General Ecology, edited by Stepanovsky Content. Population Growth and Growth Curves
A.S. STEPANOVSKII
Russian Federation as a textbook
For university students
Moscow" 2003
Reviewers:
Dr. S.-H. sciences, prof.. Honored. worker of science of the Russian Federation A.G. Taskaeva
(Chelyabinsk Agroengineering University);
Dr. Biol. sciences, prof.T.V. Teplyakova
(Siberian University consumer cooperation);
Dr. S.-H. Sciences, prof., Honored. scientist of the Russian Federation V.A. Chulkina
(Novosibirsk Agrarian University)
Editor-in-chief of the publishing house N.D. Eriashvili
Stepanovskikh A.S.
ISBN 5-238-00284-XBBK 28.081
ISBN 5-238-00284-X
© A.S. Stepanovskikh, 2001
© 000 UNITY-DAN PUBLISHING HOUSE, 2001
Playing the whole book or any part of it
prohibited without written permission
publishing houses
Stepanovskikh Anatoly Sergeevich
Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, Professor, Academician of the International Academy of Agricultural Education and the International Academy of Sciences of Ecology and… A.S. Stepanovskikh - a prominent scientist in the field of agricultural science and ... the International Academy of Sciences of Ecology and Life Safety for A.S. Stepanovsky was awarded ...FOREWORD
A specialist in any field of activity must have environmental knowledge, understand the essence of modern problems of interaction between society and nature, understand the causation of possible negative impacts economic activities on the environment, to be able to evaluate the nature, direction and consequences of the impact of specific human activities on nature, linking the solution of production problems with compliance with relevant environmental requirements, to develop and implement scientifically informed decisions environmental issues. Hence the great role of training environmental personnel, environmental education and upbringing of the country's population.
The proposed textbook outlines the main provisions of modern ecology, the structure of the biosphere, the role of living matter in the biosphere, considers the main environments of life and adaptation of organisms to them, the ecology of populations, communities and ecosystems, gives the concept of the noosphere, highlights the issues of anthropogenic impact on nature as a whole and on individual components such as air, water, flora and fauna. Considerable attention is paid to the impact of human agricultural activities on nature, ways to solve environmental problems, environmental regulation of economic activity.
In preparing the textbook, materials from textbooks and manuals on ecology, environmental protection, nature management by domestic and foreign authors were widely used. To all of them we express our deep gratitude and gratitude.
INTRODUCTION SUBJECT OF ECOLOGY
Brief history of ecology
The word "ecology" is derived from the Greek. oikos, which means home (dwelling, habitat, shelter), and logos, science. AT literally ecology is... Ecology has acquired practical interest since the dawn of human development. In ... In the works of scientists ancient world- Heraclitus (530-470 BC), Hippocrates (460-370 BC), Aristotle ...Rice. 1.1. The spectrum of organizational levels
Community, population, organism, organ, cell and gene are the main levels of life organization. Arranged in a hierarchical order - from large systems to small ones. At each level or step, as a result of interaction with the environment physical environment(energy and matter), characteristic functional systems arise. Under system orderly interacting and interdependent components that form a single whole are understood. Ecology studies mainly systems above the level of the organism: population, ecological (Fig. 1.2).
The largest and closest to the ideal of "self-sufficiency" is biological system - biosphere. It includes all living organisms of the earth that are in interaction with the physical environment of the Earth as a whole in order to maintain this system in a state of stable equilibrium, receiving a flow of energy from the Sun, its source, and reradiating this energy into outer space.
The hierarchical approach provides a convenient framework for subdividing and studying environmental situations. On this basis, it is possible to define ecology as a science, its content, subject and tasks. Ecology - it is a science that studies the regularities of the life of organisms (in all its manifestations, at all levels of integration) in their natural habitat, taking into account the changes introduced into the environment by human activity.
Main content modern ecology is the study of the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment at the population-biocenotic level and the study of the life of biological macrosystems of a higher rank: biogeocenoses (ecosystems), the biosphere, their productivity and energy. Subject studies of ecology are biological macrosystems (population, biocenoses) and their dynamics in time and space.
The main tasks of ecology can be reduced to the study of population dynamics, to the study of biocenoses and ecosystems. The structure of biocenoses, at the level of formation of which the development of the environment takes place, contributes to the most economical and complete use of vital resources. From this point of view, the main theoretical and practical task of ecology is to reveal the laws of these processes and learn how to manage them in the conditions of the inevitable industrialization and urbanization of our planet.
