Method materials by disciplines. Basic concepts of geography

Race is a historically established group of people that has common physical features: skin, eye and hair color, eye shape, eyelid structure, head shape, and others. Previously, it was common to divide races into “black” (Blacks), yellow (Asians) and white (Europeans), but now this classification is considered outdated and incomplete.

The simplest modern division is not too different from the “color” division. According to it, there are 3 main or large races: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid. Representatives of these three races have significant distinctive features.

Negroids are characterized by curly black hair, dark brown skin (sometimes almost black), Brown eyes, strongly protruding jaws, slightly protruding wide nose, thickened lips.

Caucasians typically have wavy or straight hair, relatively fair skin, varying eye colors, slightly protruding jaws, a narrow, prominent nose with a high bridge, and typically thin or medium lips.

Mongoloids have straight, coarse dark hair, yellowish skin tones, brown eyes, narrow eye shape, a flattened face with strongly prominent cheekbones, a narrow or medium-wide nose with a low bridge, and moderately thick lips.

In the expanded classification, it is customary to distinguish several more racial groups. For example, the Amerindian race (Indians, American race) is the indigenous population of the American continent. It is physiologically close to the Mongoloid race, however, the settlement of America began more than 20 thousand years ago, therefore, according to experts, it is incorrect to consider the Amerindians a branch of the Mongoloids.

Australoids (Australo-Oceanian race) are the indigenous population of Australia. An ancient race that had a huge range, limited to the regions: Hindustan, Tasmania, Hawaii, Kuril Islands. The appearance features of indigenous Australians - a large nose, beard, long wavy hair, massive eyebrows, powerful jaws - sharply distinguish them from Negroids.

Currently, there are few pure representatives of their races left. Mostly mestizos live on our planet - the result of a mixture of different races, which may have characteristics of different racial groups.

Time zones are conventionally defined parts of the Earth that have the same local time.

Before the introduction of standard time, each city used its own local time. solar time, depending on geographic longitude. However, it was very inconvenient, especially in terms of train schedules. First modern system time zones appeared in North America in late XIX century. In Russia it became widespread in 1917, and by 1929 it was accepted throughout the world.

For greater convenience (in order not to enter local time for each degree of longitude), the Earth's surface was conventionally divided into 24 time zones. The boundaries of time zones are determined not by meridians, but by administrative units (states, cities, regions). This is also done for greater convenience. When moving from one time zone to another, the minutes and seconds (time) are usually preserved; only in some countries, local time differs from world time by 30 or 45 minutes.

The Greenwich Observatory in the suburbs of London was taken as the reference point (prime meridian or belt). On the North and South Poles The meridians converge at one point, so time zones are usually not observed there. Time at the poles is usually equated to universal time, although at polar stations it is sometimes kept in its own way.

GMT -12 - Date meridian

GMT -11 - o. Midway, Samoa

GMT -10 - Hawaii

GMT -9 - Alaska

GMT -8 - Pacific Time (USA and Canada), Tijuana

GMT -7 - Mountain time, USA and Canada (Arizona), Mexico (Chihuahua, La Paz, Mazatlan)

GMT -6 - Central Time (USA and Canada), Central American Time, Mexico (Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey)

GMT -5 - Eastern Time (USA and Canada), South American Pacific Time (Bogota, Lima, Quito)

GMT -4 - Atlantic Time (Canada), South American Pacific Time (Caracas, La Paz, Santiago)

GMT -3 - South American Eastern Time (Brasilia, Buenos Aires, Georgetown), Greenland

GMT -2 - Middle Atlantic Time

GMT -1 - Azores, Cape Verde

GMT - Greenwich Time (Dublin, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London), Casablanca, Monrovia

GMT +1 - Central European Time (Amsterdam, Berlin, Bern, Brussels, Vienna, Copenhagen, Madrid, Paris, Rome, Stockholm), Belgrade, Bratislava, Budapest, Warsaw, Ljubljana, Prague, Sarajevo, Skopje, Zagreb), West Central African Time

GMT +2 - Eastern European Time (Athens, Bucharest, Vilnius, Kiev, Chisinau, Minsk, Riga, Sofia, Tallinn, Helsinki, Kaliningrad), Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, South Africa

GMT +3 - Moscow time, East African time (Nairobi, Addis Ababa), Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia

GMT +4 - Samara time, United United Arab Emirates, Oman, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia

GMT +5 - Ekaterinburg time, West Asian time (Islamabad, Karachi, Tashkent)

GMT +6 - Novosibirsk, Omsk time, Central Asian time (Bangladesh, Kazakhstan), Sri Lanka

GMT +7 - Krasnoyarsk time, Southeast Asia (Bangkok, Jakarta, Hanoi)

GMT +8 - Irkutsk time, Ulaanbaatar, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Taiwan, Western Australian time (Perth)

GMT +9 - Yakut time, Korea, Japan

GMT +10 - Vladivostok time, Eastern Australian time (Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Sydney), Tasmania, Western Pacific time (Guam, Port Moresby)

GMT +11 - Magadan Time, Central Pacific Time (Solomon Islands, New Caledonia)

GMT +12 - Wellington

A wind rose is a diagram that depicts the pattern of changes in wind directions and speeds in a certain place over a certain period of time. It got its name due to its rose-like pattern. The first wind roses were known even before our era.

It is assumed that the wind rose was invented by sailors who were trying to identify patterns of changes in winds depending on the time of year. She helped determine when to start sailing in order to get to a certain destination.

The diagram is constructed as follows: on rays coming from a common center in different directions, the repeatability value is plotted (in percentage) or wind speeds. The rays correspond to the cardinal directions: north, west, east, south, northeast, north-northeast, etc. Currently, the wind rose is usually constructed using long-term data for a month, season, or year.

Clouds are classified using Latin words to define appearance clouds observed from the ground. The word cumulus is the definition of cumulus clouds, stratus - stratus clouds, cirrus - cirrus, nimbus - nimbus.

In addition to the type of clouds, the classification describes their location. Usually there are several groups of clouds, the first three of which are determined by their height above the ground. The fourth group consists of clouds of vertical development, and the last group includes clouds mixed types.

Upper clouds are formed in temperate latitudes above 5 km, in polar latitudes above 3 km, in tropical latitudes above 6 km. The temperature at this altitude is quite low, so they consist mainly of ice crystals. The upper level clouds are usually thin and white. The most common forms of upper clouds are cirrus and cirrostratus, which can usually be seen in good weather.

Mid-level clouds usually located at an altitude of 2-7 km in temperate latitudes, 2-4 km in polar latitudes and 2-8 km in tropical latitudes. They consist mainly of small particles of water, but at low temperatures they can also contain ice crystals. The most common types of mid-level clouds are altocumulus (altocumulus), altostratus (altostratus). They may have shadowed parts, which distinguishes them from cirrocumulus clouds. This type of cloud usually occurs as a result of air convection, as well as the gradual rise of air ahead of a cold front.

Low clouds They are located at altitudes below 2 km, where the temperature is quite high, so they consist mainly of water droplets. Only in the cold season. When the surface temperature is low, they contain particles of ice (hail) or snow. The most common types of low clouds are nimbostratus and stratocumulus - dark low clouds accompanied by moderate precipitation.

Clouds of vertical development - cumulus clouds, having the appearance of isolated cloud masses, the vertical dimensions of which are similar to the horizontal ones. They arise as a result of temperature convection and can reach heights of 12 km. The main types are fair weather cumulus (fair weather clouds) and cumulonimbus (cumulonimbus). Good weather clouds look like pieces of cotton wool. Their lifetime is from 5 to 40 minutes. Young fair weather clouds have sharply defined edges and bases, while the edges of older clouds are jagged and blurred.

Other types of clouds: contrails, billow clouds, mammatus, orographic, and pileus.

Atmospheric precipitation is water in a liquid or solid state that falls from clouds or is deposited from the air on the surface of the Earth (dew, frost). There are two main types of precipitation: blanket precipitation (occurs mainly during the passage of a warm front) and torrential precipitation (associated with cold fronts). Precipitation is measured by the thickness of the layer of water that fell over a certain period (usually mm/year). On average, precipitation on Earth is about 1000 mm/year. Precipitation below this value is called insufficient, and more is called excessive.

