The First World War was the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved.

The main reason for the war was the contradictions between the powers of two large blocs - the Entente (a coalition of Russia, England and France) and the Triple Alliance (a coalition of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy).

The reason for the start of an armed clash was the terrorist attack by a member of the Mlada Bosna organization, a high school student Gavrilo Princip, during which on June 28 (all dates are given according to the new style) 1914, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were killed in Sarajevo.

On July 23, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia, in which it accused the country's government of supporting terrorism and demanded that its military formations be allowed into the territory. Despite the fact that the note of the Serbian government expressed readiness to resolve the conflict, the Austro-Hungarian government declared that it was not satisfied and declared war on Serbia. On July 28, hostilities began on the Austro-Serbian border.

On July 30, Russia announced a general mobilization, fulfilling its allied obligations to Serbia. Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3, as well as on neutral Belgium, which refused to let German troops through its territory. On August 4, Great Britain with its dominions declared war on Germany, on August 6, Austria-Hungary - Russia.

In August 1914, Japan joined the hostilities, in October, Turkey entered the war on the side of the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc. In October 1915, Bulgaria joined the bloc of the so-called Central States.

In May 1915, under diplomatic pressure from Great Britain, Italy, which initially took a position of neutrality, declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916, on Germany.

The main land fronts were the Western (French) and Eastern (Russian) fronts, the main maritime theaters of military operations were the North, Mediterranean and Baltic Seas.

Hostilities began on the Western Front - German troops acted according to the Schlieffen plan, which involved a large offensive against France through Belgium. However, Germany's calculation of a quick defeat of France turned out to be untenable; by mid-November 1914, the war on the Western Front took on a positional character. The confrontation went along a line of trenches with a length of about 970 kilometers along the German border with Belgium and France. Until March 1918, any, even minor changes in the front line were achieved here at the cost of huge losses on both sides.

The eastern front during the maneuverable period of the war was located on the strip along the border of Russia with Germany and Austria-Hungary, then - mainly on the western border strip of Russia. The beginning of the 1914 campaign on the Eastern Front was marked by the desire of the Russian troops to fulfill their obligations to the French and pull the German forces from the Western Front. During this period, two major battles took place - the East Prussian operation and the Battle of Galicia, during these battles the Russian army defeated the Austro-Hungarian troops, occupied Lvov and pushed the enemy back to the Carpathians, blocking the large Austrian fortress of Przemysl. However, the losses of soldiers and equipment were colossal, due to the underdevelopment of transport routes, replenishment and ammunition did not have time to arrive on time, so the Russian troops could not build on their success.

On the whole, the 1914 campaign ended in favor of the Entente. German troops were defeated on the Marne, Austrian - in Galicia and Serbia, Turkish - at Sarykamysh. In the Far East, Japan captured the port of Jiaozhou, the Caroline, Mariana and Marshall Islands, which belonged to Germany, British troops captured the rest of Germany's possessions in the Pacific. Later, in July 1915, British troops captured German South-West Africa (a German protectorate in Africa) after protracted fighting.

The First World War was marked by the testing of new means of warfare and weapons. On October 8, 1914, the first air raid was carried out: British aircraft raided the German airship workshops in Friedrichshafen. After this raid, aircraft of a new class, bombers, began to be created.

The defeat ended the large-scale Dardanelles landing operation (1915-1916) - a naval expedition that the Entente countries equipped in early 1915 with the aim of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, withdrawing Turkey from the war and attracting allies to the side Balkan states. On the Eastern Front, by the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops had driven the Russians out of almost all of Galicia and most of Russian Poland.

On April 22, 1915, during the battles near Ypres (Belgium), Germany used chemical weapons for the first time. After that, poison gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used regularly by both warring parties.

In the 1916 campaign, Germany again shifted its main efforts to the West in order to withdraw France from the war, but a powerful blow to France during the Verdun operation ended in failure. This was largely facilitated by the Russian Southwestern Front, which made a breakthrough of the Austro-Hungarian front in Galicia and Volhynia. The Anglo-French troops launched a decisive offensive on the Somme River, but, despite all efforts and the involvement of huge forces and means, they could not break through the German defenses. During this operation, the British used tanks for the first time. At sea, the largest battle of Jutland in the war took place, in which German Navy failed. As a result of the military campaign of 1916, the Entente seized the strategic initiative.

In late 1916, Germany and its allies first began to talk about the possibility of a peace agreement. The Entente rejected this proposal. During this period, the armies of the states actively participating in the war numbered 756 divisions, twice as many as at the beginning of the war. However, they lost the most qualified military personnel. The bulk of the soldiers were reserve older ages and youth of early conscription, poorly prepared in military-technical terms and not physically trained enough.

In 1917 two major events radically influenced the balance of forces of opponents.
On April 6, 1917, the United States, which had long been neutral in the war, decided to declare war on Germany. One of the reasons was an incident off the southeast coast of Ireland, when a German submarine sank the British liner Lusitania, sailing from the USA to England, on board which was large group Americans, 128 of them died.

Following the United States in 1917, China, Greece, Brazil, Cuba, Panama, Liberia and Siam also entered the war on the side of the Entente.

The second major change in the confrontation of forces was caused by Russia's withdrawal from the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks who came to power signed an armistice agreement. On March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded, according to which Russia renounced its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardagan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey.

In total, Russia has lost about one million square kilometers. In addition, she was obliged to pay Germany an indemnity of six billion marks.

The largest battles of the 1917 campaign of the year - the Nevel offensive operation and the operation at Cambrai, showed the value of using tanks in battle and laid the foundation for tactics based on the interaction of infantry, artillery, tanks and aircraft on the battlefield.

On August 8, 1918, in the battle of Amiens, the German front was torn apart by the Allied forces: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight - this battle was the last major battle of the war.

On September 29, 1918, after the Entente offensive on the Solonik front, Bulgaria signed a truce, Turkey capitulated in October, and Austria-Hungary on November 3.

In Germany, popular unrest began: on October 29, 1918, in the port of Kiel, a team of two warships broke out of obedience and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. Mass mutinies began: the soldiers intended to establish councils of soldiers' and sailors' deputies in northern Germany on the Russian model. On November 9, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and a republic was proclaimed.

November 11, 1918 at the Retonde station in the Compiègne forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiègne truce. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks, establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; transfer guns and vehicles to the allies, release all prisoners. The political provisions of the agreement provided for the abolition of the Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties, the financial ones - the payment of reparations for the destruction and the return of valuables.

The final terms of the peace treaty with Germany were determined at the Paris Peace Conference at the Palace of Versailles on June 28, 1919.

The First World War, which for the first time in the history of mankind engulfed the territories of two continents (Eurasia, Africa) and vast sea areas, radically reshaped political map world and became one of the largest and bloodiest. During the war, 70 million people were mobilized into the ranks of the armies; of these, 9.5 million were killed and died of wounds, more than 20 million were injured, 3.5 million were left crippled. Nai big losses Germany, Russia, France and Austria-Hungary suffered (66.6% of all losses).

The total cost of the war, including property losses, was estimated at between $208 billion and $359 billion.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources

TAKE PART IN THE FATE OF SERBIA

After the presentation of the Austrian ultimatum, the Prince Regent of Serbia, Alexander, sent an urgent telegram Russian emperor, in which, in particular, he wrote: “Among the conditions are those that will require a change in our legislation, and for this we need time. The deadline is too short. The Austro-Hungarian army is concentrating near our border and can attack us after the deadline. We cannot defend ourselves. Therefore, we beg Your Majesty to help us as soon as possible. Your Majesty has given us so much evidence of his precious favor, and we firmly hope that this appeal will find a response in his Slavic and noble heart. I am the spokesman for the feelings of the Serbian people, who, in these difficult times, beg Your Majesty to take part in the fate of Serbia.”

Nicholas II inscribed on the text of the telegram: “A very modest and worthy telegram. What to answer him?

MAURICE PALEOLOGUE ON THE TERRITORIAL CLAIMS OF NICHOLAS

How, Your Majesty, do you imagine common grounds peace?

After a moment's thought, the emperor replies:

The most important thing that we must establish is the destruction of German militarism, the end of the nightmare in which Germany has been keeping us for more than forty years. Need to be taken away from German people any possibility of revenge. If we allow ourselves to be moved to pity, it will be a new war in a little while. As for the exact terms of the peace, I hasten to tell you that I approve in advance everything that France and England consider it necessary to demand in their own interests,

I am grateful to Your Majesty for this statement, and I am confident for my part that the Government of the Republic will meet in the most sympathetic way the wishes of the Imperial Government.

This prompts me to tell you my thought in its entirety. But I will only speak for myself personally, because I do not want to decide such questions without listening to the advice of my ministers and generals.<...>

This is how, approximately, I imagine the results that Russia has the right to expect from the war and without which my people would not understand the labors that I forced them to endure. Germany will have to agree to the correction of the borders in East Prussia. My general staff would like this correction to reach the banks of the Vistula; it seems to me excessive; I'll see. Posen and perhaps a part of Silesia will be necessary for the reconstruction of Poland. Galicia and the northern part of Bukovina will allow Russia to reach its natural limits - the Carpathians ... In Asia Minor, I will naturally have to deal with the Armenians; it will not be possible, of course, to leave them under the Turkish yoke. Should I annex Armenia? I will add it only at the special request of the Armenians. If not, I will set up an independent government for them. Finally, I will have to secure free passage for my empire through the straits.

Since he pauses at these words, I ask him to explain himself. He continues:

My thoughts are still far from established. After all, the question is so important ... There are still two conclusions to which I always return. First, that the Turks must be expelled from Europe; the second is that Constantinople must henceforth become a neutral city, under international administration. It goes without saying that the Mohammedans would receive a full guarantee of respect for their shrines and graves. Northern Thrace, up to the Enos-Media line, would have been annexed to Bulgaria. The rest, from this line to the seashore, excluding the vicinity of Constantinople, would have been given to Russia.

Paleolog M. Tsarist Russia during the World War. M., 1991.

Georges Maurice Palaiologos - French diplomat; in 1914 he was the ambassador of France in St. Petersburg

THE HIGHEST MANIFESTO ON RUSSIA'S ENTRY INTO THE WAR

By the grace of God, we, NICHOLAS II,
Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia,
king of Poland Grand Duke Finnish
and other, and other, and other.

We declare to all our faithful subjects:

Following its historical precepts, Russia, united by faith and blood with Slavic peoples, never looked at their fate indifferently. With complete unanimity and special strength, the fraternal feelings of the Russian people for the Slavs in last days when Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with demands that were obviously unacceptable for the Sovereign State. Despising the compliant and peaceful response of the Serbian government, rejecting the benevolent mediation of Russia, Austria hastily launched an armed attack, opening the bombardment of defenseless Belgrade.