The relationship of ecology with others
Biological Sciences. Subdivisions
Ecology
Ecology is one of the relatively young and rapidly developing biological sciences. However, the penetration of environmental ideas into almost all sections ... Table 1.1 Classification of biological sciences (according to B. G. Ioganzen, 1959)Environmental Research Methods
After the works of A. Tensley (1935), G. G. Vinberg (1936), V. N. Sukachev (1942), R. Lindeman (1942) and the understanding that the ecosystem is the subject ... The main methods of environmental research: field, experimental ... ecosystem approach. In the ecosystem approach, the focus of the environmental researcher is the flow of energy and…BIOSPHERE: DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE. LIVING SUBSTANCE
Definition and structure of the biosphere
Spaceship Earth is unique among the planets of the solar system. In a thin layer where air, water and earth meet and interact, they live ... According to physical natural conditions, the biosphere can be divided into three ...The main components of the Earth's geosphere
The biogenic substance is created and processed by life, by the aggregates of the living… A special category is the bioinert substance. V. I. Vernadsky (1926) wrote that it “is created in the biosphere…Living matter of the biosphere
For a long time it was believed that the living differs from the non-living by such properties as metabolism, mobility, irritability, growth, reproduction, ... Features of the living B. M. Mednikov (1982) formulated in the form of axioms ... 1. All living organisms turn out to be the unity of the phenotype and program for its construction (genotype), transmitted through ...The mass of living matter in the biosphere
In terms of its active impact on the environment, living matter occupies ... V. I. Vernadsky emphasized that living matter is the most active form of matter in the Universe. It hosts a giant…Elementary composition of stellar and solar matter in comparison with the composition of plants and animals
Laws of biogenic migration of atoms and
Irreversibility of evolution, laws
Ecology B. Commoner
The law of biogenic migration of atoms (V.I. Vernadsky) is of great theoretical and practical importance. Migration of chemical elements on the earth... In the course of geological time, the development of the biosphere was irreversible. B… During the history of the Earth, the irreversibility of biological evolution determined the irreversibility of the dynamics of substances in the biosphere,…ENVIRONMENTAL AND GENERAL FACTORS
REGULARITIES OF THEIR ACTION
ON ORGANISMS
Environment and conditions of existence
organisms
There are such concepts as the environment and the conditions for the existence of organisms. The environment is a part of nature that surrounds living organisms and exerts on them ... The conditions of life, or the conditions of existence, are the totality of the elements of the environment necessary for the organism, with which it ...Different approaches to the classification of environmental factors
| ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS | |||||
| ABIOTIC | BIOTIC | ||||
| Light, temperature, moisture, wind, air, pressure, currents, day length, etc. The mechanical composition of the soil, its permeability, moisture capacity Content of nutrients in soil or water, gas composition, water salinity | The influence of plants on other members of the biocenosis The influence of animals on other members of the biocenosis Anthropogenic factors resulting from human activity | ||||
| BY TIME | BY PERIODICITY | IN ORDER | |||
| Evolutionary Historical | Periodic Non-periodic | Primary Secondary | |||
| BY ORIGIN | ACCORDING TO THE ENVIRONMENT | ||||
| Space Abiotic (abiogenic) Biogenic Biotic Biological Natural-anthropogenic Anthropogenic (including technogenic, environmental pollution, including disturbance | Atmospheric Water (humidity) Geomorphological Edaphic Physiological Genetic Population Biocenotic Ecosystem Biospheric | ||||
A set of factors of the same kind constitutes the upper level of concepts. The lower level of concepts is associated with the knowledge of individual environmental factors.
The influence of environmental factors is determined primarily by their effect on the metabolism of organisms. Hence, all environmental factors according to their action can be divided into direct and indirect. Both can have significant impacts on the life of individual organisms and on the entire community. Environmental factors can act either in the form of a direct one, or in the form of an indirect one. Each environmental factor is characterized by certain quantitative indicators, such as strength and range of action.
For different types of plants and animals, the conditions in which they feel especially good are not the same. For example, some plants prefer very moist soil, while others prefer relatively dry soil. Some require intense heat, others tolerate colder environments better, etc.