Water does not form in the sky - it gets there from the earth's surface. This happens in the following way: under the influence of sunlight, moisture gradually evaporates from the surface of the planet (mainly from the surface of oceans, seas and other bodies of water), then water vapor gradually rises upward, where under the influence of low temperatures it condenses (gas is converted into a liquid state) and freezing. This is how clouds are formed. As the mass of liquid in a cloud accumulates, it also becomes heavier. When a certain mass is reached, moisture from the cloud spills onto the ground in the form of rain.

If precipitation falls in an area with low temperatures, droplets of moisture freeze on their way to the ground, turning into snow. Sometimes they seem to stick together, causing snow to fall out in large flakes. This happens most often at not very low temperatures and strong wind. When the temperature is close to zero, the snow, approaching the ground, melts and becomes wet. Such snowflakes, falling to the ground or objects, immediately turn into drops of water. In those areas of the planet where the surface of the earth has managed to freeze, snow can remain as a cover for up to several months. In some particularly cold regions of the Earth (at the poles or high in the mountains), precipitation falls only in the form of snow, while in warm regions (tropics, the equator) there is no snow at all.

When frozen water particles move within a cloud, they expand and become denser. In this case, small pieces of ice are formed, which in this state fall to the ground. This is how hail is formed. Hail can fall even in summer - the ice does not have time to melt even when the temperature at the surface is high. The sizes of hailstones can vary: from a few millimeters to several centimeters.

Sometimes the moisture does not have time to rise into the sky, and then condensation occurs directly on the surface of the earth. This usually occurs when the temperature drops at night. In the summer, you can observe moisture settling on the surface of leaves and grass in the form of water droplets - this is dew. During the cold season, the smallest particles of water freeze, and frost forms instead of dew.

Soils are classified by type. The first scientist to classify soils was Dokuchaev. In the territory Russian Federation The following types of soils are found: Podzolic soils, tundra gley soils, Arctic soils, frozen-taiga soils, gray and brown forest soils and chestnut soils.

Tundra gley soils are found on plains. They are formed without much influence from vegetation. These soils are found in areas where there is permafrost (in the Northern Hemisphere). Often, gley soils are places where deer live and feed in summer and winter. An example of tundra soils in Russia is Chukotka, and in the world it is Alaska in the USA. In areas with such soils, people engage in farming. Potatoes, vegetables and various herbs grow on such land. To improve the fertility of tundra gley soils, the following types of work are used in agriculture: drainage of the most moisture-saturated lands and irrigation of arid areas. Methods for improving the fertility of these soils also include adding organic and mineral fertilizers.

Arctic soils are produced by thawing permafrost. This soil is quite thin. The maximum layer of humus (fertile layer) is 1-2 cm. This type of soil has a low acidic environment. This soil cannot be restored due to the harsh climate. These soils are common in Russia only in the Arctic (on a number of islands of the Northern Arctic Ocean). Due to the harsh climate and small layer of humus, nothing grows on such soils.

Podzolic soils are common in forests. There is only 1-4% humus in the soil. Podzolic soils are obtained through the process of podzol formation. A reaction occurs with the acid. That is why this type of soil is also called acidic. Dokuchaev was the first to describe podzolic soils. In Russia, podzolic soils are common in Siberia and Far East. Around the world, podzolic soils are found in Asia, Africa, Europe, the USA and Canada. Such soils must be properly cultivated in agriculture. They need to be fertilized, organic and mineral fertilizers added to them. Such soils are more useful in logging than in agriculture. After all, trees grow better on them than crops. Soddy-podzolic soils are a subtype of podzolic soils. In composition they are largely similar to podzolic soils. A characteristic feature of these soils is that they can be washed out more slowly by water, unlike podzolic soils. Soddy-podzolic soils are found mainly in the taiga (the territory of Siberia). This soil contains up to 10% fertile layer on the surface, and at depth the layer sharply decreases to 0.5%.

Permafrost-taiga soils were formed in forests under permafrost conditions. They are found only in continental climates. The greatest depths of these soils do not exceed 1 meter. This is caused by the proximity to the surface of permafrost. The humus content is only 3-10%. As a subspecies, there are mountainous permafrost-taiga soils. They form in the taiga on rocks that are covered with ice only in winter. These soils are in Eastern Siberia. They are found in the Far East. More often, mountain permafrost-taiga soils are found next to small bodies of water. Outside Russia, such soils exist in Canada and Alaska.

Gray forest soils are formed in forest areas. A prerequisite for the formation of such soils is the presence of a continental climate. Deciduous forest and herbaceous vegetation. The places of formation contain an element necessary for such soil - calcium. Thanks to this element, water does not penetrate deep into the soil and does not erode them. These soils are gray in color. The humus content in gray forest soils is 2-8 percent, that is, the soil fertility is average. Gray forest soils are divided into gray, light gray, and dark gray. These soils predominate in Russia in the territory from Transbaikalia to the Carpathian Mountains. Fruit and grain crops are grown on the soils.

Brown forest soils are common in forests: mixed, coniferous and broad-leaved. These soils are found only in warm temperate climates. The soil color is brown. Typically brown soils look like this: on the surface of the ground there is a layer of fallen leaves, about 5 cm high. Next comes the fertile layer, which is 20 and sometimes 30 cm. Even lower is a layer of clay of 15-40 cm. There are several subtypes of brown soils. Subtypes vary depending on temperatures. There are: typical, podzolized, gley (surface gley and pseudopodzolic). On the territory of the Russian Federation, soils are distributed in the Far East and in the foothills of the Caucasus. Low-maintenance crops such as tea, grapes and tobacco are grown on these soils. Forests grow well on such soils.

Chestnut soils are common in steppes and semi-deserts. The fertile layer of such soils is 1.5-4.5%. Which indicates average soil fertility. This soil has chestnut, light chestnut and dark chestnut colors. Accordingly, there are three subtypes of chestnut soil, differing in color. On light chestnut soils, farming is possible only with abundant watering. The main purpose of this land is pasture. The following crops grow well on dark chestnut soils without watering: wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, millet. There are slight differences in the chemical composition of chestnut soil. It is divided into clayey, sandy, sandy loam, light loamy, medium loamy and heavy loamy. Each of them has a slightly different chemical composition. The chemical composition of chestnut soil is varied. The soil contains magnesium, calcium, and water-soluble salts. Chestnut soil tends to recover quickly. Its thickness is maintained by annually falling grass and leaves of trees rare in the steppe. You can get good harvests from it, provided there is a lot of moisture. After all, steppes are usually dry. Chestnut soils in Russia are common in the Caucasus, the Volga region and Central Siberia.

There are many types of soils on the territory of the Russian Federation. They all differ in chemical and mechanical composition. At the moment, agriculture is on the verge of crisis. Russian soils must be valued like the land on which we live. Care for soils: fertilize them and prevent erosion (destruction).

The biosphere is a collection of parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, which is populated by living organisms. This term was introduced in 1875 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess. The biosphere does not occupy a definite position, like other shells, but is located within their boundaries. Thus, waterfowl and aquatic plants are part of the hydrosphere, birds and insects are part of the atmosphere, and plants and animals living in the ground are part of the lithosphere. The biosphere also covers everything related to the activities of living beings.

Living organisms contain about 60 chemical elements, the main of which are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, iron and calcium. Living organisms can adapt to life in extreme conditions. Spores of some plants can withstand ultra-low temperatures down to -200°C, and some microorganisms (bacteria) survive at temperatures up to 250°C. The inhabitants of the deep sea withstand enormous water pressure, which would instantly crush a person.

Living organisms do not only mean animals, plants, bacteria and fungi are also considered living things. Moreover, plants account for 99% of the biomass, while animals and microorganisms account for only 1%. Thus, plants make up the vast majority of the biosphere. The biosphere is a powerful reservoir of solar energy. This occurs due to plant photosynthesis. Thanks to living organisms, the circulation of substances on the planet occurs.

According to experts, life on Earth originated approximately 3.5 billion years ago in the World Ocean. This is exactly the age that was assigned to the oldest organic remains found. Since scientists estimate the age of our planet to be around 4.6 billion years, we can say that living beings appeared on early stage development of the Earth. The biosphere has the greatest influence on the rest of the Earth's shells, although not always beneficial. Inside the shell, living organisms also actively interact with each other.