Forced, by virtue of the circumstances, to take the necessary precautions, We ordered that the army and navy be brought to martial law, but, cherishing the blood and property of Our subjects, We made every effort to achieve a peaceful outcome of the negotiations that had begun. In the midst of friendly relations, Germany, an ally of Austria, contrary to Our hopes for an age-old good neighborhood and not heeding Our assurance that Taken measures do not have goals hostile to it, began to seek their immediate abolition and, having met with a refusal in this demand, suddenly declared war on Russia.

Now it is no longer necessary to intercede only for the unjustly offended country related to Us, but to protect the honor, dignity, integrity of Russia and its position among the Great Powers.

We unshakably believe that all Our faithful subjects will unanimously and selflessly stand up to defend the Russian Land.

In the terrible hour of testing, let them be forgotten, internal strife. May the unity of the Tsar with His people be strengthened even more closely, and may Russia, which has risen as one man, repulse the daring onslaught of the enemy.

With deep faith in the righteousness of Our cause and humble hope in the Almighty Providence, We prayerfully call on Holy Russia and Our valiant troops for God's blessing.

Given in St. Petersburg, on the twentieth day of July, in the summer of the Nativity of Christ, one thousand nine hundred and fourteenth, while Our reign is in the twentieth.

On the original of His Own Imperial Majesty is signed by hand:

NIKOLAY

BAYONE AND FEATHER

Vladimir Mayakovsky

War is declared

“Evening! Evening! Evening!
Italy! Germany! Austria!"
And on the square, darkly outlined by black,
a stream of crimson blood spilled!

The coffee house broke the muzzle into the blood,
the beastly cry of Bagrim:
"Let's poison the games of Rein with blood!
Thundering cannonballs on the marble of Rome!

From the sky, torn on bayonets sting,
the tears of the stars were sifted like flour in a sieve,
and soles of compressed pity squealed:
"Ah, let go, let go, let go!"

Bronze generals on a faceted plinth
they prayed: “Unchain, and we will go!”
The kisses of the farewell cavalry clicked,
and the infantry wanted to kill - victory.

The towering city was born in a dream
the laughing voice of a cannon bass,
and red snow falls from the west
juicy shreds of human meat.

The company swells at the square behind the company,
the angry veins bulge on the forehead.
"Wait, checkers on silk cocotte
wipe, wipe in the boulevards of Vienna!

Newspapermen were tearing themselves up: “Buy evening!
Italy! Germany! Austria!"
And from the night, darkly outlined by black,
crimson blood flowed and flowed stream.

Dated August 1, 1914. The main reasons for the beginning of this bloody action can be called political and economic conflicts between the states that were part of two military-political blocs: the Triple Alliance, which consisted of Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary, and the Entente, which included Russia, France and Great Britain.

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Tip 2: Why Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen Plan

Schlieffen's strategic plan, which assumed a quick victory for Germany in the First World War, was not implemented. But he still continues to excite the minds of military historians, because this plan was unusually risky and interesting.

Most military historians are inclined to think that if the plan of the Chief of the German General Staff Alfred von Schlieffen were implemented, the First World War could go completely to the scenario. But back in 1906, the German strategist was removed from his post and his followers were afraid to implement Schlieffen's idea.

Lightning war plan

At the beginning of the last century, Germany began planning for a major war. This was due to the fact that France, defeated several decades earlier, was clearly hatching plans for military revenge. The German leadership was not particularly afraid of the French threat. But in the east, Russia, which was an ally of the Third Republic, was gaining economic and military power. For Germany, there was a real danger of a war on two fronts. Well aware of this, Kaiser Wilhelm ordered von Schlieffen to develop a plan for a victorious war under these conditions.

And Schlieffen, in a fairly short time, created such a plan. According to his idea, Germany was to start the first war against France, concentrating 90% of all its armed forces in this direction. Moreover, this war was supposed to be lightning fast. Only 39 days were allotted for the capture of Paris. For the final victory - 42.

It was assumed that Russia would not be able to mobilize in such a short time. German troops, after the victory over France, will be transferred to the border with Russia. Kaiser Wilhelm approved the plan, while saying famous phrase: "We will have lunch in Paris, and we will have dinner in St. Petersburg."

Failure of the Schlieffen plan

Helmuth von Moltke, who replaced Schlieffen with the Chief of the German General Staff, took the Schlieffen plan without much enthusiasm, considering it too risky. And for this reason, he subjected him to a thorough processing. In particular, he refused to concentrate the main forces of the German army on the western front and, for reasons of precaution, sent a significant part of the troops to the east.

But Schlieffen planned coverage French army from the flanks and its complete encirclement. But due to the transfer of significant forces to the east, the German group of troops on the western front simply did not have enough available funds for this. As a result, the French troops not only were not surrounded, but also managed to launch a powerful counterattack.

The calculation of the slowness of the Russian army in terms of protracted mobilization also did not justify itself. The invasion of Russian troops into East Prussia literally stunned the German command. Germany found itself in the grip of two fronts.

Sources:

• Side Plans

The First World War began in 1914 after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and lasted until 1918. In the conflict, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire (Central Powers) fought Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan, and the United States (Allied Powers).

Thanks to new military technology and the horrors of trench warfare, World War I was unprecedented in terms of bloodshed and destruction. By the time the war ended and the victory of the Allied Powers, more than 16 million people, both soldiers and civilians, were dead.

The beginning of the first world war

Tension hung over Europe, especially in the problematic Balkan region and southeastern Europe, long before the actual start of the First World War. Some alliances that included European powers, the Ottoman Empire, Russia and other powers had existed for years, but political instability in the Balkans (in particular Bosnia, Serbia and Herzegovina) threatened to destroy these agreements.

The spark that ignited the First World War originated in Sarajevo (Bosnia), where Archduke Franz Ferdinand - heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire - was shot dead along with his wife Sofia by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914. Princip and other nationalists were fed up with Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The assassination of Franz Ferdinand set off a rapidly spreading chain of events: Austria-Hungary, like many other countries around the world, blamed the Serbian government for the attack and hoped to use the incident to settle the issue of Serbian nationalism once and for all under the pretense of restoring justice.

But because Russia supported Serbia, Austria-Hungary delayed declaring war until their leaders received confirmation from the German ruler, Kaiser Wilhelm II, that Germany would support their cause. Austria-Hungary was afraid that the Russian intervention would also attract Russia's allies - France, and possibly Great Britain.

On July 5, Kaiser Wilhelm secretly pledged his support, giving Austria-Hungary the so-called carte blanche to take action and the assurance that Germany would be on their side in case of war. The dualistic Monarchy of Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia with conditions so harsh that they could not be accepted.

Convinced that Austria-Hungary is preparing for war, the Serbian government orders the mobilization of the army and asks for help from Russia. July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia and the fragile peace between the greatest European powers collapses. For a week, Russia, Belgium, France, Great Britain and Serbia oppose Austria-Hungary and Germany. Thus began the First World War.

Western front

According to aggressive military strategy known as the Schlieffen plan (named for the head of the German General Staff General Alfred von Schlieffen), Germany began to fight in the First World War on two fronts, invading France through neutral Belgium in the west and confronting powerful Russia in the east.

On August 4, 1914, German troops crossed the Belgian border. In the first battle of the First World War, the Germans laid siege to the well-fortified city of Liege. They used the most powerful weapon in their arsenal, heavy artillery pieces, and captured the city by 15 August. Leaving death and destruction in their wake, including the shooting of civilians and the execution of a Belgian priest who was suspected of organizing civil resistance, the Germans advanced through Belgium towards France.

In the first battle of the Marne, which took place on September 6-9, French and British troops entered the battle with the German army, which penetrated deep into French territory from the northeast and was already 50 kilometers from Paris. Allied forces halted the German advance and launched a successful counterattack, driving the Germans back north of the Ein River.

The defeat meant the end of the German plans for a quick victory over France. Both sides dug in trenches, and the western front turned into a hellish war of extermination that lasted more than three years.

Particularly long and major battles of the campaign took place at Verdun (February-December 1916) and on the Somme (July-November 1916). The combined losses of the German and French armies amount to about a million casualties in the Battle of Verdun alone.

The bloodshed on the battlefields of the western front and the hardships faced by the soldiers over the years inspired such works as: “All Quiet on the Western Front” by Erich Maria Remarque and “In the Fields of Flanders” by Canadian doctor Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae.

Eastern front

On the eastern front During the First World War, Russian troops invaded the German-controlled regions of Eastern and Poland, but were stopped by German and Austrian forces at the Battle of Tannenberg in late August 1914.

Despite this victory, the Russian attack forced Germany to transfer 2 corps from the western to the eastern front, which ultimately had an impact on the German defeat at the Battle of the Marne.
Violent allied resistance in France, coupled with the ability to quickly mobilize Russia's huge war machine, led to a longer and more exhausting military confrontation than the quick victory plan that Germany had hoped for under the Schlieffen plan.

Revolution in Russia

From 1914 to 1916, the Russian Army launched several attacks on the eastern front, but the Russian Army was unable to break through the German defensive lines.

The defeats on the battlefields, coupled with economic instability and a shortage of food and basic necessities, led to growing discontent among the bulk of the Russian population, especially among the poor workers and peasants. The increased hostility was directed against the monarchical regime of Emperor Nicholas II and his extremely unpopular German-born wife.

Russian instability exceeded the boiling point, which resulted in the Russian Revolution of 1917, led by and. The revolution ended monarchical rule and led to the end of Russia's participation in the First World War. Russia reached an agreement to cease hostilities with the Central Powers in early December 1917, freeing German troops to fight the remaining Allies on the western front.

USA enters World War I

At the outbreak of hostilities in 1914, the United States preferred to remain on the sidelines, adhering to President Woodrow Wilson's policy of neutrality. At the same time, they maintained commercial relations and trade with European countries on both sides of the conflict.

Neutrality, however, became more difficult to maintain as German submarines became aggressive against neutral ships, even those carrying only passengers. In 1915, Germany declared the waters around the British Isles a war zone and German submarines sank several commercial and passenger ships, including US ships.

Widespread public outcry was caused by the sinking of the British transatlantic liner Lusitania by a German submarine en route from New York to Liverpool. Hundreds of Americans were on board, which in May 1915 caused a shift in American public opinion against Germany. In February 1917, the US Congress passed a $250 million arms appropriation bill to enable the US to prepare for war.

Germany sank 4 more merchant ship United States in the same month, and on April 2, President Woodrow Wilson addressed Congress, calling for a declaration of war on Germany.

Dardanelles operation and the battle of the Isonzo

When the First World War put Europe in a stalemate, the Allies made an attempt to defeat Ottoman Empire, which entered the war on the side of the Central Powers at the end of 1914.

After a failed attack on the Dardanelles (the strait connecting Marble and Aegean Sea), British-led Allied troops landed heavily on the Gallipoli peninsula in April 1915.

The invasion turned out to be a crushing defeat and in January 1916 the Allied forces were forced to make a full retreat from the coast of the peninsula, having suffered losses of 250,000 people.
The young, First Lord of the Admiralty of Great Britain resigned as commander after the lost Gallipoli campaign in 1916, accepting an appointment as commander of an infantry battalion in France.