The intensity of the environmental factor, the most favorable for the life of the organism, is called the optimum, and giving the worst effect - the pessimum, i.e., the conditions under which the vital activity of the organism is maximally inhibited, but it can still exist. So, when growing plants at different temperatures, the point at which maximum growth is observed will be optimum. In most cases, this is a certain temperature range of several degrees, so it is better to talk about optimum zone. The entire range of temperatures, from minimum to maximum, at which growth is still possible, is called stability range(stamina) or tolerance. The points that limit it, i.e., the maximum and minimum temperatures suitable for life, are stability limits. Between the optimum zone and the limits of stability, as the latter is approached, the plant experiences increasing stress, i.e. we are talking about stress zones or zones of oppression within the stability range (Fig. 3.1). As the distance from the optimum goes down and up on the scale, not only does stress increase, but ultimately, when the limits of the organism's resistance are reached, its death occurs.
Rice. 3.1. Dependence of the environmental factor
from its intensity
Similar experiments can be carried out to test the influence of other factors. The results will graphically correspond to a curve of the same type.
The repeatability of the observed trends makes it possible to conclude that this is a fundamental biological principle. For each species of plants (animals) has an optimum, stress zones and limits of stability or endurance in relation to each environmental factor.
When the value of the factor is close to the limits of endurance or tolerance, the organism can usually exist only for a short time. In a narrower range of conditions, long-term existence and growth of individuals is possible. In an even narrower range, reproduction occurs, and the species can exist indefinitely. Usually, somewhere in the middle part of the stability range, there are conditions that are most favorable for life, growth and reproduction. These conditions are called optimal, in which individuals of a given species are the most adapted, i.e., leave largest number descendants. In practice, it is difficult to identify such conditions, and usually they determine the optimum for individual vital signs - growth rate, survival rate, etc.
The ability of species to adapt to a particular range of environmental factors is denoted by the concept "environmental plasticity"(ecological valency) of the species. The wider the range of fluctuations of the ecological factor within which a given species can exist, the greater its ecological plasticity.
Species that can exist with small deviations from the factor, from the optimal value, are called highly specialized, and those that can withstand significant changes in the factor are called widely adapted. Highly specialized species include, for example, fresh water organisms, the normal life of which is maintained at a low salt content in the environment. For most inhabitants of the seas, on the contrary, normal life activity is maintained at a high concentration of salts in the environment. Hence, freshwater and marine species have low ecological plasticity with respect to salinity. At the same time, for example, the three-spined stickleback is characterized by high ecological plasticity, since it can live in both fresh and salt waters.
Ecologically hardy species are called eurybiontic(eyros - wide): low-endurance - stenobiont(stenos - narrow). Eurybiontic and stenobiontic characterize different types of adaptation of organisms to survive. Species that develop for a long time under relatively stable conditions lose their ecological plasticity and develop stenobiont traits, while species that have existed with significant fluctuations in environmental factors acquire increased ecological plasticity and become eurybiont (Fig. 3.2).
Rice. 3.2. Ecological plasticity of species (according to Yu. Odum, 1975)
The attitude of organisms to fluctuations of one or another specific factor is expressed by adding the prefix "eury-" or "steno-" to the name of the factor. For example, in relation to temperature, eury- and stenothermic organisms are distinguished, in relation to salt concentration - eurystenohaline, in relation to light - eury- and stenophotic, etc. In relation to all environmental factors, eurybiont organisms are rare. Most often, eury- or stenobiontism manifests itself in relation to one factor. So, freshwater and marine fish will be stenohaline, while the previously named three-spined stickleback is a typical euryhaline representative. The plant, being eurythermal, can simultaneously belong to stenohygrobionts, i.e., be less resistant to fluctuations in humidity.
Eurybiontism, as a rule, contributes to the wide distribution of species. Many protozoa, fungi (typical eurybionts) are cosmopolitan and ubiquitous. Stenobionty usually limits ranges. At the same time, often due to their high specialization, stenobionts own vast territories. For example, the fish-eating bird osprey (Pandion haliaetus) is a typical stenophage, but in relation to other factors it is a eurybiont, has the ability to move long distances in search of food and occupies a significant area.
All environmental factors are interconnected, and among them there are no absolutely indifferent for any organism. The population and the species as a whole react to these factors in different ways. Such selectivity also determines the selective attitude of organisms to the settlement of a particular territory.