The atmosphere (from the Greek atmos - steam and sphaira - ball) is the gaseous shell of the Earth, which is held by its gravity and rotates with the planet. Physical state The atmosphere is determined by climate, and the main parameters of the atmosphere are composition, density, pressure and air temperature. Air density and atmospheric pressure decrease with altitude. The atmosphere is divided into several layers depending on temperature changes: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. Between these layers there are transitional regions called the tropopause, stratopause, and so on.

The troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere, in the polar regions it is located up to a height of 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km, and at the equator - 16-18 km. The troposphere contains about 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere and almost all water vapor. The air density here is greatest. For every 100 m rise, the temperature in the troposphere decreases by an average of 0.65°. The upper layer of the troposphere, which is intermediate between it and the stratosphere, is called the tropopause.

The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere, which is located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Here, the temperature, on the contrary, increases with altitude. At the border with the troposphere it reaches approximately -56ºС, and at an altitude of about 50 km it rises to 0ºС. The region between the stratosphere and mesosphere is called the stratopause. In the stratosphere there is a layer called the ozone layer, which determines the upper limit of the biosphere. The ozone layer is also a kind of shield that protects living organisms from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Complex chemical processes, occurring in this shell, are accompanied by the release of light energy (for example, the northern lights). About 20% of the atmosphere's mass is concentrated here.

The next layer of the atmosphere is the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 50 km and ends at an altitude of 80-90 km. The air temperature in the mesosphere decreases with height and reaches -90ºС in its upper part. The intermediate layer between the mesosphere and the thermosphere that follows it is the mesopause.

The thermosphere or ionosphere begins at an altitude of 80-90 km and ends at an altitude of 800 km. The air temperature here rises quite quickly, reaching several hundred and even thousands of degrees.

The last part of the atmosphere is the exosphere or scattering zone. It is located above 800 km. This space is already practically devoid of air. At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually turns into the so-called near-space vacuum, which does not enter the Earth's atmosphere.

The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth, which is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere and is a collection of oceans, seas and surface waters of the land. The hydrosphere also includes groundwater, ice and snow, water contained in the atmosphere and in living organisms. The bulk of water is concentrated in the seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, which cover 71% of the planet's surface. The second place in terms of volume of water is occupied by groundwater, the third is ice and snow in the Arctic and Antarctic regions and mountainous regions. The total volume of water on Earth is approximately 1.39 billion km³.

Water, along with oxygen, is one of the most important substances on earth. It is part of all living organisms on the planet. For example, a person consists of approximately 80% water. Water also plays an important role in shaping the relief of the Earth's surface, transporting chemical substances in the depths of the Earth and on its surface.

Water vapor contained in the atmosphere acts as a powerful filter solar radiation and climate regulator.

The main volume of water on the planet is made up of the salty waters of the World Ocean. On average, their salinity is 35 ppm (1 kg of ocean water contains 35 g of salts). The highest salinity of water in the Dead Sea is 270-300 ppm. For comparison, in the Mediterranean Sea this figure is 35-40 ppm, in the Black Sea - 18 ppm, and in the Baltic Sea - only 7. According to experts, the chemical composition of ocean waters is in many ways similar to the composition of human blood - they contain almost all known us chemical elements, just in different proportions. Chemical composition of fresher groundwater more diverse and depends on the composition of the host rocks and the depth of occurrence.

The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This interaction is expressed in the transition of water from one type to another, and is called the water cycle. According to most scientists, it was in water that life on our planet originated.

Volumes of hydrosphere waters:

Marine and ocean waters– 1370 million km³ (94% of the total volume)

Groundwater – 61 million km³ (4%)

Ice and snow – 24 million km³ (2%)

Land reservoirs (rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs) – 500 thousand km³ (0.4%)

The lithosphere is the solid shell of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere on land on average ranges from 35-40 km (in flat areas) to 70 km (in mountainous areas). Under the ancient mountains the thickness earth's crust even more: for example, under the Himalayas its thickness reaches 90 km. The Earth's crust under the oceans is also the lithosphere. Here it is thinnest - on average about 7-10 km, and in some areas of the Pacific Ocean - up to 5 km.

The thickness of the earth's crust can be determined by the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The latter also provide some information about the properties of the mantle located under the earth's crust and included in the lithosphere. The lithosphere, as well as the hydrosphere and atmosphere, was formed mainly as a result of the release of substances from the upper mantle of the young Earth. Its formation continues today, mainly at the bottom of the oceans.

Most of the lithosphere is made up of crystalline substances that were formed during the cooling of magma - molten matter in the depths of the Earth. As the magma cooled, hot solutions formed. Passing through cracks in the earth's crust, they cooled and released the substances they contained. Since some minerals disintegrate with changes in temperature and pressure, they were transformed into new substances on the surface.

The lithosphere is exposed to the influence of the air and water shells of the Earth (atmosphere and hydrosphere), which is expressed in weathering processes. Physical weathering is a mechanical process by which rock is crushed into smaller particles without changing its chemical composition. Chemical weathering leads to the formation of new substances. The rate of weathering is influenced by the biosphere, as well as land topography and climate, water composition and other factors.

As a result of weathering, loose continental sediments were formed, the thickness of which ranges from 10-20 cm on steep slopes to tens of meters on plains and hundreds of meters in depressions. On these deposits soils formed, playing vital role in the interaction of living organisms with the earth's crust.

Terrain orientation includes determining one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or selected direction of movement towards a specific object. The ability to navigate the terrain is especially necessary when you are in sparsely populated and unfamiliar areas.

You can navigate using a map, a compass, or the stars. Landmarks can also be various objects of natural (river, swamp, tree) or artificial (lighthouse, tower) origin.

When navigating on a map, it is necessary to associate the image on the map with a real object. The easiest way is to go to the bank of a river or a road, and then turn the map until the direction of the line (road, river) on the map coincides with the direction of the line on the ground. Objects located to the right and left of the line on the ground should be on the same sides as on the map.

Orienting a map using a compass is used mainly in terrain that is difficult to navigate (in a forest, in a desert), where it is usually difficult to find landmarks. Under these conditions, the compass is used to determine the direction to the north, and the map is positioned with the upper side of the frame towards the north so that the vertical line of the map coordinate grid coincides with the longitudinal axis of the magnetic needle of the compass. Please be aware that compass readings may be affected by metal objects, power lines and electronic devices located in close proximity to the compass.

After the location on the ground is determined, you need to determine the direction of movement and azimuth (deviation of the direction of movement in degrees from the north pole of the compass clockwise). If the route is not a straight line, then you need to accurately determine the distance after which you need to change the direction of movement. You can also select a specific landmark on the map and, having then found it on the ground, change the direction of movement from it.

In the absence of a compass, the cardinal directions can be determined as follows:

The bark of most trees is rougher and darker on the north side;

On coniferous trees, resin tends to accumulate on the south side;

The annual rings on fresh stumps on the north side are located closer to each other;

On the north side there are trees, stones, stumps, etc. covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens and fungi;

Anthills are located on the southern side of trees, stumps and bushes, the southern slope of the anthills is gentle, the northern slope is steep;

In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side;

Separate trees have crowns that are lush and dense on the south side;

The altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirks face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;

The raised end of the lower crossbar of the church cross faces north.

A geographic map is a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and state of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is shown on the maps, they are called political, physical, etc.

Cards are classified according to various criteria:

By scale: large-scale (1: 10,000 - 1: 100,000), medium-scale (1: 200,000 - 1: 1,000,000) and small-scale maps (smaller than 1: 1,000,000). Scale determines the relationship between the actual size of an object and the size of its image on the map. Knowing the scale of the map (it is always indicated on it), you can use simple calculations and special measuring instruments (ruler, curvimeter) to determine the size of an object or the distance from one object to another.

Based on their content, maps are divided into general geographical and thematic. Thematic maps are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Physiographic maps are used to show, for example, the nature of the relief of the earth's surface or climatic conditions in a certain area. Socio-economic maps show the borders of countries, the location of roads, industrial facilities, etc.

Based on territory coverage, geographic maps are divided into world maps, maps of continents and parts of the world, regions of the world, individual countries and parts of countries (regions, cities, districts, etc.).

According to their purpose, geographic maps are divided into reference, educational, navigation, etc.