British-led forces also fought in Egypt and Mesopotamia. At the same time, in northern Italy, Austrian and Italian troops met in a series of 12 battles on the banks of the Isonzo River, located on the border of the two states.

The first Battle of the Isonzo took place in the late spring of 1915, shortly after Italy entered the war on the side of the Allies. At the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, also known as the Battle of Caporetto (October 1917), German reinforcements helped Austria-Hungary win a landslide victory.

After Caporetto, Italy's allies got involved in the confrontation to provide Italy with support. British and French, and then American troops landed in the region, and Allied troops began to retake lost ground on the Italian front.

World War I at sea

In the years leading up to the First World War, the superiority of the British Royal Navy was undeniable, but the German Imperial Navy made significant progress in closing the gap between the forces of the two fleets. Strength German Navy in open waters supported by deadly submarines.

After the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915, in which Great Britain launched a surprise attack on German ships in the North Sea, the German Navy chose not to engage in battle with the mighty British Royal Navy in major battles throughout the year, preferring to pursue a strategy of hidden strikes by submarines.

largest naval battle World War I - Battle of Jutland in the North Sea (May 1916). The battle confirmed British naval superiority, and Germany made no further attempts to lift the Allied naval blockade until the end of the war.

Towards a truce

Germany was able to strengthen its position on the western front after the armistice with Russia, which forced the Allied forces to struggle to contain the German advance until the arrival of reinforcements promised by the United States.

On July 15, 1918, German troops launched what would become the last attack of the war on French troops, which were joined by 85,000 american soldiers and British expeditionary corps, in the second Battle of the Marne. The Allies successfully repulsed the German offensive and launched their own counterattack after only 3 days.

Having suffered significant losses, the German forces were forced to abandon the plan to attack in the north in Flanders - the region stretching between France and Belgium. The region seemed particularly important to Germany's prospects for victory.

The Second Battle of the Marne turned the balance of power in favor of the Allies, who were able to take control of large parts of France and Belgium in the following months. By the autumn of 1918, the Central Powers were losing on all fronts. Despite the Turkish victory at Gallipoli, subsequent defeats and the Arab revolt devastated the Ottoman economy and devastated their lands. The Turks were forced to sign a settlement agreement with the Allies at the end of October 1918.

Austria-Hungary, eroded from within by the growing nationalist movement, concluded an armistice on 4 November. The German army was cut off from supplies from the rear and faced with a decrease in resources for combat operations due to the encirclement of Allied troops. This forced Germany to seek an armistice, which she concluded on November 11, 1918, ending the First World War.

Treaty of Versailles

At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Allied leaders expressed their desire to build a post-war world capable of protecting itself from future destructive conflicts.

Some hopeful conference attendees even called World War I "The War to End All Other Wars." But the Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, did not achieve its goals.

As the years passed, the hatred of the Germans for Treaty of Versailles and its authors will be considered one of the main reasons that provoked the Second World War.

Results of the First World War

The First World War claimed the lives of more than 9 million soldiers and more than 21 million were wounded. Losses among the civilian population amounted to about 10 million. Germany and France suffered the most significant losses, sending about 80 percent of their male population between the ages of 15 and 49 to the war.

Decay political alliances, which accompanied the First World War, led to the displacement of 4 monarchical dynasties: German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian and Turkish.

The First World War led to a massive shift in social strata, as millions of women were forced to go into working professions to support the men fighting at the front and replace those who never returned from the battlefields.

The first, such a large-scale war, also caused the spread of one of the world's largest epidemics of the Spanish flu, or "Spanish flu", which claimed the lives of 20 to 50 million people.

The First World War is also called the "first modern war", as it was the first time that the latest military developments were used in it, such as machine guns, tanks, aircraft and radio transmissions.

The grave consequences caused by the use of chemical weapons such as mustard gas and phosgene against soldiers and civilians have intensified public opinion in the direction of prohibiting their further use as weapons.

Signed in 1925, it banned the use of chemical and biological weapons in armed conflicts to this day.

“The times have already passed when other peoples divided land and water among themselves, and we Germans were content with only blue sky... We also demand a place in the sun for ourselves, "said Chancellor von Bülow. As in the days of the Crusaders or Frederick II, the emphasis on military force is becoming one of the leading guidelines for Berlin politics. Such aspirations were based on a solid material base. The unification made it possible Germany significantly increased its potential, and rapid economic growth turned it into a powerful industrial power.At the beginning of the 20th century, it became the second largest industrial power in the world.

The reasons for the brewing world conflict were rooted in the intensification of the struggle between rapidly developing Germany and other powers for sources of raw materials and markets. To achieve world domination, Germany sought to defeat its three most powerful opponents in Europe - England, France and Russia, who united in front of the emerging threat. Germany's goal was to seize the resources and "living space" of these countries - the colonies from England and France and the western lands from Russia (Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus). In this way, the most important direction Berlin's aggressive strategy remained "onslaught to the East", to the Slavic lands, where the German sword was to win a place for the German plow. In this, Germany was supported by its ally Austria-Hungary. The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans, where the Austro-German diplomacy managed to split the alliance on the basis of the division of Ottoman possessions. Balkan countries and trigger a second Balkan War between Bulgaria and the rest of the region. In June 1914, in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo, the Serbian student G. Princip killed the heir to the Austrian throne, Prince Ferdinand. This gave the Viennese authorities a reason to blame Serbia for what they had done and start a war against it, which had the goal of establishing the dominance of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans. Aggression destroyed the system of independent Orthodox states, created by the centuries-old struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Russia, as the guarantor of Serbian independence, tried to influence the position of the Habsburgs by starting mobilization. This prompted the intervention of William II. He demanded that Nicholas II stop mobilization, and then, breaking off negotiations, declared war on Russia on July 19, 1914.

Two days later, William declared war on France, which was defended by England. Turkey became an ally of Austria-Hungary. She attacked Russia, forcing her to fight on two land fronts (Western and Caucasian). After Turkey entered the war, which closed the straits, the Russian Empire found itself virtually isolated from its allies. Thus began the First World War. Unlike other main participants in the global conflict, Russia did not have aggressive plans to fight for resources. Russian state by the end of the 18th century. achieved its main territorial objectives in Europe. It did not need additional lands and resources, and therefore was not interested in war. On the contrary, it was its resources and sales markets that attracted the aggressors. In this global confrontation, Russia, first of all, acted as a force holding back German-Austrian expansionism and Turkish revanchism, which were aimed at seizing its territories. At the same time, the tsarist government tried to use this war to solve its strategic problems. First of all, they were associated with the seizure of control over the straits and the provision of free access to the Mediterranean. The annexation of Galicia, where there were hostile Russian Orthodox Church Uniate centers.

The German attack caught Russia in the process of rearmament, which was scheduled to be completed by 1917. This partly explains the persistence of Wilhelm II in unleashing aggression, the delay with which deprived the Germans of the chance of success. In addition to military-technical weakness, Russia's "Achilles' heel" has become the insufficient moral preparation of the population. The leadership of Russia was poorly aware of the total nature of the future war, in which all types of struggle were used, including ideological ones. This was of great importance for Russia, since its soldiers could not compensate for the lack of shells and cartridges with a firm and clear belief in the justice of their struggle. For example, the French people lost part of their territories and national wealth in the war with Prussia. Humiliated by defeat, he knew what he was fighting for. For the Russian population, which had not fought the Germans for a century and a half, the conflict with them was largely unexpected. And in the highest circles, not everyone saw the German Empire as a cruel enemy. This was facilitated by: kindred dynastic ties, similar political systems long and close relationship between the two countries. Germany, for example, was Russia's main foreign trade partner. Contemporaries also drew attention to the weakening of the feeling of patriotism in the educated strata of Russian society, who were sometimes brought up in thoughtless nihilism towards their homeland. So, in 1912, the philosopher V.V. Rozanov wrote: "The French have "che" re France", the British have "Old England". The Germans have "our old Fritz". Only the last Russian gymnasium and university - "damned Russia". A serious strategic miscalculation of the government of Nicholas II was the inability to ensure the unity and cohesion of the nation on the eve of a formidable military clash. As for Russian society, as a rule, it did not feel the prospect of a long and exhausting struggle with a strong, energetic enemy. Few foresaw the onset of the "terrible years of Russia." Most hoped for the end of the campaign by December 1914.

1914 campaign Western theater

The German plan for a war on two fronts (against Russia and France) was drawn up in 1905 by the Chief of the General Staff, A. von Schlieffen. It envisaged the containment of the slowly mobilizing Russians by small forces and the main attack in the west against France. After its defeat and surrender, it was supposed to quickly transfer forces to the east and deal with Russia. The Russian plan had two options - offensive and defensive. The first was drawn up under the influence of the allies. Even before the completion of the mobilization, he envisaged an offensive on the flanks (against East Prussia and Austrian Galicia) to ensure a central attack on Berlin. Another plan, drawn up in 1910-1912, proceeded from the fact that the Germans would strike the main blow in the east. In this case, Russian troops were withdrawn from Poland to the defensive line of Vilna-Bialystok-Brest-Rovno. In the end, events began to develop according to the first option. Starting the war, Germany brought down all its power on France. Despite the lack of reserves due to the slow mobilization in the vast expanses of Russia, the Russian army, true to its allied obligations, went on the offensive in East Prussia on August 4, 1914. The haste was also explained by the persistent requests for help from the allied France, which was suffering a strong onslaught of the Germans.

East Prussian operation (1914). From the Russian side, this operation was attended by: 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 2nd (General Samsonov) armies. The front of their offensive was divided by the Masurian Lakes. The 1st Army advanced north of the Masurian Lakes, the 2nd - to the south. In East Prussia, the Russians were opposed by the German 8th Army (Generals Prittwitz, then Hindenburg). Already on August 4, the first battle took place near the city of Stallupenen, in which the 3rd Corps of the 1st Russian Army (General Yepanchin) fought with the 1st Corps of the 8th German Army (General Francois). The fate of this stubborn battle was decided by the 29th Russian Infantry Division (General Rosenshield-Paulin), which struck the Germans in the flank and forced them to retreat. Meanwhile, the 25th division of General Bulgakov captured Stallupenen. The losses of the Russians amounted to 6.7 thousand people, the Germans - 2 thousand. On August 7, the German troops gave a new, larger battle to the 1st Army. Using the division of its forces, advancing from two directions to Goldap and Gumbinnen, the Germans tried to break the 1st Army in parts. On the morning of August 7, the German shock group fiercely attacked 5 Russian divisions in the Gumbinnen area, trying to pincer them. The Germans pressed the right Russian flank. But in the center they suffered significant damage from artillery fire and were forced to begin a retreat. The German onslaught at Goldap also ended in failure. Total losses Germans amounted to about 15 thousand people. The Russians lost 16.5 thousand people. Failures in the battles with the 1st Army, as well as the offensive from the southeast of the 2nd Army, which threatened to cut off the path to the west of Pritvitz, forced the German commander to initially order a retreat beyond the Vistula (this was provided for by the first version of the Schlieffen plan). But this order was never carried out, largely due to the inaction of Rennenkampf. He did not pursue the Germans and stood still for two days. This allowed the 8th Army to get out of the attack and regroup forces. Not having accurate information about the location of Prittwitz's forces, the commander of the 1st Army then moved it to Koenigsberg. Meanwhile, the German 8th Army withdrew in a different direction (to the south of Koenigsberg).