Different types of organisms make different demands on soil conditions, temperature, humidity, light, etc. Therefore, different plants grow on different soils, in different climatic zones. On the other hand, different conditions for animals are formed in plant associations. Adapting to abiotic environmental factors and entering into certain biotic relationships with each other, plants, animals and microorganisms are distributed over various environments and form diverse ecosystems that are combined into the Earth's biosphere. Consequently, individuals and the populations formed from them adapt to each of the environmental factors in a relatively independent way. Their ecological valency in relation to different factors is not the same. Each species has a specific ecological spectrum, i.e., the sum of ecological valences in relation to environmental factors.
Joint action environmental
factors
Environmental factors usually act not individually, but as a whole complex. The effect of one factor depends on the level of others. Combination with ... In the complex action of the environment, factors in their impact are unequal for ... The leading factor may be different in the same species living in different physical and geographical conditions. ...THE MOST IMPORTANT ABIOTIC FACTORS AND ORGANISMS ADAPTATION TO THEM
Abiotic, or inanimate, the environment component is subdivided into climatic, soil (edaphic), topographic and other physical factors, including the effects of waves, sea currents, fire, etc.
Radiation: light
Light is one of the most important abiotic factors, especially for photosynthetic green plants. The sun radiates into outer space...spectrum of sunlight
Rays Wavelength in micrometers (µm) Ultraviolet 0.06-0.39 Violet 0.39-0.45The most important processes occurring in plants
And animals with light
Photosynthesis. On average, 1-5% of the light falling on plants is used for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the source of energy for the rest of the food ... Transpiration. Approximately 75% of the solar radiation falling on plants is spent ... Photoperiodism. It is important for synchronizing the vital activity and behavior of plants and animals (especially reproduction) with ...Temperature
The thermal regime is the most important condition for the existence of living organisms, since all physiological processes in them are possible under certain conditions. ... Solar radiation turns into exogenous, outside the body, ... Table 4.3The composition of the atmosphere and the temperature on the planets
Compared to them, the limits within which life can exist are very narrow - ... Table 4.4Temperature range of active life on Earth, °C
As a rule, these are the temperatures at which a normal structure is possible and ... The temperature factor is characterized by pronounced seasonal and daily fluctuations. In some parts of the world…Examples of species with different
temperature resistant
Many organisms have the ability to tolerate very high temperatures.... The temperature most favorable for life and growth is called optimal (Table 4.6).Optimal temperatures for growing plants
The temperature optimum of most living organisms is within 20-25 ... For organisms in temperate and cold zones of Russia, the optimum temperatures are from 10 to 20 ° C. So, at the oak anemone ...Humidity
Water. In the life of organisms, water acts as the most important environmental factor. There is no life without water. There are no living organisms that do not contain water on Earth ... Table 4.8 Water content in plant and animal organisms,Adaptations to dry conditions in plants and animals
Adaptation Examples Reduced water loss Leaves turned into needles or spines Submerged …Combined action of temperature
And humidity
Consideration of individual environmental factors is not the ultimate goal of ecological research, but a way to approach complex environmental problems, to give ... Temperature and humidity are leading climatic factors and closely ...Atmosphere
As noted earlier, our planet Earth differs from other planets in the presence of an air shell, atmosphere, atmospheric air ... The value of atmospheric air for living organisms is enormous and diverse. This is ... The atmosphere is an important part of the ecosphere, with which it is connected by biogeochemical cycles, including gaseous ...Topography
Topography (relief) refers to orographic factors and is closely related to other abiotic factors, although they do not belong to such ... Depending on the size of the forms, topography or relief is divided into several ...Other physical factors
Other physical factors surrounding living organisms on Earth include mainly atmospheric electricity, fire, noise, magnetic field ... Atmospheric electricity acts on living organisms through discharges and ... The role of atmospheric electrical discharges is that they are during a thunderstorm from atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen...Inversion of the Earth's magnetic field over the past 600 thousand years
European scale (according to various authors), thousand years Kong Yusuqi scale (according to the analysis of Kern from the coast of the Yellow Sea), ... Geological, climatic, biological changes on the Earth coincide with these epochs, geomagnetic field…BASIC LIFE ENVIRONMENTS
On our planet, living organisms, in the course of a long historical development, have mastered four living environments, which are distributed accordingly ...Aquatic life environment
Rice. 5.2. World ocean in comparison with land (according to N. F. Reimers, 1990)Oxygen requirements of various freshwater fish species
Among aquatic inhabitants, there are a significant number of species capable of carrying ... Respiration of hydrobionts is carried out both through the surface of the body and through specialized organs - gills, lungs, ...Ground-air environment of life
General characteristics. In the course of evolution, the ground-air environment was mastered much later than the water. Life on land required such ... In the ground-air environment, the operating environmental factors have a number of ... Table 5.3Living conditions of air and water organisms
Habitat conditions Significance of conditions for organisms of the air environment of the aquatic environment Humidity ... The impact of the above factors is inextricably linked with the movement of air masses - wind. In the process of evolution in living ...Soil as a living environment
Very complex chemical, physical, physicochemical and biological processes take place in the surface layer of rocks on the way of their transformation ... According to G. Dobrovolsky (1979), “the surface layer should be called soil ... structural components: mineral base (usually 50 - 60% of the total composition of the soil), ...Edafon
Rice. 5.39. General composition topsoil and its edaphon
(according to V. Tishler, 1955)
Mobile soil animals (earthworms, rodents, etc.) play an important role in loosening the soil and mechanical movement of organic and mineral matter. In the cycle of substances in the soil plants synthesize organic matter.