1. Is it possible to observe the Sun in the north in the Northern Hemisphere north of the Tropic of the North?

At the existing angle of inclination earth's axis(66 degrees 30′), the Earth is facing the Sun with its equatorial regions. For those living in the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun is visible from the South, and in Southern Hemisphere, from North. But to be more precise, the Sun is at its zenith throughout the entire zone between the tropics, so the solar disk is visible from the side where the Sun is currently at its zenith. If the Sun is at its zenith over the Northern Tropic, then it shines from the North for everyone to the south, including residents of the Northern Hemisphere between the equator and the tropic. In Russia beyond the Arctic Circle for polar day The sun does not set beyond the horizon, making a full circle across the sky. Therefore, passing through the most northern point The sun is at its lowest climax, this moment corresponds to midnight. It is beyond the Arctic Circle that you can observe the Sun in the North from the territory of Russia at night.

2. If the earth’s axis had an inclination of 45 degrees to the plane of the earth’s orbit, would the position of the tropics and polar circles change, and how?

Let's mentally imagine that we will give the earth's axis a tilt of half right angle. At the time of the equinoxes (March 21 and September 23), the cycle of days and nights on Earth will be the same as now. But in June the Sun will be at its zenith at the 45th parallel (and not at 23½°): this latitude would play the role of the tropics.

At a latitude of 60°, the Sun would miss the zenith by only 15°; The height of the sun is truly tropical. The hot zone would be directly adjacent to the cold one, and the temperate zone would not exist at all. In Moscow, Kharkov and other cities, a continuous, sunsetless day would reign throughout June. In winter, on the contrary, the continuous polar night would last for entire decades in Moscow, Kyiv, Kharkov, Poltava...

At this time, the hot zone would turn into a moderate one, because the Sun would rise there at noon no higher than 45°.

The tropical zone would lose a lot from this change, as well as the temperate one. The polar region would gain something this time too: here, after a very severe (severe than now) winter, a moderately warm summer period would begin, when even at the pole itself the Sun would stand at noon at an altitude of 45° and would shine longer six months. The eternal ice of the Arctic would gradually disappear.

3. What type of solar radiation and why prevails over eastern Siberia in winter, over the Baltic states in summer?

Eastern Siberia. In the territory under consideration, all components of the radiation balance are mainly subject to latitudinal distribution.

Territory of Eastern Siberia, lying south of the Arctic Circle, is located in two climatic zones– subarctic and temperate. In this region, the influence of relief on the climate is great, which leads to the identification of seven regions: Tunguska, Central Yakut, North-Eastern Siberia, Altai-Sayan, Angara, Baikal, Transbaikal.

Annual amounts of solar radiation at 200–400 MJ/cm 2 more than at the same latitudes of European Russia. They vary from 3100–3300 MJ/cm 2 at the latitude of the Arctic Circle up to 4600–4800 MJ/cm 2 in the southeast of Transbaikalia. The atmosphere above Eastern Siberia is cleaner than above European territory. The transparency of the atmosphere decreases from north to south. In winter, greater transparency of the atmosphere is determined by low moisture content, especially in the southern regions of Eastern Siberia. South of 56°N. direct solar radiation predominates over diffuse radiation. In the south of Transbaikalia and in Minusinsk Basin Direct radiation accounts for 55–60% of total radiation. Due to the long-term occurrence of snow cover (6–8 months) up to 1250 MJ/cm 2 per year is spent on reflected radiation. The radiation balance increases from north to south from 900–950 mJ/cm 2 at the latitude of the Arctic Circle up to 1450–1550 MJ/cm 2 .

There are two areas characterized by an increase in direct and total radiation as a result of increased transparency of the atmosphere - Lake Baikal and the highlands of the Eastern Sayan.

The annual arrival of received solar radiation on a horizontal surface under clear skies (that is, the possible arrival) is 4200 MJ/m 2 in the north of the Irkutsk region and increases to 5150 MJ/m 2 to the south. On the shores of Baikal, the annual amount increases to 5280 MJ/m 2 , and in the highlands of the Eastern Sayan reaches 5620 MJ/m 2 .

Annual amounts of scattered radiation at cloudless sky are 800-1100 MJ/m 2 .

An increase in cloudiness in certain months of the year reduces the flow of direct solar radiation by an average of 60% of the possible amount and at the same time increases the share of scattered radiation by 2 times. As a result, the annual income of total radiation fluctuates between 3240-4800 MJ/m 2 with a general increase from north to south. In this case, the contribution of scattered radiation ranges from 47% in the south of the region to 65% in the north. In winter, the contribution of direct radiation is insignificant, especially in the northern regions.

In the annual course, the maximum monthly amounts of total and direct radiation on the horizontal surface in most of the territory occurs in June (total 600 - 640 MJ/m 2 , straight 320-400 MJ/m 2 ), in the northern regions - shifts to July.

The minimum arrival of total radiation is observed everywhere in December - from 31 MJ/m 2 in highland Ilchir up to 1.2 MJ/m 2 in Erbogachen. Direct radiation to a horizontal surface decreases from 44 MJ/m 2 in Ilchir to 0 in Erbogachen.

Let us present the values ​​of monthly amounts of direct radiation on a horizontal surface for some points in the Irkutsk region.

Monthly amounts of direct radiation on a horizontal surface (MJ/m 2 )

Items

The annual course of direct and total radiation is characterized by a sharp increase in monthly amounts from February to March, which is explained both by an increase in the height of the sun and by the transparency of the atmosphere in March and a decrease in cloudiness.

The daily course of solar radiation is determined primarily by the decrease in the height of the sun during the day. Therefore, the maximum solar radiation is observed volumetrically at noon. But along with this, the daily course of radiation is influenced by the transparency of the atmosphere, which is noticeably manifested in clear sky conditions. Two areas stand out in particular, characterized by an increase in direct and total radiation as a result of increased transparency of the atmosphere - Lake. Baikal and the highlands of the Eastern Sayan.

In summer, the atmosphere is usually more transparent in the first half of the day than in the second, so the change in radiation during the day is asymmetrical relative to midday. As for cloudiness, it is precisely this that is the reason for the underestimation of irradiation of the eastern walls compared to the western ones in the city of Irkutsk. For the southern wall, sunshine is about 60% of what is possible in summer and only 21-34% in winter.

In some years, depending on cloudiness, the ratio of direct and diffuse radiation and the total arrival of total radiation may differ significantly from the average values. The difference between the maximum and minimum monthly arrival of total and direct radiation can reach 167.6-209.5 MJ/m in the summer months 2 . Differences in scattered radiation are 41.9-83.8 MJ/m 2 . Even greater changes are observed in daily amounts of radiation. The average maximum daily amounts of direct radiation may differ from the average by 2-3 times.

The arrival of radiation to differently oriented vertical surfaces depends on the height of the sun above the horizon, the albedo of the underlying surface, the nature of the building, the number of clear and cloudy days, and the course of cloud cover during the day.

Baltics. Cloudiness reduces, on average, the annual total solar radiation by 21%, and direct solar radiation by 60%. Number of hours of sunshine - 1628 per year.

The annual arrival of total solar radiation is 3400 MJ/m2. In autumn-winter, diffuse radiation predominates (70-80% of the total flow). In summer, the share of direct solar radiation increases, reaching approximately half of the total radiation input. The radiation balance is about 1400 MJ/m2 per year. From November to February it is negative, but the heat loss is largely compensated by the advection of warm air masses from the Atlantic Ocean.

4. Explain why in the deserts of temperate and tropical zones Does the temperature drop a lot at night?

Indeed, in deserts there are large daily temperature fluctuations. During the day, in the absence of clouds, the surface becomes very hot, but cools quickly after sunset. Here the main role is played by the underlying surface, that is, sands, which are characterized by their own microclimate. Their thermal regime depends on color, humidity, structure, etc.

A peculiarity of sands is that the temperature in the upper layer decreases very quickly with depth. The top layer of sand is usually dry. The dryness of this layer does not cause heat to evaporate water from its surface and is absorbed by sand solar energy goes mainly to heating it. Under such conditions, the sand warms up very much during the day. This is also facilitated by its low thermal conductivity, which prevents heat from leaving the upper layer into deeper layers. At night, the top layer of sand cools significantly. Such fluctuations in sand temperature are reflected in the temperature of the surface layer of air.

