established united financial control over Tunisia. Gradually, the French ousted competitors from Tunisia and in 1881 proclaimed their protectorate over it.

In the 70s. it was the turn of Egypt, which, remaining part of the Ottoman Empire, sought to pursue an independent policy. The construction of the Suez Canal (1859-1869) brought huge benefits to Europe (the shortest route from mediterranean sea in Indian Ocean) and emptied the Egyptian treasury. Egypt found itself in financial bondage with France and England, which established over it in 1876-1882. so-called dual control. The country was robbed in the most merciless way, more than two-thirds of state revenues went to pay off external debts. About dual control, the Egyptians bitterly joked: "Have you ever seen a dog and a cat taking a mouse for a walk together?" In 1882, Egypt was occupied by British troops, and in 1914 England established its own protectorate over it. In 1922, the protectorate was abolished, Egypt was proclaimed an independent and sovereign state, but this was independence on paper, since England completely controlled the economic, foreign policy and military sphere his life.

By the beginning of the XX century. over 90% of the territory of Africa belonged to the largest colonial powers: England, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, Spain

By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was subjected to strong pressure from the developed countries of Europe. The countries of the Levant (Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine), which were officially considered part of the Ottoman Empire during this period, became a zone of active penetration of Western powers - France, England, Germany. During the same period, Iran lost not only economic but also political independence. At the end of the 19th century, its territory was divided into spheres of influence between England and Russia. Thus, in the 19th century, practically all the countries of the East fell into one form or another of dependence on the most powerful capitalist countries, turning into colonies or semi-colonies. For Western countries colonies were a source of raw materials, financial resources, labor, as well as markets. The exploitation of the colonies by the Western metropolises was of the most cruel, predatory nature. At the cost of merciless exploitation and robbery, the wealth of the western metropolises was created, maintained relatively high level the lives of their population.

It should be noted that in the first three quarter XIX century, continental countries did not particularly bother to acquire colonies. By the way, in the middle of the last century, as already mentioned, the doctrine of freedom of international trade dominated, which was indifferent to the question of colonies, but when, after the Franco-German war of 1870-1871, the continental powers returned to protectionism in trade policy, the desire to acquire colonies. By the way, Germany and Italy wished to have them, which, being politically fragmented until the sixties and seventies of the XIX century, were deprived of the actual opportunity to start their colonies in other parts of the world. The aggravation of protectionist aspirations and the emergence of historical stage The German Empire and the Kingdom of Italy led to the fact that by the end of the 19th century the policy of the major European powers received an imperialist character. Between the great powers began rivalry in the acquisition of overseas territories. England only continued its former conquests, but in France, in the ministry of Jules Ferry, the task was first set, and the implementation of this task began: the transformation of this state into a large colonial empire. By the same time, the beginning of the colonial policy of Germany, as well as Italy, dates back. Even the United States at the very end of the century took a position among the colonial powers, taking away from Spain many of the islands that belonged to it on the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, which was the end of the colonial power of Spain.

On the basis of colonial relations, conflicts arose between some European powers, especially with England, both with France and with Russia, which in the mid-sixties began to make conquests in Central Asia towards English possessions in India. England did not come to military clashes either with France or with Russia, and at the beginning of the 20th century. between the latter, on the one hand, and the first two, on the other, special agreements were even concluded on their colonial possessions. In general, and the whole colonial policy late XIX century has been constantly settled international agreements. In this era, a real "partition of Africa" ​​was even carried out. At the end of 1884 and at the beginning of 1885, a conference of representatives of fourteen states met in Berlin, which created the "independent state of the Congo" in Africa, which later became the property of Belgium. The Berlin conference was followed by a number of other, already private agreements between individual states on colonial affairs. At the very end of the 19th century, events took place (the Sino-Japanese and American-Spanish wars, and the uprising of the Chinese against the Europeans), which made the center of political attention Far East and the Great Ocean. To the six great powers in Europe in international politics, two new ones were added outside of it: Japan and the United States, and international politics took on a literally world character. The weakness of China, which was revealed at that time, entailed something like its division among the European powers, which, in turn, caused an uprising in China against the Europeans and the intervention of a united Europe in Chinese affairs, when the military contingent different states made a trip to the capital of the Bogdykhan under the command of a German field marshal (1901). This campaign was only thirteen years before the start of the World War, one of the main reasons for which, as is known, lay in the sharply imperialist character that the European foreign policy during these years.

For the great European powers of the late 19th century colonial expansion was an economic necessity. All growing industry required overseas raw materials (cotton, rubber), the invention of engines internal combustion caused a colossal demand for oil and a struggle for its limited natural sources. Finally, victorious capitalism, by its nature incapable of being satisfied with domestic markets, starts chasing after external ones. Political domination becomes the form, instrument and armor of economic exploitation. The old colonial Empires of England and Holland are waking up from their age-old slumber for new feverish work. The peoples who arrived late are hastily building their new empires across the sea: France, Belgium, Italy, Germany. However, sero venientibus ossa. For Germany, there was no longer a “place under the sun” of Africa and Asia that was sufficiently profitable, and she turned the main axis of her expansion to the Middle East. Here she penetrated into the imperialist zone of forces of England and Russia, which was one of the main causes of the first great war.