While Rennenkampf was marching on Koenigsberg, the 8th Army, led by General Hindenburg, concentrated all its forces against the army of Samsonov, who did not know about such a maneuver. The Germans, thanks to the interception of radio messages, were aware of all the plans of the Russians. On August 13, Hindenburg attacked the 2nd Army with an unexpected blow from almost all of its East Prussian divisions, and in 4 days of fighting inflicted a severe defeat on it. Samsonov, having lost command of the troops, shot himself. According to German data, the damage of the 2nd Army amounted to 120 thousand people (including over 90 thousand prisoners). The Germans lost 15 thousand people. They then attacked the 1st Army, which had withdrawn behind the Neman by 2 September. The East Prussian operation had severe tactical and especially moral consequences for the Russians. This was their first such major defeat in history in battles with the Germans, who gained a sense of superiority over the enemy. However, tactically won by the Germans, this operation strategically meant for them the failure of the blitzkrieg plan. To save East Prussia, they had to transfer considerable forces from the western theater of operations, where the fate of the entire war was then decided. This saved France from defeat and forced Germany to be drawn into a disastrous struggle for her on two fronts. The Russians, having replenished their forces with fresh reserves, soon again went on the offensive in East Prussia.

Battle of Galicia (1914). The most grandiose and significant operation for the Russians at the beginning of the war was the battle for Austrian Galicia (August 5 - September 8). It was attended by 4 armies of the Russian Southwestern Front(under the command of General Ivanov) and 3 Austro-Hungarian armies (under the command of Archduke Friedrich), as well as the German group of Woyrsch. The parties had an approximately equal number of fighters. In total, it reached 2 million people. The battle began with the Lublin-Kholm and Galich-Lvov operations. Each of them was larger than East Prussian operation. The Lublin-Kholm operation began with an attack by the Austro-Hungarian troops on the right flank of the Southwestern Front in the region of Lublin and Kholm. There were: 4th (General Zankl, then Evert) and 5th (General Plehve) Russian armies. After fierce oncoming battles at Krasnik (August 10-12), the Russians were defeated and were pressed against Lublin and Kholm. At the same time, the Galich-Lvov operation was taking place on the left flank of the Southwestern Front. In it, the left-flank Russian armies - the 3rd (General Ruzsky) and the 8th (General Brusilov), repelling the onslaught, went on the offensive. Having won the battle near the Rotten Lipa River (August 16-19), the 3rd Army broke into Lvov, and the 8th Army captured Galich. This created a threat to the rear of the Austro-Hungarian group advancing in the Kholmsko-Lublin direction. However, the general situation at the front was threatening for the Russians. The defeat of Samsonov's 2nd Army in East Prussia created a favorable opportunity for the Germans to advance in a southerly direction, towards the Austro-Hungarian armies attacking Kholm and Lublin. Poland.

But despite the persistent appeals of the Austrian command, General Hindenburg did not advance on Sedlec. First of all, he took up the cleansing of East Prussia from the 1st Army and left his allies to the mercy of fate. By that time, the Russian troops defending Kholm and Lublin received reinforcements (the 9th Army of General Lechitsky) and on August 22 went on the counteroffensive. However, it developed slowly. Holding back the onslaught from the north, the Austrians at the end of August tried to seize the initiative in the Galich-Lvov direction. They attacked Russian troops there, trying to recapture Lvov. In fierce battles near Rava-Russkaya (August 25-26), Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Russian front. But the 8th army of General Brusilov still managed to close the breakthrough with the last of his strength and hold positions west of Lvov. Meanwhile, the onslaught of Russians from the north (from the Lublin-Kholmsky region) intensified. They broke through the front at Tomashov, threatening to encircle the Austro-Hungarian troops at Rava-Russkaya. Fearing the collapse of their front, the Austro-Hungarian armies began a general withdrawal on August 29. Pursuing them, the Russians advanced 200 km. They occupied Galicia and blocked the Przemysl fortress. Austro-Hungarian troops lost 325 thousand people in the Battle of Galicia. (including 100 thousand prisoners), Russians - 230 thousand people. This battle undermined the strength of Austria-Hungary, giving the Russians a sense of superiority over the enemy. In the future, Austria-Hungary, if it achieved success in Russian front, then only with the strong support of the Germans.

Warsaw-Ivangorod operation (1914). The victory in Galicia opened the way for Russian troops to Upper Silesia (the most important industrial region of Germany). This forced the Germans to help their allies. To prevent a Russian offensive to the west, Hindenburg transferred four corps of the 8th Army to the area of ​​the Warta River (including those that had arrived from the western front). Of these, the 9th German Army was formed, which, together with the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl), on September 15, 1914, went on the offensive against Warsaw and Ivangorod. In late September - early October, the Austro-German troops (their total number was 310 thousand people) reached the nearest approaches to Warsaw and Ivangorod. Fierce battles broke out here, in which the attackers suffered heavy losses (up to 50% of the personnel). Meanwhile, the Russian command deployed additional forces to Warsaw and Ivangorod, increasing the number of its troops in this sector to 520 thousand people. Fearing the Russian reserves brought into battle, the Austro-German units began a hasty retreat. The autumn thaw, the destruction of the lines of communication by the retreating, the poor supply of the Russian units did not allow active pursuit. By the beginning of November 1914, the Austro-German troops retreated to their original positions. Failures in Galicia and near Warsaw did not allow the Austro-German bloc to win over the Balkan states in 1914.

First August operation (1914). Two weeks after the defeat in East Prussia, the Russian command again tried to seize the strategic initiative in this area. Having created superiority in forces over the 8th (Generals Schubert, then Eichhorn) German army, it launched the 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 10th (Generals Flug, then Sievers) armies on the offensive. The main blow was dealt in the Augustow forests (near the Polish city of Augustow), since fighting in the forest area did not allow the Germans to use the advantages in heavy artillery. By the beginning of October, the 10th Russian Army entered East Prussia, occupied Stallupenen and reached the Gumbinnen-Masurian Lakes line. Fierce battles flared up at this turn, as a result of which the Russian offensive was stopped. Soon the 1st Army was transferred to Poland and the 10th Army had to hold the front in East Prussia alone.

Autumn offensive of the Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia (1914). The siege and capture of Przemysl by the Russians (1914-1915). Meanwhile, on the southern flank, in Galicia, Russian troops in September 1914 laid siege to Przemysl. This powerful Austrian fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of General Kusmanek (up to 150 thousand people). For the blockade of Przemysl, a special Siege Army was created, led by General Shcherbachev. On September 24, its units stormed the fortress, but were repulsed. At the end of September, the Austro-Hungarian troops, taking advantage of the transfer of part of the forces of the Southwestern Front to Warsaw and Ivangorod, went on the offensive in Galicia and managed to unblock Przemysl. However, in the fierce October battles near Khyrov and Sana, Russian troops in Galicia under the command of General Brusilov stopped the advance of the numerically superior Austro-Hungarian armies, and then threw them back to their original lines. This made it possible at the end of October 1914 to block Przemysl for the second time. The blockade of the fortress was carried out by the Siege Army of General Selivanov. In the winter of 1915, Austria-Hungary made another powerful, but unsuccessful attempt to recapture Przemysl. Then, after a 4-month siege, the garrison tried to break through to its own. But his sortie on March 5, 1915, ended in failure. Four days later, on March 9, 1915, commandant Kusmanek, having exhausted all means of defense, capitulated. 125 thousand people were captured. and more than 1 thousand guns. This was the biggest success of the Russians in the 1915 campaign. However, 2.5 months later, on May 21, they left Przemysl due to a general retreat from Galicia.

Lodz operation (1914). After the completion of the Warsaw-Ivangorod operation, the North-Western Front under the command of General Ruzsky (367 thousand people) formed the so-called. Lodz ledge. From here, the Russian command planned to launch an invasion of Germany. The German command from the intercepted radiograms knew about the upcoming offensive. In an effort to prevent him, the Germans launched a powerful preemptive strike on October 29 in order to surround and destroy the 5th (General Plehve) and 2nd (General Scheidemann) Russian armies in the Lodz region. The core of the advancing German group total strength 280 thousand people were parts of the 9th Army (General Mackensen). Its main blow fell on the 2nd Army, which, under the onslaught of superior German forces, retreated, putting up stubborn resistance. The most heated battles broke out in early November north of Lodz, where the Germans tried to cover the right flank of the 2nd Army. The culmination of this battle was the breakthrough on November 5-6 of the German corps of General Schaeffer in the region of eastern Lodz, which threatened the 2nd Army with complete encirclement. But units of the 5th Army, which approached from the south in a timely manner, managed to stop the further advance of the German corps. The Russian command did not begin the withdrawal of troops from Lodz. On the contrary, it strengthened the Lodz Piglet, and the German frontal attacks against it did not bring the desired results. At this time, units of the 1st Army (General Rennenkampf) launched a counterattack from the north and connected with units of the right flank of the 2nd Army. The gap at the site of the breakthrough of Schaeffer's corps was closed, and he himself was surrounded. Although the German corps managed to escape from the bag, the plan of the German command to defeat the armies Northwestern Front failed. However, the Russian command had to say goodbye to the plan of attack on Berlin. On November 11, 1914, the Lodz operation ended without giving a decisive success to either side. Nevertheless, the Russian side still lost strategically. Having repelled the German onslaught with heavy losses (110 thousand people), the Russian troops were no longer able to really threaten German territory. The damage of the Germans amounted to 50 thousand people.

"Battle on Four Rivers" (1914). Having not achieved success in the Lodz operation, the German command a week later again tried to defeat the Russians in Poland and push them back beyond the Vistula. Having received 6 fresh divisions from France, the German troops, with the forces of the 9th Army (General Mackensen) and the Woyrsh group, on November 19 again went on the offensive in the Lodz direction. After heavy fighting in the area of ​​the Bzura River, the Germans pushed the Russians back beyond Lodz, to the Ravka River. After that, the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl) to the south went on the offensive, and from December 5, a fierce "battle on four rivers" (Bzura, Ravka, Pilica and Nida) unfolded along the entire Russian front line in Poland. Russian troops, alternating defense and counterattacks, repelled the onslaught of the Germans on Ravka and drove the Austrians back beyond Nida. The "Battle of the Four Rivers" was distinguished by extreme stubbornness and significant losses on both sides. The damage of the Russian army amounted to 200 thousand people. She was especially hurt staffing, which directly affected the sad outcome of the 1915 campaign for the Russians. The losses of the 9th German army exceeded 100 thousand people.