Due to rotation, it turns out that not 2 air flows circulate on the earth, but six. And in those places where the air sinks to the ground, it is cold, but gradually warms up and acquires the ability to absorb steam and, as it were, “drinks” moisture from the surface. The planet is surrounded by two belts of arid climate - this is the place where deserts originate.

It's hot in the desert because it's dry. Low humidity affects temperature. There is no moisture in the air, therefore, the sun's rays, without stopping, reach the soil surface and heat it. The surface of the soil heats up very much, but there is no heat transfer - there is no water to evaporate. That's why it's so hot. And heat spreads into the depths very slowly - due to the absence of the same heat-conducting water.

It's cold in the desert at night. Due to dry air. There is no water in the soil, and there are no clouds above the ground - which means there is nothing to retain heat.

Tasks

1. Determine the height of the level of condensation and sublimation of air not saturated with steam rising adiabatically from the Earth’s surface, if its temperature is knownt= 30º and water vapor pressure e = 21.2 hPa.

Water vapor pressure is the main characteristic of air humidity, determined by a psychrometer: partial pressure water vapor contained in the air; measured in Pa or mmHg. Art.

In rising air, the temperature changes due toadiabaticprocess, i.e. without exchanging heat with the environment, due to the conversion of internal gas energy into work and work in internal energy. Since the internal energy is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas, a change in temperature occurs. The rising air expands, produces work, which expends internal energy, and its temperature decreases. The descending air, on the contrary, is compressed, the energy spent on expansion is released, and the air temperature rises.

Air that is dry or contains water vapor but not saturated with it, when rising, cools adiabatically by 1° for every 100 m. Air saturated with water vapor, when rising by 100 m, cools by less than 1°, since condensation occurs in it, accompanied by the release heat, partially compensating for the heat spent on expansion.

The amount of cooling of saturated air when it rises 100 m depends on the air temperature and atmospheric pressure and varies within significant limits. Unsaturated air, descending, heats up by 1° per 100 m, saturated air by a smaller amount, since evaporation occurs in it, which consumes heat. Rising saturated air usually loses moisture through precipitation and becomes unsaturated. When descending, such air heats up by 1° per 100 m.

Since the air is heated mainly from the active surface, the temperature in the lower layer of the atmosphere, as a rule, decreases with height. The vertical gradient for the troposphere averages 0.6° per 100 m. It is considered positive if the temperature decreases with height, and negative if it increases. In the lower, surface layer of air (1.5-2 m), vertical gradients can be very large.

Condensation and sublimation.In air saturated with water vapor, when its temperature decreases to the dew point or the amount of water vapor in it increases, condensation - water changes from a vapor state to a liquid state. At temperatures below 0°C, water can, bypassing the liquid state, turn into a solid. This process is called sublimation. Both condensation and sublimation can occur in the air on condensation nuclei, on the earth's surface and on the surface of various objects. When the temperature of the air cooling from the underlying surface reaches the dew point, dew, frost, liquid and solid deposits, and frost settle from it onto the cold surface.

To find the height of the condensation level, it is necessary to determine the dew point T of the rising air using psychrometric tables, calculate by how many degrees the air temperature must drop in order for the condensation of the water vapor contained in it to begin, i.e. determine the difference. Dew point = 4.2460

Determine the difference between air temperature and dew point (t– T) = (30 – 4.2460) = 25.754

Let's multiply this value by 100m and find the height of the condensation level = 2575.4m

To determine the level of sublimation, you need to find the temperature difference from the dew point to the sublimation temperature and multiply this difference by 200m.

Sublimation occurs at a temperature of -10°. Difference = 14.24°.

The height of the sublimation level is 5415m.

2. Reduce the pressure to sea level at an air temperature of 8º C, if: at an altitude of 150 m the pressure is 990.8 hPa

zenith radiation condensation pressure

At sea level, the average atmospheric pressure is 1013 hPa. (760mm.) Naturally, atmospheric pressure will decrease with altitude. The height to which one must rise (or fall) for the pressure to change by 1 hPa is called the barometric (barometric) step. It increases with warm air and increasing altitude above sea level. At the earth's surface at a temperature of 0ºC and a pressure of 1000 hPa, the pressure level is 8 m/hPa, and at an altitude of 5 km, where the pressure is about 500 hPa, at the same zero temperature it increases to 16 m/hPa.

“Normal” atmospheric pressure is the pressure equal to the weight of a 760 mm high column of mercury at 0°C, 45° latitude, and sea level. In the GHS system 760 mmHg. Art. equivalent to 1013.25 MB. The basic unit of pressure in the SI system is the pascal [Pa]; 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2 . In the SI system, a pressure of 1013.25 mb is equivalent to 101325 Pa or 1013.25 hPa. Atmospheric pressure is a very variable weather element. From its definition it follows that it depends on the height of the corresponding column of air, its density, and the acceleration of gravity, which varies with the latitude of the place and altitude above sea level.

1 hPa = 0.75 mm Hg. Art. or 1 mm Hg. Art. = 1.333 hPa.

An increase in altitude by 10 meters leads to a decrease in pressure by 1 mmHg. We bring the pressure to sea level, it = 1010.55 hPa (758.1 mm Hg), if at an altitude of 150 m, the pressure = 990.8 hPa (743.1 mm)

The temperature is 8ºC at an altitude of 150 meters, then at sea level = 9.2º.

Literature

1. Geography tasks: a manual for teachers / Ed. Naumova. - M.: MIROS, 1993

2. Vukolov N.G. "Agricultural meteorology", M., 2007.

3. Neklyukova N.P. General geography. M.: 1976

4. Pashkang K.V. Workshop on general geoscience. M.: graduate School.. 1982

Methodological foundations of geography and the process of geographical knowledge, theory of geographical science (problems, ideas, hypotheses, concepts, laws), theoretical foundations of geographical forecast.

Methodology– a set of the most essential elements of theory necessary for the development of science itself, i.e. it is a concept for theory development.

Methodology– a set of technical techniques and organizational forms for scientific research.

Hypothesis– this is some kind of purely theoretical generalization of the material, without evidence.

Theory– a system of knowledge supported by evidence.

Concept– this is a set of the most essential elements of the theory, presented in a form that is constructively acceptable for practice, i.e. it is a theory translated into an algorithm for solving a specific problem.

Paradigm– the initial conceptual scheme, the model for making the decisions made, the solution method that is dominant at a given time.

Scientific apparatus– apparatus of facts, systems and classifications scientific knowledge. The main content of science is the empirical scientific apparatus.

The subject of studying geography (physical-geo) is the geographical envelope, the biosphere, taking into account the main characteristics of the geographical envelope - zonality, extremeness, etc.

There are 4 principles: territoriality, complexity, specificity, globality.

Zoning: consequence – the presence of natural zones and subzones.

Integrity is the relationship of everything to everything.

The heterogeneity of matter at any point on the earth’s surface (for example, azonality) is spatial polymorphism.

Cyclicality - closure. Rhythmicity – has some kind of vector.

Gyroscopicity (object location parameters) – the appearance of a gyroscopic effect in any object moving parallel to the Earth’s surface (Coriolis force).

Centrosymmetricity – central symmetry.

Limitality – there are clear boundaries of spheres.

Substantial polymorphism - as a result of the presence landscape shell, physical, chemical and other conditions that contribute to the emergence of diverse forms and structures of matter.

Geographical thinking– complex; thinking tied to territory.

Globality is the relationship between local and regional problems and the global background.

Systematics – classification and typification. Classification is the division into groups based on a population that differs in quantitative characteristics. Typing is based on quality.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “forecast” and “forecasting”. Forecasting is the process of obtaining data about the possible state of the object under study. Forecast is the result of forecast research. There are many general definitions of the term “forecast”: a forecast is a definition of the future, a forecast is a scientific hypothesis about the development of an object, a forecast is a characteristic of the future state of an object, a forecast is an assessment of development prospects.

Despite some differences in the definitions of the term “forecast,” which are apparently associated with differences in the goals and objects of the forecast, in all cases the researcher’s thought is directed to the future, that is, the forecast is a specific type of cognition, where, first of all, it is not what is , but what will happen. But a judgment about the future is not always a forecast. For example, there are natural events that do not raise doubts and do not require prediction (change of day and night, seasons of the year). In addition, determining the future state of an object is not an end in itself, but a means of scientific and practical solution of many general and particular modern problems, the parameters of which, based on the possible future state of the object, are set at the present time.