Animals produce mechanical and biochemical destruction of it and thereby prepare it for humus formation. Microorganisms synthesize soil humus and then decompose it.
Humus is distinguished by the type, form and nature of its constituent elements (Table 5.4).
Table 5.4
The most important forms of humus (according to G. Franz, 1960)
These elements may belong to the group humic or non-humic substances. Non-humic substances are formed from compounds that make up living plants and animals, such as proteins and carbohydrates. These substances, decomposing, emit carbon dioxide, water and ammonia. The energy generated in this case is used by soil organisms. The decay of non-humic substances is accompanied by complete mineralization of nutrients, which prevents further accumulation of stable organic matter in the soil. On the contrary, humic substances as a result of the vital activity of microorganisms are processed into new, usually high-molecular compounds - humic acids or fulvic acids.
As varieties of humus, humus is distinguished nutritious and sustainable. Nutritious humus is easily processed and serves as a source of nutrition for microorganisms, while stable humus is difficult to process and performs primarily physical and chemical functions, controlling the nutrient balance, the amount of water and air in the soil. Thus, humus serves as the main supplier and reserve of plant nutrients. The dark color of humus contributes to better heating of the soil, and its high moisture capacity - to water retention by the soil. Humus firmly sticks together mineral particles, forming lumps that improve soil structure. These properties favor plant growth conditions on soils rich in humus. The most important property of soil is its fertility - the ability to provide plants with water, nutrients and air. The thickness of the humus layer and the content of humus in the soil are one of the most important indicators of the level of soil fertility. The podzolic soils of the northern regions of Russia contain 1-3% humus, while the more fertile soils of the forest-steppe zone contain 4-6%. Chernozems are the richest in humus (ordinary - 7-8%, fat - 8-12%).
So, chernozem ordinary fat clayey contains up to 70% physical clay, rich in carbonates. Ordinary chernozems formed on clay have a humus horizon 60-70 cm deep, the humus content often exceeds 10%. The amount of humus in a meter layer reaches 600-700 t/ha, sometimes up to 800 t/ha. These chernozems have a well-pronounced water-resistant cloddy-granular structure. Ordinary chernozem, medium humus, on heavy loess-like loam widely distributed in the right-bank part of the Saratov region. The thickness of the humus horizon does not exceed 50-55 cm. The content of humus in the horizon is about 7-8%, the reserves in the meter layer are 400-450 t/ha. Chernozem ordinary medium-humus medium-thick It is confined to pre-gully depressions and inconspicuous depressions on plateaus and slopes.
In the Kurgan region, out of 3.0 million hectares of arable land, chernozems (ordinary, alkaline, carbonate, solodized, leached) occupy 65.3%, in combination with solonetzes - 8.7, gray forest - 5.0, chernozem-meadow and meadow- chernozems - 4.2, solods - 0.4, solonetzes - 14.9, solonchaks - 0.3, floodplains and others - 1.2%. The content of humus in soils ranges from 4-6 (ordinary chernozems) to 1% (malt). According to the mechanical composition, 63.8% of all soils of arable land are classified as heavy loamy, clayey and heavy clayey, 35.1% - medium and light loamy, 1.1% - sandy and sandy loamy.