Campaign of 1914. Caucasian theater of operations

The Young Turk government in Istanbul (which came to power in Turkey in 1908) did not wait for the gradual weakening of Russia in the confrontation with Germany and already in 1914 entered the war. Turkish troops, without serious preparation, immediately launched a decisive offensive in the Caucasian direction in order to recapture the lands lost during Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878. The Minister of War Enver Pasha led the 90,000th Turkish army. These troops were opposed by units of the 63,000-strong Caucasian army under the general command of the governor in the Caucasus, General Vorontsov-Dashkov (general A.Z. Myshlaevsky actually commanded the troops). The Sarykamysh operation became the central event of the 1914 campaign in this theater of operations.

Sarykamysh operation (1914-1915). It took place from December 9, 1914 to January 5, 1915. The Turkish command planned to encircle and destroy the Sarykamysh detachment of the Caucasian army (General Berkhman), and then capture Kars. Having thrown back the advanced units of the Russians (Oltinsky detachment), the Turks on December 12, in a severe frost, reached the approaches to Sarykamysh. There were only a few units (up to 1 battalion) here. Led by Colonel of the General Staff Bukretov, who was passing through there, they heroically repulsed the first onslaught of an entire Turkish corps. On December 14, reinforcements arrived in time for the defenders of Sarykamysh, and General Przhevalsky led his defense. Unable to take Sarykamysh, the Turkish corps in the snowy mountains lost only 10,000 frostbitten people. On December 17, the Russians launched a counteroffensive and drove the Turks back from Sarykamysh. Then Enver Pasha transferred the main blow to Karaudan, which was defended by parts of General Berkhman. But here, too, the furious onslaught of the Turks was repelled. Meanwhile, the Russian troops advancing near Sarykamysh on December 22 completely surrounded the 9th Turkish Corps. On December 25, General Yudenich became commander of the Caucasian army, who gave the order to launch a counteroffensive near Karaudan. Having thrown back the remnants of the 3rd Army by 30-40 km by January 5, 1915, the Russians stopped the pursuit, which was carried out in a 20-degree cold. Enver Pasha's troops lost 78 thousand people killed, frozen, wounded and captured. (over 80% of the composition). Russian losses amounted to 26 thousand people. (killed, wounded, frostbitten). The victory near Sarykamysh stopped the Turkish aggression in Transcaucasia and strengthened the positions of the Caucasian army.

Campaign of 1914 War at sea

During this period, the main actions unfolded on the Black Sea, where Turkey began the war by shelling Russian ports (Odessa, Sevastopol, Feodosia). However, soon the activity of the Turkish fleet (which was based on the German battlecruiser Goeben) was suppressed by the Russian fleet.

Battle at Cape Sarych. November 5, 1914 The German battlecruiser Goeben, under the command of Rear Admiral Souchon, attacked a Russian squadron of five battleships off Cape Sarych. In fact, the entire battle was reduced to an artillery duel between the "Goeben" and the Russian lead battleship "Evstafiy". Thanks to the well-aimed fire of Russian artillerymen, "Goeben" received 14 accurate hits. A fire broke out on the German cruiser, and Souchon, without waiting for the others to join the battle, Russian ships, gave the order to retreat to Constantinople (there "Goeben" was being repaired until December, and then, going out to sea, hit a mine and again stood up for repairs). "Evstafiy" received only 4 accurate hits and left the battle without serious damage. The battle at Cape Sarych became a turning point in the struggle for dominance in the Black Sea. Having checked the fortress of the Black Sea borders of Russia in this battle, the Turkish fleet stopped active operations near the Russian coast. The Russian fleet, on the contrary, gradually seized the initiative in sea lanes.

Campaign of 1915 Western Front

By the beginning of 1915, Russian troops held the front not far from the German border and in Austrian Galicia. The 1914 campaign did not bring decisive results. Its main result was the collapse of the German Schlieffen plan. “If there had been no casualties from Russia in 1914,” said the British Prime Minister Lloyd George a quarter of a century later (in 1939), “the German troops would not only have captured Paris, but their garrisons would still be in Belgium and France. In 1915, the Russian command planned to continue offensive operations on the flanks. This meant the occupation of East Prussia and the invasion of the Hungarian plain through the Carpathians. However, the Russians did not have sufficient forces and means for a simultaneous offensive. During the active military operations of 1914 on the fields of Poland, Galicia and East Prussia, the Russian cadre army was killed. Its loss had to be made up for by a reserve, insufficiently trained contingent. “From that time on,” recalled General A.A. Brusilov, “the regular nature of the troops was lost, and our army began to look more and more like a poorly trained militia army.” Another major problem was the arms crisis, one way or another characteristic of all warring countries. It turned out that the consumption of ammunition is ten times higher than the calculated ones. Russia, with its underdeveloped industry, was particularly affected by this problem. Domestic factories could only meet the needs of the army by 15-30%. With all the obviousness, the task of urgently restructuring the entire industry on a war footing arose. In Russia, this process dragged on until the end of the summer of 1915. The lack of weapons was aggravated by poor supplies. Thus, in New Year Russian armed forces entered with a shortage of weapons and military personnel. This had a fatal effect on the 1915 campaign. The results of the fighting in the east forced the Germans to radically revise the Schlieffen plan.

The main rival of the German leadership now considered Russia. Her troops were 1.5 times closer to Berlin than the French army. At the same time, they threatened to enter the Hungarian plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. Fearing a protracted war on two fronts, the Germans decided to send their main forces to the east in order to finish off Russia. In addition to the personnel and material weakening of the Russian army, this task was facilitated by the possibility of waging a maneuver war in the east (in the west, by that time, a solid positional front had already emerged with a powerful system of fortifications, the breakthrough of which cost huge victims). In addition, the capture of the Polish industrial region gave Germany an additional source of resources. After an unsuccessful frontal attack in Poland, the German command switched to a plan of flank attacks. It consisted in a deep coverage from the north (from East Prussia) of the right flank of the Russian troops in Poland. At the same time, Austro-Hungarian troops attacked from the south (from the Carpathian region). The ultimate goal of these "strategic Cannes" was to be the encirclement of the Russian armies in the "Polish bag".

Carpathian battle (1915). It was the first attempt by both sides to implement their strategic plans. The troops of the Southwestern Front (General Ivanov) tried to break through the Carpathian passes to the Hungarian plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. In turn, the Austro-German command also had offensive plans in the Carpathians. It set the task of breaking through from here to Przemysl and driving the Russians out of Galicia. In a strategic sense, the breakthrough of the Austro-German troops in the Carpathians, together with the onslaught of the Germans from East Prussia, was aimed at encircling the Russian troops in Poland. The battle in the Carpathians began on January 7 with the almost simultaneous offensive of the Austro-German armies and the Russian 8th Army (General Brusilov). There was an oncoming battle, called the "rubber war". Both sides that put pressure on each other had to either go deeper into the Carpathians or retreat. The battles in the snow-capped mountains were distinguished by great tenacity. The Austro-German troops managed to push the left flank of the 8th Army, but they could not break through to Przemysl. Having received reinforcements, Brusilov repulsed their offensive. “While driving around the troops in mountainous positions,” he recalled, “I bowed to these heroes, who steadfastly endured the terrifying burden of a winter mountain war with insufficient weapons, having three times the strongest enemy against them.” Partial success was achieved only by the 7th Austrian Army (General Pflanzer-Baltin), which took Chernivtsi. In early March 1915, the Southwestern Front launched a general offensive in the conditions of spring thaw. Climbing the Carpathian steeps and overcoming the fierce resistance of the enemy, the Russian troops advanced 20-25 km and captured part of the passes. To repel their onslaught, the German command deployed new forces to this area. The Russian Headquarters, due to heavy battles in the East Prussian direction, could not provide the Southwestern Front with the necessary reserves. Bloody frontal battles in the Carpathians continued until April. They cost enormous sacrifices, but did not bring decisive success to either side. The Russians lost about 1 million people in the Carpathian battle, the Austrians and Germans - 800 thousand people.

Second August operation (1915). Soon after the start of the Carpathian battle, fierce battles broke out on the northern flank of the Russian-German front. On January 25, 1915, the 8th (General von Belov) and 10th (General Eichhorn) German armies went on the offensive from East Prussia. Their main blow fell on the area of ​​the Polish city of Augustow, where the 10th Russian Army (General Sivere) was located. Having created a numerical superiority in this direction, the Germans attacked the flanks of the Sievers army and tried to surround it. At the second stage, a breakthrough of the entire North-Western Front was envisaged. But due to the resilience of the soldiers of the 10th Army, the Germans failed to completely take it into pincers. Only the 20th Corps of General Bulgakov was surrounded. For 10 days, he valiantly repulsed the attacks of the German units in the snowy Augustow forests, preventing them from conducting a further offensive. Having used up all the ammunition, the remnants of the corps in a desperate impulse attacked the German positions in the hope of breaking through to their own. Having overturned the German infantry in hand-to-hand combat, the Russian soldiers died heroically under the fire of German guns. "The attempt to break through was sheer madness. But this holy madness is the heroism that showed the Russian warrior in his full light, which we know from the time of Skobelev, the time of the assault on Plevna, the battle in the Caucasus and the assault on Warsaw! The Russian soldier knows how to fight very well, he endures all sorts of hardships and is able to be persistent, even if certain death is inevitable at the same time! ”Wrote in those days the German war correspondent R. Brandt. Thanks to this courageous resistance, the 10th Army was able to withdraw from the attack by mid-February most of its forces and took up defensive positions on the Kovno-Osovets line. The Northwestern Front held out, and then managed to partially restore the lost positions.

Prasnysh operation (1915). Almost simultaneously, fighting broke out in another section of the East Prussian border, where the 12th Russian Army (General Plehve) stood. On February 7, in the Prasnysh area (Poland), it was attacked by units of the 8th German Army (General von Belov). The city was defended by a detachment under the command of Colonel Barybin, who for several days heroically repulsed the attacks of superior German forces. February 11, 1915 Prasnysh fell. But its staunch defense gave the Russians time to bring up the necessary reserves, which were being prepared in accordance with the Russian plan for the winter offensive in East Prussia. On February 12, the 1st Siberian Corps of General Pleshkov approached Prasnysh, who attacked the Germans on the move. In a two-day winter battle, the Siberians utterly defeated the German formations and drove them out of the city. Soon, the entire 12th Army, replenished with reserves, went on the general offensive, which, after stubborn battles, threw the Germans back to the borders of East Prussia. In the meantime, the 10th Army also went on the offensive, which cleared the Augustow forests of the Germans. The front was restored, but the Russian troops could not achieve more. The Germans lost about 40 thousand people in this battle, the Russians - about 100 thousand people. Encounter battles near the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians depleted reserves Russian army on the eve of a formidable blow, which the Austro-German command was already preparing for her.