General logic circuit the forecasting process is presented as a sequential set:

1) ideas about past and current patterns and trends in the development of the forecast object;

2) scientific justification for the future development and condition of the object;

3) ideas about the causes and factors determining the change in the object, as well as the conditions that stimulate or hinder its development;

4) fourth, forecast conclusions and management decisions.

Geographers define a forecast primarily as a scientifically based prediction of trends in changes in the natural environment and production-territorial systems.

Geography methods– set ( system) including general scientific methods, private or working techniques and methods for obtaining factual material, methods and techniques for collecting and processing the obtained factual material.

A method is a system of rules and techniques for approaching the study of phenomena and patterns of nature, society and thinking; path, method of achieving certain results in knowledge and practice, technique theoretical research or practical actions, based on knowledge of the laws of development of objective reality and the object, phenomenon, process under study. The method is the central element of the entire system of methodology. Its place in the structure of science in general, its relationship with other structural elements can be visually represented in the form of a pyramid (Fig. 11), in which the corresponding elements of science are arranged in an ascending manner in accordance with the origin of scientific knowledge.

According to V. S. Preobrazhensky, modern stage The development of all sciences is characterized by a sharp increase in attention to problems of methodology, the desire of sciences to know themselves. This general trend is manifested in the intensified development of questions of the logic of science, the theory of knowledge, and methodology.

What objective processes are responsible for these trends, and what are they connected to?

Firstly, the use of scientific knowledge is expanding, penetration into the essence of natural phenomena and the relationships between them is deepening. It is impossible to solve this problem without improving the methodology.

The second reason is the development of science as a unified process of cognition of nature. At the same time, new questions arise about the properties of natural bodies and systems. And new questions often require the search for new methodological ways and techniques to be solved.

IN modern conditions It is becoming increasingly important to predict the behavior of complex systems, including both natural complexes, and technical structures. At the same time, the need for a new increase in work on the development of the methodology is becoming more acute.

It is impossible not to note the existence of a mutual connection between the methodology and the theoretical level of science: the more perfect the methodology, the deeper, broader and stronger the theoretical conclusions; on the other hand, the deeper the theory, the more diverse, clearer, more definite, and more refined the methodology.

The third impetus for the accelerated development of the technique is determined by the gigantic growth of geographic information. The volume of scientific data about the earth's nature is growing so quickly that it is impossible to cope with this flow using already established methods and purely intuitive solutions. There is an increasing need for scientific organization of research, for choosing not just any methods, but for creating the most rational and effective system of methods and methodology.

The task arises of searching for fundamentally new methodological techniques. The search is always associated with the solution of problems that have not yet been solved or remain unresolved.

Before moving on to consider the actual methods of geography, it is necessary to establish some concepts.

Man has two worlds:

One, who created us, Another, which we have been creating since the ages to the best of our ability.

N.Zabolotsky

The entire nature of the earth's surface represents that special geographical community, certain combinations of which provided favorable conditions for the emergence of humanity. The appearance of man on Earth meant the birth of a new, even more powerful force than the forces of nature. Material production- the basis and method of existence of human society in the course of its natural historical development. Elements of nature are transformed into components of human society. Being both a product of labor and a means of production, this “second nature”, together with people and technology, constitutes the main content of human society. This historical nature serves as a geographical basis included in the content of society, or geographical environment.

R.K. Balandin and L.G. Bondarev gives an interesting example of how in national science The doctrine of the relationship between nature and society began to emerge. More than 260 years ago V.N. Tatishchev was asked to compile a geographical description of Russia. He took up the matter enthusiastically and thoroughly. I began collecting the necessary books and documents. But I soon became convinced: it is impossible to make an intelligent land description without good knowledge history of the country. For this reason, he began studying the history of Russia. And I came to the conclusion that success in this enterprise requires constant use of geographical information.

Tatishchev expressed his thoughts about the relationship between the history of nature and the history of human society: “Where, in what position or distance, what happened, what natural obstacles to the ability to those actions were there, also where what people lived before and now live, what ancient cities are now called and where they were transferred, geography and constructed land maps explain this to us; and so history or narratives and chronicles without land description (geography) cannot give us complete pleasure in knowledge.”

Many years have passed since then, but Tatishchev’s idea has not become outdated. Moreover, we now know how close and complex interrelations the unity of nature and man is achieved, how inextricably linked the history of the nature of the earth’s surface is with the history of human society.

Taking into account changes in the natural environment caused by human activity is absolutely necessary for geography. This was well understood by K. Ritter, who, a hundred years after Tatishchev, argued that geography cannot do without a historical element if it wants to be a true science about earthly spatial relations, and not an abstract copy of the area.

From the second half of the 20th century. the problem of interaction between nature and society becomes extremely relevant in a practical aspect. Under these conditions everything higher value takes a geographical approach to the problem of studying changes and restructuring of the planet's landscapes (and even some geospheres) as a result of human activity.

Geographical environment- part of the geographical shell, which in one way or another, to one degree or another, is mastered by man, involved in social production and constitutes the material basis for the existence of human society.

Geographical environment- one of the main and at the same time controversial categories of geographical science. To date, there are disputes regarding the following scientific positions:

• the essence and meaning of this scientific category;
• its relationship with the geographic (landscape) envelope;
• its structure and, in particular, regarding whether the society is part of the geographical environment.

Different points of view and different answers to these deserve attention. controversial issues. But before introducing them, let us recall that the term “geographical environment” (GE) was first used by the outstanding French geographer Elisée Reclus, who by this term understood the conditions of social development surrounding a person. Reclus considered the essence of GS to be a combination of not only natural, but also public elements, which he calls “dynamic”. He wrote: “So, the entire environment is divided into countless individual elements: some of them relate to external nature, and they are usually designated by the name “ external environment” in the narrow sense of the word; others belong to a different order, since they stem from the very course of development of human societies and are formed, increasing successively to infinity, multiplying and creating a complex complex of phenomena in action. This second “dynamic” environment, joining the influence of the primary “static” environment, forms a sum of influences in which it is difficult and often even impossible to determine which forces prevail.”

Reclus understood historical nature of the influence of the GS on the life of human society: “So, human history, both in its entirety and in its parts, can only be explained by the cumulative influence of external conditions and complex internal aspirations over the centuries. In order, however, to better understand the ongoing evolution, it is necessary to take into account the extent to which the external conditions themselves change and the extent to which, consequently, their action changes during the general evolution. So, for example, a mountain range from which colossal glaciers once descended into neighboring valleys and did not allow anyone to climb its steep slopes in later times, when the glaciers retreated and only its ridge was covered with snow, could lose its significance as an obstacle to communication between neighboring peoples . In the same way, one or another river, which was a powerful obstacle for tribes unfamiliar with navigation, could later become an important shipping artery and acquire great importance in the life of the population of its banks, when this population learned to control boats and ships.

In the preface to the book of his friend and colleague in geographical activities L.I. Mechnikov’s “Civilization and the Great Historical Rivers” Reclus wrote that “the environment changes not only in space, it also changes in time... Human history presents something other than a long series of examples of how the conditions of the environment and the contours of the surface of our planets had a beneficial or retarding influence on the development of mankind.”

Here are similar thoughts L.I. Mechnikov: “Many geographers have lost sight of the fact that the factors of the physical-geographical environment... are of very different value in different areas of the globe for the historian and sociologist.” He further writes that “man, having, together with all organisms, the ability to adapt to the environment, dominates all animal species due to his unique ability to adapt the environment to his needs. This ability, it seems, can develop in a person ad infinitum along with the progress of science, art and industry.”

And one more important position of Mechnikov: “...we are by no means defenders of the theory of “geographical fatalism”, which proclaims, in defiance of the facts, that a given set of physical-geographical conditions plays and should play the same unchanging role everywhere. No, the point is only to establish the historical value of these conditions and the variability of this value over the centuries and at different stages of civilization.”

The concept of “geographical environment” was introduced into sociological literature by G.V. Plekhanov. By geographical environment he understood the natural conditions of society. He rightly believed that the geographic environment external to society can only indirectly, through the level of productive forces achieved by society, influence production relations. This understanding of the geographical environment has become part of our scientific literature: “The geographical environment is a set of objects and natural phenomena (the earth’s crust, the lower part of the atmosphere, water, soil cover, flora and fauna) involved in this historical stage into the process of social production and components the necessary conditions existence and development of human society" 1 .