Gorlitsky breakthrough (1915). Beginning of the Great Retreat. Having failed to push the Russian troops near the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians, the German command decided to implement the third option for a breakthrough. It was supposed to be carried out between the Vistula and the Carpathians, in the Gorlice region. By that time, more than half of the armed forces of the Austro-German bloc were concentrated against Russia. On the 35-kilometer breakthrough section near Gorlice, an attack group was created under the command of General Mackensen. It outnumbered the 3rd Russian Army (General Radko-Dmitriev) standing in this area: in manpower - 2 times, in light artillery - 3 times, in heavy artillery - 40 times, in machine guns - 2.5 times. On April 19, 1915, the Mackensen group (126 thousand people) went on the offensive. The Russian command, knowing about the buildup of forces in this area, did not provide a timely counterattack. Large reinforcements were sent here belatedly, introduced into battle in parts and quickly perished in battles with superior enemy forces. The Gorlitsky breakthrough clearly revealed the problem of lack of ammunition, especially shells. The overwhelming superiority in heavy artillery was one of the main reasons for this greatest success of the Germans on the Russian front. “Eleven days of the terrible rumble of German heavy artillery, literally tearing down entire rows of trenches along with their defenders,” recalled General A.I. Denikin, a participant in those events. the other - with bayonets or point-blank shooting, blood flowed, the ranks thinned, grave mounds grew ... Two regiments were almost destroyed by one fire.

The Gorlitsky breakthrough created a threat of encirclement of Russian troops in the Carpathians, the troops of the Southwestern Front began a widespread withdrawal. By June 22, having lost 500 thousand people, they left the whole of Galicia. Thanks to the courageous resistance of Russian soldiers and officers, the Mackensen group was unable to rapidly enter the operational space. In general, its offensive was reduced to "pushing through" the Russian front. He was seriously pushed back to the east, but not defeated. Nevertheless, the Gorlitsky breakthrough and the advance of the Germans from East Prussia created a threat of encirclement of the Russian armies in Poland. The so-called. The great retreat, during which the Russian troops in the spring - summer of 1915 left Galicia, Lithuania, Poland. Meanwhile, Russia's allies were engaged in strengthening their defenses and did almost nothing to seriously distract the Germans from the offensive in the East. The allied leadership used the respite allotted to it to mobilize the economy for the needs of the war. "We," Lloyd George later admitted, "left Russia to its fate."

Prasnysh and Narew battles (1915). After the successful completion of the Gorlitsky breakthrough, the German command began the second act of its "strategic Cannes" and struck from the north, from East Prussia, at the positions of the North-Western Front (General Alekseev). On June 30, 1915, the 12th German Army (General Galwitz) went on the offensive in the Prasnysh area. She was opposed here by the 1st (General Litvinov) and the 12th (General Churin) Russian armies. The German troops had superiority in the number of personnel (177 thousand against 141 thousand people) and weapons. Especially significant was the superiority in artillery (1256 against 377 guns). After a hurricane of fire and a powerful onslaught, the German units captured the main line of defense. But they failed to achieve the expected breakthrough of the front line, and even more so the defeat of the 1st and 12th armies. The Russians stubbornly defended themselves everywhere, going over to counterattacks in threatened areas. For 6 days of continuous fighting, the soldiers of Galwitz were able to advance 30-35 km. Not even reaching the Narew River, the Germans stopped their offensive. The German command began a regrouping of forces and pulled up reserves for a new strike. In the battle of Prasnysh, the Russians lost about 40 thousand people, the Germans - about 10 thousand people. The steadfastness of the soldiers of the 1st and 12th armies thwarted the German plan to encircle Russian troops in Poland. But the danger looming from the north over the Warsaw region forced the Russian command to begin the withdrawal of its armies beyond the Vistula.

Pulling up the reserves, the Germans on July 10 again went on the offensive. The 12th (General Galwitz) and 8th (General Scholz) German armies participated in the operation. The German onslaught on the 140-kilometer Narew front was held back by the same 1st and 12th armies. With an almost double superiority in manpower and a fivefold superiority in artillery, the Germans persistently tried to break through the Narew line. They succeeded in forcing the river in several places, but the Russians with furious counterattacks until the beginning of August did not give the German units the opportunity to expand their bridgeheads. A particularly important role was played by the defense of the Osovets fortress, which covered the right flank of the Russian troops in these battles. The steadfastness of its defenders did not allow the Germans to reach the rear of the Russian armies defending Warsaw. Meanwhile, Russian troops were able to evacuate without hindrance from the Warsaw area. The Russians lost 150 thousand people in the Battle of Narew. The Germans also suffered considerable damage. After the July battles, they were unable to continue an active offensive. The heroic resistance of the Russian armies in the Prasnysh and Narew battles saved the Russian troops in Poland from encirclement and, to a certain extent, decided the outcome of the 1915 campaign.

Battle of Vilna (1915). End of the Great Retreat. In August, the commander of the Northwestern Front, General Mikhail Alekseev, planned to launch a flank counterattack against the advancing German armies from the Kovno (now Kaunas) region. But the Germans preempted this maneuver and at the end of July they themselves attacked the Kovno positions with the forces of the 10th German Army (General von Eichhorn). After several days of assault, the commandant of Kovno Grigoriev showed cowardice and surrendered the fortress to the Germans on August 5 (for this he was subsequently sentenced to 15 years in prison). The fall of Kovno worsened the strategic situation in Lithuania for the Russians and led to the withdrawal of the right wing of the troops of the North-Western Front beyond the Lower Neman. Having captured Kovno, the Germans tried to encircle the 10th Russian Army (General Radkevich). But in the stubborn oncoming August battles near Vilna, the German offensive bogged down. Then the Germans concentrated a powerful grouping in the Sventsyan region (north of Vilna) and on August 27 attacked Molodechno from there, trying to reach the rear of the 10th Army from the north and capture Minsk. Because of the threat of encirclement, the Russians had to leave Vilna. However, the Germans failed to capitalize on the success. Their path was blocked by the 2nd Army (General Smirnov), which approached in time, which had the honor of finally stopping the German offensive. Resolutely attacking the Germans at Molodechno, she defeated them and forced them to retreat back to the Sventsians. By September 19, the Sventsyansky breakthrough was eliminated, and the front in this sector stabilized. The battle of Vilna ends, in general, the Great Retreat of the Russian army. Having exhausted their offensive forces, the Germans are moving in the east to positional defense. The German plan to defeat the Russian armed forces and withdraw from the war failed. Thanks to the courage of their soldiers and the skillful withdrawal of troops, the Russian army escaped encirclement. "The Russians escaped from the pincers and achieved a frontal withdrawal in a direction favorable to them," Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, chief of the German General Staff, was forced to state. The front has stabilized on the Riga-Baranovichi-Ternopil line. Three fronts were created here: Northern, Western and Southwestern. From here, the Russians did not retreat until the fall of the monarchy. During the Great Retreat, Russia suffered the biggest losses of the war - 2.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The damage to Germany and Austria-Hungary exceeded 1 million people. The retreat intensified the political crisis in Russia.

Campaign1915 Caucasian theater of operations

The beginning of the Great Retreat seriously influenced the development of events on the Russian-Turkish front. Partly for this reason, the grandiose Russian landing operation on the Bosphorus, which was planned to support allied forces who landed at Gallipoli. Under the influence of the successes of the Germans, Turkish troops became more active on the Caucasian front.

Alashkert operation (1915). On June 26, 1915, in the region of Alashkert (Eastern Turkey), the 3rd Turkish Army (Mahmud Kiamil Pasha) went on the offensive. Under the onslaught of superior Turkish forces, the 4th Caucasian Corps (General Oganovsky), who defended this sector, began a retreat to the Russian border. This created a threat of a breakthrough of the entire Russian front. Then the energetic commander of the Caucasian army, General Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich, brought into battle a detachment under the command of General Nikolai Baratov, who delivered a decisive blow to the flank and rear of the advancing Turkish group. Fearing encirclement, units of Mahmud Kiamil began to retreat to Lake Van, near which the front stabilized on July 21. The Alashkert operation destroyed Turkey's hopes to seize the strategic initiative in the Caucasian theater of operations.

Hamadan operation (1915). On October 17 - December 3, 1915, Russian troops launched offensive operations in Northern Iran to prevent the possible intervention of this state on the side of Turkey and Germany. This was facilitated by the German-Turkish residency, which became more active in Tehran after the failures of the British and French in the Dardanelles operation, as well as the Great Retreat of the Russian army. The introduction of Russian troops into Iran was also sought by the British allies, who thereby sought to strengthen the security of their possessions in Hindustan. In October 1915, the corps of General Nikolai Baratov (8 thousand people) was sent to Iran, which occupied Tehran. Having advanced to Hamadan, the Russians defeated the Turkish-Persian detachments (8 thousand people) and liquidated the German-Turkish agents in the country . Thus, a reliable barrier was created against German-Turkish influence in Iran and Afghanistan, and a possible threat to the left flank of the Caucasian army was also eliminated.

Campaign of 1915 War at sea

Military operations at sea in 1915 were, on the whole, successful for the Russian fleet. Of the largest battles of the 1915 campaign, one can single out the campaign of the Russian squadron to the Bosporus (Black Sea). Gotlan battle and Irben operation (Baltic Sea).

Campaign to the Bosphorus (1915). In the campaign to the Bosphorus, which took place on May 1-6, 1915, a squadron of the Black Sea Fleet participated, consisting of 5 battleships, 3 cruisers, 9 destroyers, 1 air transport with 5 seaplanes. On May 2-3, the battleships "Three Saints" and "Panteleimon", having entered the area of ​​the Bosporus, fired at its coastal fortifications. On May 4, the battleship "Rostislav" opened fire on the fortified area of ​​Iniady (northwest of the Bosporus), which was attacked from the air by seaplanes. The apotheosis of the campaign to the Bosporus was the battle on May 5 at the entrance to the strait between the flagship of the German-Turkish fleet on the Black Sea - the battlecruiser "Goeben" and four Russian battleships. In this skirmish, as in the battle at Cape Sarych (1914), the battleship "Evstafiy" distinguished himself, which put the "Goeben" out of action with two accurate hits. The German-Turkish flagship ceased fire and withdrew from the battle. This campaign to the Bosporus strengthened the superiority of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea communications. In the future, German submarines posed the greatest danger to the Black Sea Fleet. Their activity did not allow Russian ships to appear off the Turkish coast until the end of September. With the entry into the war of Bulgaria, the zone of operations of the Black Sea Fleet expanded, covering a new large area in the western part of the sea.

Gotland Fight (1915). This naval battle took place on June 19, 1915 in the Baltic Sea near the Swedish island of Gotland between the 1st brigade of Russian cruisers (5 cruisers, 9 destroyers) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev and a detachment of German ships (3 cruisers, 7 destroyers and 1 minelayer ). The battle was in the nature of an artillery duel. During the skirmish, the Germans lost the Albatross minelayer. He was severely injured and thrown onto the Swedish coast, engulfed in flames. There his team was interned. Then there was a cruising battle. It was attended by: from the German side the cruisers "Roon" and "Lübeck", from the Russian side - the cruisers "Bayan", "Oleg" and "Rurik". Having received damage, the German ships ceased fire and withdrew from the battle. The Gotlad battle is significant in that for the first time in the Russian fleet, radio intelligence data were used for firing.

Irben operation (1915). During the offensive of the German ground forces in the Riga direction, the German squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt (7 battleships, 6 cruisers and 62 other ships) tried to break through the Irben Strait to the Gulf of Riga at the end of July to destroy Russian ships in the area and blockade Riga . Here the Germans were opposed by the ships of the Baltic Fleet, led by Rear Admiral Bakhirev (1 battleship and 40 other ships). Despite the significant superiority in forces, the German fleet was unable to complete the task due to minefields and the successful actions of Russian ships. During the operation (July 26 - August 8), he lost 5 ships (2 destroyers, 3 minesweepers) in fierce battles and was forced to retreat. The Russians lost two old gunboats("Sivuch"> and "Korean"). Having failed in the Battle of Gotland and the Irben operation, the Germans failed to achieve superiority in the eastern part of the Baltic and switched to defensive actions. In the future, the serious activity of the German fleet became possible only here thanks to the victories of the ground forces.

Campaign 1916 Western Front

Military failures forced the government and society to mobilize resources to repel the enemy. Thus, in 1915, the contribution to the defense of private industry was expanding, the activities of which were coordinated by the military-industrial committees (MIC). Thanks to the mobilization of industry, the provision of the front improved by 1916. So, from January 1915 to January 1916, the production of rifles in Russia increased 3 times, various types of guns - 4-8 times, various types of ammunition - 2.5-5 times. Despite the losses, the Russian armed forces in 1915 grew by 1.4 million people due to additional mobilizations. The plan of the German command for 1916 provided for a transition to positional defense in the East, where the Germans created a powerful system of defensive structures. The Germans planned to inflict the main blow on the French army in the Verdun area. In February 1916, the famous "Verdun meat grinder" began to spin, forcing France to once again turn to its eastern ally for help.

Naroch operation (1916). In response to persistent requests for help from France, the Russian command conducted an offensive on March 5-17, 1916 by the troops of the Western (General Evert) and Northern (General Kuropatkin) fronts in the area of ​​​​Lake Naroch (Belarus) and Jakobstadt (Latvia). Here they were opposed by units of the 8th and 10th German armies. Russian command set the goal of driving the Germans out of Lithuania, Belarus and pushing them back to the borders of East Prussia, but the preparation time for the offensive had to be sharply reduced due to requests from the allies to speed it up due to their difficult situation near Verdun. As a result, the operation was carried out without proper preparation. The main blow in the Naroch region was delivered by the 2nd Army (General Ragoza). For 10 days, she unsuccessfully tried to break through the powerful German fortifications. The lack of heavy artillery and the spring thaw contributed to the failure. The Naroch massacre cost the Russians 20,000 dead and 65,000 wounded. The offensive of the 5th Army (General Gurko) from the Jacobstadt area on March 8-12 also ended in failure. Here, Russian losses amounted to 60 thousand people. The total damage of the Germans amounted to 20 thousand people. The Naroch operation benefited, first of all, the allies of Russia, since the Germans could not transfer a single division from the east near Verdun. “The Russian offensive,” wrote the French General Joffre, “forced the Germans, who had only insignificant reserves, to put all these reserves into action and, in addition, to attract stage troops and transfer entire divisions taken from other sectors.” On the other hand, the defeat near Naroch and Yakobstadt had a demoralizing effect on the troops of the Northern and Western fronts. They were never able, unlike the troops of the Southwestern Front, to carry out successful offensive operations in 1916.

Brusilovsky breakthrough and offensive at Baranovichi (1916). On May 22, 1916, the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front (573 thousand people) began, which was led by General Alexei Alekseevich Brusilov. The Austro-German armies opposing him at that moment numbered 448 thousand people. The breakthrough was carried out by all the armies of the front, which made it difficult for the enemy to transfer reserves. At the same time, Brusilov applied a new tactic of parallel strikes. It consisted in alternating active and passive sections of the breakthrough. This disorganized the Austro-German troops and did not allow them to concentrate their forces in the threatened areas. The Brusilovsky breakthrough was distinguished by thorough preparation (up to training on exact models of enemy positions) and an increased supply of weapons to the Russian army. So, there was even a special inscription on the charging boxes: "Do not spare shells!". Artillery preparation in various sectors lasted from 6 to 45 hours. According to the figurative expression of the historian N.N. Yakovlev, on the day the breakthrough began, "the Austrian troops did not see the sunrise. Instead of serene sun rays from the east, death came - thousands of shells turned the habitable, heavily fortified positions into hell." It was in this famous breakthrough that the Russian troops succeeded to the greatest extent in achieving coordinated actions of infantry and artillery.

Under the cover of artillery fire, the Russian infantry marched in waves (3-4 chains in each). The first wave, without stopping, passed the front line and immediately attacked the second line of defense. The third and fourth waves rolled over the first two and attacked the third and fourth lines of defense. This Brusilovsky method of "rolling attack" was then used by the Allies in breaking through the German fortifications in France. According to the original plan, the Southwestern Front was supposed to deliver only an auxiliary strike. The main offensive was planned in the summer on the Western Front (General Evert), to which the main reserves were intended. But the entire offensive of the Western Front was reduced to a week-long battle (June 19-25) in one sector near Baranovichi, which was defended by the Austro-German group of Woyrsch. Going on the attack after many hours of artillery preparation, the Russians managed to move forward somewhat. But they failed to completely break through the powerful, defense in depth (only at the forefront there were up to 50 rows of electrified wire). After the bloody battles that cost the Russian troops 80 thousand people. losses, Evert stopped the offensive. The damage of the Woirsh group amounted to 13 thousand people. Brusilov did not have sufficient reserves to successfully continue the offensive.

The Stavka was unable to timely shift the task of delivering the main attack to the Southwestern Front, and it began to receive reinforcements only in the second half of June. The Austro-German command took advantage of this. On June 17, the Germans launched a counterattack against the 8th Army (General Kaledin) of the Southwestern Front in the Kovel region, using the forces of the created group of General Lizingen. But she repulsed the onslaught and on June 22, together with the 3rd Army, finally received as reinforcements, launched a new offensive against Kovel. In July, the main battles unfolded in the Kovel direction. Brusilov's attempts to take Kovel (the most important transport hub) were unsuccessful. During this period, other fronts (Western and Northern) froze in place and did not provide Brusilov with virtually any support. The Germans and Austrians brought reinforcements here from other European fronts (over 30 divisions) and managed to close the gaps that had formed. By the end of July, the forward movement of the Southwestern Front was stopped.

During the Brusilov breakthrough, Russian troops broke into the Austro-German defense along its entire length from the Pripyat swamps to the Romanian border and moved forward 60-150 km. The losses of the Austro-German troops during this period amounted to 1.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The Russians lost 0.5 million people. To hold the front in the East, the Germans and Austrians were forced to ease the pressure on France and Italy. Under the influence of the successes of the Russian army, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente countries. In August - September, having received new reinforcements, Brusilov continued the onslaught. But he did not have the same success. On the left flank of the Southwestern Front, the Russians managed to somewhat push back the Austro-German units in the Carpathian region. But stubborn attacks on the Kovel direction, which lasted until the beginning of October, ended in vain. Reinforced by that time, the Austro-German units repelled the Russian onslaught. On the whole, despite tactical success, the offensive operations of the Southwestern Front (from May to October) did not change the course of the war. They cost Russia huge sacrifices (about 1 million people), which became more and more difficult to restore.

Campaign of 1916. Caucasian theater of operations

At the end of 1915, clouds began to gather over the Caucasian front. After the victory in the Dardanelles operation, the Turkish command planned to transfer the most combat-ready units from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front. But Yudenich got ahead of this maneuver by carrying out the Erzrum and Trebizond operations. In them, Russian troops achieved the biggest success in the Caucasian theater of operations.

Erzrum and Trebizond operations (1916). The purpose of these operations was to capture the fortress of Erzrum and the port of Trebizond - the main bases of the Turks for operations against the Russian Transcaucasus. In this direction, the 3rd Turkish army of Mahmud-Kiamil Pasha (about 60 thousand people) operated against the Caucasian army of General Yudenich (103 thousand people). On December 28, 1915, the 2nd Turkestan (General Przhevalsky) and 1st Caucasian (General Kalitin) corps went on the offensive against Erzrum. The offensive took place in the snow-capped mountains with strong wind and frost. But despite the difficult natural and climatic conditions, the Russians broke through the Turkish front and on January 8 reached the approaches to Erzrum. The assault on this heavily fortified Turkish fortress in the conditions of severe cold and snow drifts, in the absence of siege artillery, was fraught with great risk, but Yudenich nevertheless decided to continue the operation, taking full responsibility for its conduct. On the evening of January 29, an unprecedented assault on the Erzurum positions began. After five days of fierce fighting, the Russians broke into Erzrum and then began to pursue the Turkish troops. It lasted until February 18 and ended 70-100 km west of Erzurum. During the operation, Russian troops advanced more than 150 km from their borders deep into Turkish territory. In addition to the courage of the troops, the success of the operation was also ensured by reliable material preparation. The warriors had warm clothes, winter shoes and even dark glasses to protect their eyes from the blinding glare of mountain snows. Each soldier also had firewood for heating.

Russian losses amounted to 17 thousand people. (including 6 thousand frostbite). The damage of the Turks exceeded 65 thousand people. (including 13 thousand prisoners). On January 23, the Trebizond operation began, which was carried out by the forces of the Primorsky detachment (General Lyakhov) and the Batumi detachment of ships of the Black Sea Fleet (captain of the 1st rank Rimsky-Korsakov). The sailors supported the ground forces with artillery fire, landings and reinforcements. After stubborn fighting, the Primorsky Detachment (15,000 men) reached the fortified Turkish position on the Kara-Dere River on April 1, which covered the approaches to Trebizond. Here the attackers received reinforcements by sea (two plastun brigades numbering 18 thousand people), after which they began the assault on Trebizond. On April 2, the soldiers of the 19th Turkestan Regiment under the command of Colonel Litvinov were the first to cross the stormy cold river. Supported by the fire of the fleet, they swam to the left bank and drove the Turks out of the trenches. On April 5, Russian troops entered Trebizond, abandoned by the Turkish army, and then advanced west to Polatkhane. With the capture of Trebizond, the basing of the Black Sea Fleet improved, and the right flank of the Caucasian army was able to freely receive reinforcements by sea. The Russian capture of Eastern Turkey had a great political significance. He seriously strengthened Russia's position in future negotiations with the allies over further fate Constantinople and the Straits.

Kerind-Kasreshirinskaya operation (1916). Following the capture of Trebizond, the 1st Caucasian Separate Corps of General Baratov (20 thousand people) carried out a campaign from Iran to Mesopotamia. He was supposed to assist the English detachment, surrounded by the Turks in Kut-el-Amar (Iraq). The campaign took place from April 5 to May 9, 1916. The Baratov Corps occupied Kerind, Kasre-Shirin, Khanekin and entered Mesopotamia. However, this difficult and dangerous campaign through the desert lost its meaning, since on April 13 the English garrison at Kut-el-Amar capitulated. After the capture of Kut-el-Amara, the command of the 6th Turkish Army (Khalil Pasha) sent its main forces to Mesopotamia against the Russian corps, which had become very thin (from heat and disease). At Khaneken (150 km northeast of Baghdad) Baratov had an unsuccessful battle with the Turks, after which the Russian corps left the occupied cities and retreated to Hamadan. East of this Iranian city, the Turkish offensive was stopped.