Without stopping to look at others XIX scientists and the first half of the 20th century. Regarding the essence and influence of GE on the life of human society, let us pay attention to the interpretation of this category, which was proposed in the late 50s of the 20th century. SOUTH. Saushkin and V.A. Anuchin, “arousing” with his works a keen interest in the fundamental theoretical and methodological issues of geography.

SOUTH. Saushkin“approved” the category of HS in both editions of his “Introduction to Economic Geography” (1958 and 1970), considering the interaction of HS and social production.

Here are its main provisions:

“The geographical environment is the earthly nature in which humanity lives, works, develops, continuously transforms its environment, makes it more diverse and productive... The geographical environment is the source and indispensable condition of people’s lives and social production, changing historically under the influence and self-development of nature, and human activity... The interaction of nature and man is... very complex: nature influences human life, but man also changes nature, therefore man is influenced by a changed, “humanized” nature, which combines its own properties , and the results of labor imprinted in it, the results of its changes by man, in many cases of countless generations.”

V.A. Anuchin defending your idea unity of geography, believed that the essence of this unity lies, first of all, in the commonality of the object of science. Such a common object of all geographical sciences is part of the landscape shell, namely the geographic environment, which is “at the same time a condition and source of social production processes...”.

At the same time, the acceleration of the “humanization” of the HS, due to the increasing process of interaction between society and nature, is emphasized. As a result, elements created and created by human labor begin to occupy an increasing place within the GS.

"1. Elements resulting from modification earthly nature that existed before man. This includes modern, as yet not so significant changes in the relief, plowed steppes converted into agricultural land, forests after forest management and sanitary felling, deforested and eroded mountain slopes, drained swamps, all complexes of altered human activity soil and climatic conditions, regulated rivers, etc.

2. Elements of the environment, but created by man. It is, first of all, a material product of the material and production activities of people. This includes all structures that appeared on Earth as a result of labor, created by people from natural materials."

These theoretical positions of supporters of geographical monism (V.A. Anuchin and scientists related to his views) met with rejection and sometimes even harsh criticism from a number of well-known domestic geographers, especially regarding the hasty “humanization” of the GS and its saturation with “various extraneous elements.”

In this regard, the following conclusions of Academician S.V. are noteworthy. Kalesnika:

"1. The geographical environment is only the terrestrial (in the sense of planet Earth) environment of human society.

• 2. The geographic environment is only that part of the earthly environment of a society with which the society is currently in direct interaction.
• 3. Geographic environment and geographic (landscape) shell are different concepts, referring to two different objects.
• 4. Human society now lives in two interconnected environments - geographical and technogenic, different in origin and in possibilities for further self-development.
• 5. The geographical environment arose without human intervention and regardless of his will and consciousness. It includes both natural elements of the landscape shell untouched by man, and those natural elements changed by him, which have retained both their typological analogues in virgin nature and the ability for self-development.
• 6. The technogenic environment was created by human labor and will. Its elements have no analogues in virgin nature and are not capable of self-development.
• 7. The essence of even the largest changes made by man to the geographical environment lies in changing the structure of geographical landscapes. In the development of the geographical environment, human society plays the role of an external guiding stimulus, and not a decisive factor” 1.

According to Kalesnik, “by learning the laws of nature and skillfully using them, human society becomes only a pilot of the geographical environment, directing its movement towards the most convenient harbor for humans.”

These were the different “vectors” of development of the doctrine of GE in the 50s-70s.

Overcoming dualistic views (such as the ideas of S.V. Kalesnik) in the 80s, it seems to us, new foundations of theory(teachings) GS, one of the exponents of which was N.K. Mukitanov.

He believes that the:

• “the geographical environment includes society and the results of its objective and practical activities, during which it begins to include the geographical environment and its elements in the orbit of its specific movement”;
• “The geographical environment is a dialectical unity of natural and social phenomena, developing under the influence of two classes of laws”;
• “the contradiction between the natural and the social in the geographical environment at this stage of the development of social production is the main contradiction leading to its further development.”

It is characteristic that in the works of domestic scientists last decade GE is actually ignored, this term is not used, it is bypassed, and the general and ultimate object of study of the geographical sciences is usually called the geographical envelope.

In some cases, citing the fact that the concept of geographical environment has not been established (this is the opinion of quite a few scientists), instead of the term GS, others are used, for example, “environment” or “natural environment”, considering them to a certain extent identical concepts.

However, in our opinion, this is not a reason to “bury” the idea and foundations of the doctrine of GE, dating back to E. Reclus, and L.I. Mechnikov.

And from time to time, some scientists return to this geographical category. So, A.G. Doskach believes: “Earth science in its essence is the science of the most general laws of the formation of the geographical environment and its isolation as an independent real object from the natural world as a whole.” This emphasizes the idea of complexity of the GS, which was a major milestone in the history of geographical thought.

M.A. Smirnov (2002) introduced the concept of the information environment as a reflection of the geographic environment. From the point of view of a geographer, the significance of information lies in its organizing aspect, when it becomes a resource that actively influences the development of society, its individual groups, and, together with the action of other factors (resources), leads to a certain territorial differentiation society and productive forces.

The peculiarity of information as an object of geographical research is that it evolves so quickly that its influence on the territory and population can have a very short pulse character. This is difficult to discern statistically, but can be of great importance for the development of the territory. When using the concept of information environment, a certain uniqueness, locality, and focus specifically on the territorial grouping of objects under study are emphasized.

At the dawn of humanity, the information environment coincided with the landscape environment. The main source of information was nature, on which people’s lives completely depended. With the development of society, there was an accumulation of secondary, social information, which today plays a decisive role in the development of the individual and society as a whole.

Society existed in the natural environment and received all necessary information from her. The ability to “obtain”, accumulate and use information allowed for faster development. At a certain stage, societies began to compete in the use of natural resources. The nature of their activities could change significantly due to the “absorbed” information.

Questions that have been discussed for more than 20 years still remain relevant:

• a) that “geographical envelope”, “geographical environment” and “environment” are not identical concepts;
• b) that, although society is “a component of the geographical shell (since it exists within the Earth), it at the same time represents an essentially special factor opposing this shell (which in this aspect acts as a geographical environment) - nature in as a whole (Earth plus Galaxy)" ;
• c) about the nature of interaction between society and the geographic environment as a process occurring within the geographic shell;
• d) about the existence of “humanized” nature, its expansion and development and the complexity of its connections with the not yet “humanized” nature of the Earth (Diagram 5).

Scheme 5

The relationship between the concepts “nature”, “geographical envelope”, “geographical environment of society”, “natural resources”, “ surrounding a person Wednesday"

(according to the publication “Landscape Protection // Explanatory Dictionary”)

In this regard, the evolution of the views of the famous Russian geographer V.S. is characteristic. Preobrazhensky on the structure of the geographical shell, which he considered the general and ultimate object of study of the geographical sciences, a complex heterogeneous open dynamic supersystem, including the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, pedosphere and biota 1.

As can be seen, human society is not represented in this structure, although it is recognized that the fate of the geographical envelope increasingly depends on its activities.

But soon in another of his works, Preobrazhensky states: “The geographical envelope is a complex unity of nature and society... For the evolutionary geographer, it is the current, past and future state of the geographical envelope and the geosystems and individual envelopes that compose it (atmosphere, hydrosphere, biotosphere, pedosphere, sociosphere) and constitutes the subject of research."

The sphere of life and activity of human society (sociosphere) is considered here as one of the components of the geographical envelope. Preobrazhensky adds that not all geographers share this belief. And indeed it is.

At the same time, in the above discussions of the scientist there was no place for the concept of “geographical environment”.

One of the founders of modern domestic ecology N.F. Reimers proposed to consider the human environment as consisting of four inextricably interconnected components - subsystems: 1) the natural environment itself; 2) the environment generated by agricultural technology - “second nature”; 3) artificial environment- “third nature”; 4) social environment. Since these concepts often receive different interpretations, he gave them definitions.