Erzrindzhan and Ognot operations (1916). In the summer of 1916, the Turkish command, having transferred up to 10 divisions from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front, decided to take revenge for Erzrum and Trebizond. On June 13, the 3rd Turkish army under the command of Vehib Pasha (150 thousand people) went on the offensive from the Erzincan region. The most heated battles broke out in the Trebizond direction, where the 19th Turkestan regiment was stationed. With his fortitude, he managed to hold back the first Turkish onslaught and gave Yudenich the opportunity to regroup his forces. On June 23, Yudenich launched a counterattack in the Mamakhatun area (west of Erzrum) with the forces of the 1st Caucasian Corps (General Kalitin). In four days of fighting, the Russians captured Mamakhatun, and then launched a general counteroffensive. It ended on July 10 with the capture of the Erzincan station. After this battle, the 3rd Turkish army suffered huge losses (over 100 thousand people) and stopped active operations against the Russians. Having suffered a defeat near Erzincan, the Turkish command assigned the task of returning Erzurum to the newly formed 2nd Army under the command of Ahmet Izet Pasha (120 thousand people). On July 21, 1916, she went on the offensive in the Erzurum direction and pushed back the 4th Caucasian Corps (General de Witt). Thus, a threat was created to the left flank of the Caucasian army. In response, Yudenich delivered a counterattack to the Turks at Ognot by the forces of General Vorobyov's group. In stubborn oncoming battles in the Ognot direction, which continued throughout August, the Russian troops thwarted the offensive of the Turkish army and forced it to go on the defensive. The losses of the Turks amounted to 56 thousand people. The Russians lost 20 thousand people. So, the attempt of the Turkish command to seize the strategic initiative on the Caucasian front failed. During two operations, the 2nd and 3rd Turkish armies suffered irreparable losses and stopped active operations against the Russians. The Ognot operation was the last major battle of the Russian Caucasian army in the First World War.

Campaign of 1916 War at sea

In the Baltic Sea, the Russian fleet supported the right flank of the 12th Army, which was defending Riga, with fire, and also sank German merchant ships and their convoys. Russian submarines were also quite successful in this. Of the response actions of the German fleet, one can name the shelling of the Baltic port (Estonia). This raid, based on insufficient ideas about Russian defense, ended in disaster for the Germans. During the operation on Russian minefields, 7 out of 11 German destroyers participating in the campaign blew up and sank. None of the fleets during the entire war knew such a case. On the Black Sea, the Russian fleet actively contributed to the offensive of the coastal flank of the Caucasian Front, participating in the transport of troops, landings and fire support of the advancing units. Besides, Black Sea Fleet continued to block the Bosporus and other strategically important places on the Turkish coast (in particular, the Zonguldak coal region), and also attacked the enemy's sea lanes. As before, German submarines were active in the Black Sea, causing significant damage to Russian transport ships. To combat them, new weapons were invented: diving shells, hydrostatic depth charges, anti-submarine mines.

Campaign of 1917

By the end of 1916, Russia's strategic position, despite the occupation of part of its territories, remained fairly stable. Its army firmly held its positions and carried out a number of offensive operations. For example, France had a higher percentage of occupied lands than Russia. If the Germans were more than 500 km from St. Petersburg, then only 120 km from Paris. However internal situation in the country has seriously deteriorated. Grain harvest decreased by 1.5 times, prices rose, transport went wrong. An unprecedented number of men were drafted into the army - 15 million people, and National economy lost a huge number of workers. The scale of human losses has also changed. On average, every month the country lost as many soldiers at the front as in the whole years of past wars. All this demanded from the people an unprecedented exertion of strength. However, not all of society bore the burden of the war. For certain strata, military difficulties became a source of enrichment. For example, placing military orders at private factories brought huge profits. The source of income growth was the deficit, which allowed to inflate prices. It was widely practiced to evade the front with the help of a device in the rear organizations. In general, the problems of the rear, its correct and comprehensive organization, turned out to be one of the most vulnerable places in Russia in the First World War. All this created growth social tension. After the failure of the German plan to end the war with lightning speed, World War I became a war of attrition. In this struggle, the Entente countries had a total advantage in terms of the number of armed forces and economic potential. But the use of these advantages to a large extent depended on the mood of the nation, firm and skillful leadership.

In this regard, Russia was the most vulnerable. Nowhere was there such an irresponsible split at the top of society. Representatives of the State Duma, the aristocracy, the generals, the left parties, the liberal intelligentsia and the circles of the bourgeoisie associated with it expressed the opinion that Tsar Nicholas II was unable to bring the matter to a victorious end. The growth of opposition sentiments was partly determined by the connivance of the authorities themselves, who failed to restore proper order in the rear in wartime. Ultimately, all this led to the February Revolution and the overthrow of the monarchy. After the abdication of Nicholas II (March 2, 1917), the Provisional Government came to power. But its representatives, powerful in criticizing the tsarist regime, were helpless in governing the country. A dual power arose in the country between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies. This led to further destabilization. There was a struggle for power at the top. The army, which had become a hostage of this struggle, began to fall apart. The first impetus to the collapse was given by the famous Order No. 1 issued by the Petrograd Soviet, which deprived the officers of disciplinary power over the soldiers. As a result, discipline fell in the units and desertion increased. Anti-war propaganda intensified in the trenches. badly hurt officers, who became the first victim of the soldiers' discontent. The purge of the senior command staff was carried out by the Provisional Government itself, which did not trust the military. Under these conditions, the army increasingly lost its combat effectiveness. But the Provisional Government, under pressure from the allies, continued the war, hoping to strengthen its position by successes at the front. Such an attempt was the June Offensive, organized by Minister of War Alexander Kerensky.

June Offensive (1917). The main blow was delivered by the troops of the Southwestern Front (General Gutor) in Galicia. The attack was poorly prepared. To a large extent, it was propagandistic in nature and aimed to raise the prestige of the new government. At first, the Russians were successful, which was especially noticeable in the sector of the 8th Army (General Kornilov). She broke through the front and moved forward 50 km, taking the cities of Galich and Kalush. But the larger troops of the Southwestern Front could not be reached. Their pressure quickly subsided under the influence of anti-war propaganda and the increased resistance of the Austro-German troops. In early July 1917, the Austro-German command transferred 16 new divisions to Galicia and launched a powerful counterattack. As a result, the troops of the South-Western Front were defeated and were thrown back far to the east of their initial lines, to the state border. The offensive actions in July 1917 of the Romanian (General Shcherbachev) and Northern (General Klembovsky) Russian fronts were also associated with the June offensive. The offensive in Romania, near Mareshtami, developed successfully, but was stopped by order of Kerensky under the influence of defeats in Galicia. The offensive of the Northern Front at Jakobstadt completely failed. The total loss of the Russians during this period amounted to 150 thousand people. A significant role in their failure was played by political events that had a corrupting effect on the troops. "These were no longer the former Russians," German General Ludendorff recalled those battles. The defeats of the summer of 1917 intensified the crisis of power and aggravated the internal political situation in the country.

Riga operation (1917). After the defeat of the Russians in June - July, the Germans on August 19-24, 1917, carried out an offensive operation with the forces of the 8th Army (General Gutierre) in order to capture Riga. The Riga direction was defended by the 12th Russian Army (General Parsky). On August 19, the German troops went on the offensive. By noon, they crossed the Dvina, threatening to go to the rear of the units defending Riga. Under these conditions, Parsky ordered the evacuation of Riga. On August 21, the Germans entered the city, where, on the occasion of this celebration, the German Kaiser Wilhelm II arrived. After the capture of Riga, German troops soon stopped the offensive. Russian losses in the Riga operation amounted to 18 thousand people. (of which 8 thousand prisoners). German damage - 4 thousand people. The defeat at Riga caused an aggravation of the internal political crisis in the country.

Moonsund Operation (1917). After the capture of Riga, the German command decided to take control of the Gulf of Riga and destroy the Russian naval forces there. To do this, on September 29 - October 6, 1917, the Germans carried out the Moonsund operation. For its implementation, they allocated the Marine Detachment special purpose, consisting of 300 ships of various classes (including 10 battleships) under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt. For the landing on the Moonsund Islands, which closed the entrance to the Gulf of Riga, the 23rd reserve corps of General von Caten (25 thousand people) was intended. The Russian garrison of the islands numbered 12 thousand people. In addition, the Gulf of Riga was protected by 116 ships and auxiliary vessels (including 2 battleships) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev. The Germans occupied the islands without much difficulty. But in the battle at sea, the German fleet met stubborn resistance from Russian sailors and suffered heavy losses (16 ships were sunk, 16 ships were damaged, including 3 battleships). The Russians lost the heroically fought battleship Slava and the destroyer Grom. Despite the great superiority in forces, the Germans were unable to destroy the ships of the Baltic Fleet, which retreated in an organized manner to the Gulf of Finland, blocking the German squadron's path to Petrograd. The battle for the Moonsund Archipelago was the last major military operation on the Russian front. In it, the Russian fleet defended the honor of the Russian armed forces and adequately completed their participation in the First World War.

Brest-Litovsk truce (1917). Brest Peace (1918)

In October 1917, the Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks, who were in favor of an early conclusion of peace. On November 20, in Brest-Litovsk (Brest), they began separate peace negotiations with Germany. On December 2, an armistice was concluded between the Bolshevik government and the German representatives. On March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded between Soviet Russia and Germany. Significant territories were torn away from Russia (the Baltic states and part of Belarus). Russian troops were withdrawn from the territories of Finland and Ukraine that gained independence, as well as from the districts of Ardagan, Kars and Batum, which were transferred to Turkey. In total, Russia lost 1 million square meters. km of land (including Ukraine). The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk pushed it back in the west to the borders of the 16th century. (during the reign of Ivan the Terrible). Besides, Soviet Russia was obliged to demobilize the army and navy, establish favorable customs duties for Germany, and also pay the German side a significant indemnity (its total amount was 6 billion gold marks).

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant a severe defeat for Russia. The Bolsheviks assumed historical responsibility for it. But in many ways, the Brest peace only fixed the situation in which the country found itself, brought to collapse by the war, the helplessness of the authorities and the irresponsibility of society. The victory over Russia made it possible for Germany and its allies to temporarily occupy the Baltic States, Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. To the first world number those who died in the Russian army amounted to 1.7 million people. (killed, died from wounds, gases, in captivity, etc.). The war cost Russia 25 billion dollars. A deep moral trauma was also inflicted on the nation, which for the first time in many centuries suffered such a heavy defeat.

Shefov N.A. Most famous wars and battles of Russia M. "Veche", 2000.
"From Ancient Russia to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.