Natural environment, surrounding a person - factors of purely natural or natural-anthropogenic systemic origin (i.e., having the properties of self-maintenance and self-regulation without constant corrective influence on the part of a person), directly or indirectly, consciously or unconsciously (registered and not recorded by the senses, measurable or unmeasurable , for example, information, devices) affecting an individual or human groups (up to all of humanity).

Wednesday "second nature"", or quasi-natural environment,- all modifications of the natural environment, artificially transformed by people and characterized by a lack of systemic self-sustainment

(i.e., gradually deteriorating without constant regulatory influence from humans): arable and other lands transformed by humans (“cultural landscapes”); dirt roads; the external space of populated areas with its natural physical and chemical characteristics and internal structure; green spaces. All these formations are of natural origin, represent a modified natural environment and are not purely artificial, not existing in nature.

"Third Nature" or artificial environment,- the entire artificial world created by man, materially and energetically unparalleled in natural nature, systemically alien to it and without continuous renewal immediately begins to collapse. This is no longer “humanized nature”, but a substance radically transformed by man, either not included in natural geochemical cycles, or entering them with difficulty.

Introduction

Geography is a multidisciplinary science. This is due to the complexity and diversity of the main object of her research - the geographical shell of the Earth. Located on the border of interaction between intraterrestrial and external (including cosmic) processes, the geographic envelope includes the upper layers of the solid crust, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and organic matter dispersed in them. Depending on the position of the Earth in the ecliptic orbit and due to the inclination of its axis of rotation, different parts of the earth's surface receive different amounts of solar heat, the further redistribution of which, in turn, is due to the uneven latitudinal ratio of land and sea.

The current state of the geographic shell should be considered as the result of its long evolution - starting with the emergence of the Earth and its establishment on the planetary path of development.

A correct understanding of the processes and phenomena of various spatiotemporal scales occurring in the geographic shell requires at least a multi-level consideration of them, starting with the global - planetary one. At the same time, the study of processes of a planetary nature until recently was considered the prerogative of the geological sciences. In general geographic synthesis, information at this level was practically not used, and if it was involved, it was rather passively and limitedly. However, the branch division of natural sciences is rather arbitrary and does not have clear boundaries. They have a common object of research - the Earth and its cosmic environment. The study of the various properties of this single object and the processes occurring in it required the development of various research methods, which largely predetermined their industrial division. In this regard, geographical science has more advantages over other branches of knowledge, because has the most developed infrastructure, allowing for a comprehensive study of the Earth and its surrounding space.

The arsenal of geography includes methods for studying the solid, liquid and gas components of the geographical shell, living and inert matter, the processes of their evolution and interaction.

On the other hand, one cannot fail to note the important fact that even 10-15 years ago most of research on the problems of the structure and evolution of the Earth and its external geospheres, including geographical envelope, remained “anhydrous.” When and how water appeared on the surface of the Earth and what were the paths of its further evolution - all this remained beyond the attention of researchers.

At the same time, as it was shown (Orlyonok, 1980-1985), water is the most important result of the evolution of the Earth’s proto-matter and essential component geographical shell. Its gradual accumulation on the Earth's surface, accompanied by volcanism and varying-amplitude downward movements of the upper crust, predetermined, starting from the Proterozoic, and possibly earlier, the course of evolution of the gas shell, relief, ratio of area and configuration of land and sea, and with them the conditions of sedimentation , climate and life. In other words, the free water produced by the planet and carried to the surface essentially determined the course and all the features of the evolution of the planet’s geographic envelope. Without it, the entire appearance of the Earth, its landscapes, climate, organic world would be completely different. The prototype of such an Earth is easily discernible on the arid and lifeless surface of Venus, partly the Moon and Mars

System of geographical science

Physical geography - Greek. physics - nature, geo - Earth, grapho - writing. The same thing, literally - a description of the nature of the Earth, or land description, geoscience.

The literal definition of the subject of physical geography is too general. Compare: “geology”, “geobotany”.

To give a more precise definition of the subject of physical geography, you need to:

show the spatial structure of science;

establish the relationship of this science with other sciences.

You know from your school geography course that geography deals with the study of the nature of the earth's surface and the material values ​​that have been created on it by humanity. In other words, geography is a science that does not exist in the singular. This, of course, is physical geography and economic geography. One can imagine that this is a system of sciences.

The system paradigm (Greek: example, sample) came to geography from mathematics. System is a philosophical concept meaning a set of elements that interact. It is a dynamic, functional concept.

From a systemic perspective, geography is the science of geosystems. Geosystem(s), according to V.B. Sochava (1978), are terrestrial spaces of all dimensions, where individual components of nature are in system communication with each other and how a certain integrity interacts with the cosmic sphere and human society.

Main properties of geosystems:

a) Integrity, unity;

b) Componentality, elementarity (element - Greek simplest, indivisible);

c) Hierarchical subordination, a certain order of construction and functioning;

d) Interrelation through functioning, exchange.

There are internal connections that consolidate the structure specific to a given science, and through it, its inherent composition (structure). Internal connections in nature are, first of all, the exchange of matter and energy. External Relations- internal and mutual exchange ideas, hypotheses, theories, methods through intermediate, transitional scientific subdivisions (for example, natural, social, technical sciences).

Like physics, chemistry, biology and other sciences, modern geography represents complex system scientific disciplines that became isolated at different times (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. System of geographical science according to V.A. Anuchin

Economic and Physiography have their own various objects and subjects of research, indicated in Fig. 2. But humanity and nature are not only different, but mutually influence and act on each other, forming the unity of the material world of nature on the earth’s surface (in Fig. 2 this interaction is indicated by arrows). People, forming a society, are part of nature and relate to it as a part of the whole.

Understanding society as a part of nature begins to determine the entire nature of production. Society, experiencing the influence of nature, also experiences the influence of the laws of nature. But the latter are refracted in society and become specific (the law of reproduction is the law of population). It is social laws that determine the development of society (solid line in Fig. 2).

Social development takes place in the nature of the earth's surface. The nature surrounding human society, experiencing its influence, forms the geographical environment. Geographical environment, thanks to technical progress, is continuously expanding and already includes Near Space.

A reasonable person should not forget about the existing systemic connection. N.N. said this very well. Baransky: “There should be neither “inhuman” physical geography, nor “unnatural” economic geography.”

In addition, a modern geographer must take into account the fact that the nature of the earth's surface has already been changed by human activity, therefore modern society must balance its impact on nature with the intensity of the natural process.

Modern geography is a triune science that unites nature, population, and economy.

Each of the sciences: physical, economic, social geography, in turn, represents a complex of sciences.

Complex of physical-geographical science

The physical-geographical complex is one of the main concepts of physical geography. It consists of parts, elements and components: air, water, lithogenic base ( rocks and unevenness of the earth's surface), soil and living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms). Their totality forms a natural-territorial complex (NTC) of the earth's surface. PTC can be considered both the entire earth's surface, individual continents, oceans, and small areas: the slope of a ravine, a swamp hummock. PTC is a unity that exists in origin (past) and development (present, future).

The nature of the earth's surface can be studied in general and as a whole (physical geography), by components (special sciences - hydrology, climatology, soil science, geomorphology, etc.); can be studied by country and region (country studies, landscape studies), in the present, past and future tense (general geography, paleogeography and historical geography).

Animal geography (zoogeography) is the science of the patterns of distribution of animal species.

Biogeography is the geography of organic life.

Oceanology is the science of the World Ocean as part of the hydrosphere.

Landscape science is the science of the landscape environment, the thin, most active central layer of the geographical envelope, consisting of natural-territorial complexes of different ranks.

Cartography is a general geographical (at the system level) science of geographical maps, methods of their creation and use.

Paleogeography and historical geography - sciences about the nature of the earth's surface of past geological eras; about the discovery, formation and history of development of natural-social systems.

Regional geography is a physical-geographical study that studies the nature of individual countries and regions (physical geography of Russia, Asia, Africa, etc.).

Glaciology and geocryology (permafrost science) - sciences about the conditions of origin, development and forms of land (glaciers, snowfields, snow avalanches, sea ​​ice) and lithospheric ( permafrost, underground glaciation) of ice.

Geography (actually physical geography) studies the geographical envelope (the nature of the earth's surface) as an integral material system - general patterns its structure, origin, internal and external relationships, functioning for the development of a system for modeling and managing ongoing processes.