In order for humus of one type or another to form, sufficient soil drainage is necessary. Under waterlogged conditions, decomposition proceeds very slowly, since the lack of oxygen limits the growth of aerobic decomposers. Under such conditions, plant and animal remains retain their structure and, gradually compressing, form peat, which can accumulate down to great depths.
Humidity and aeration. As we noted in the study of the ground-air environment of life, according to physical condition, mobility, availability and importance for plants, soil water is divided into gravitational, hygroscopic and capillary (Fig. 5.40).
Rice. 5.40. Three types of soil water
Gravity water - mobile water, is the main type of free water that fills wide gaps between soil particles and seeps down through the soil under the influence of gravity, Fig. 5.40.Three types of soil water until it reaches groundwater. Plants easily assimilate gravitational water when it is in the zone of the root system. From this point of view, it is very important for plants to water the soil, wetting it with water.
Water in the soil is also retained around individual colloidal particles in the form of a thin, strong, bound film. This water is called hygroscopic. It is adsorbed by hydrogen bonds on the surface of clay and quartz or on cations associated with clay minerals and humus. Hygroscopic water is released only at a temperature of 105-110°C and is physiologically practically inaccessible to plants. The amount of hygroscopic water depends on the content of colloidal particles in the soil. In clay soils it contains about 15%, in sandy soils about 5% of the soil mass. It forms the so-called dead water reserve in the soil.
As layers of water accumulate around soil particles, it begins to fill first the narrow pores between these particles, and then spreads into ever wider pores. Hygroscopic water gradually turns into capillary held around soil particles by surface tension forces. Capillary water can rise through narrow pores and channels from the groundwater level due to the high surface tension of water. Plants easily absorb capillary water, which plays the greatest role in their regular water supply. Capillary water, unlike hygroscopic water, evaporates easily. Fine-textured soils, such as clays, retain more capillary water than coarse-textured soils, such as sands.
In addition to these forms of water, the soil contains vaporous moisture, occupying all water-free pores.
Let us trace the path that water makes when it reaches the surface of the earth, consider the importance of soil moisture and aeration as a living environment. Water seeping into the soil reaches the groundwater table or fills cracks and crevices in dense crystalline and shale rocks.
However, part of the precipitation penetrating into the soil from the surface does not reach the groundwater level, but creates soil moisture useful for plants. Soil moisture, under the influence of the dynamic forces inherent in the soil, is, as it were, suspended above the groundwater table. Infiltration water in the end - in the form of a slowly or rapidly flowing groundwater flow that has passed a more distant or closer path - can again turn into surface runoff in the form of springs or springs gushing in riverbeds, streams, bottoms of lake basins. There is a constant exchange of surface, soil and groundwater, changing its intensity and its direction depending on the seasons of the year.
The water and air regimes of the soil depend on the type of soil and the content of humus in it. The latter, in turn, affect the porosity, moisture capacity, and water permeability of soils and, thus, their heat balance.
In loose soil (left), the porosity of the upper layer (up to 70 cm) is 20-30%; there is little water - 10-20%, its content increases only at great depths. The reverse relationship is observed in heavy soils (right). Water fills almost all the pores in them. Only the upper horizon with a depth of 30 cm is provided with air (no more than 15%). A large admixture of both clay and sand particles reduces the quality of the soil. Sandy (light) soils have low water capacity. They dry out too quickly. Clay (heavy) soils contain too little air, so they do not warm up well and thus retard plant growth and the activity of soil organisms. Best conditions for plant growth, they have silty loams and loams, their water and air regimes are optimal.
Distinguish physical and physiological dryness of the soil. For physical dryness the soil lacks moisture. This occurs during atmospheric drought, when the water supply is sharply reduced, which is usually observed in dry climates and in places where the soil is moistened only by precipitation. Physiological dryness soil is a more complex phenomenon. It arises as a result of the physiological inaccessibility of physically accessible water. Plants with physiological dryness suffer even on wet soils, when the low temperature of the soil cover or other unfavorable conditions prevent the normal functioning of the root system. For example, in sphagnum bogs, despite the large amount of moisture, water is inaccessible to many plants due to the high acidity of the soil, poor aeration and the presence of toxic substances that disrupt the normal physiological function of the root system. Physiologically dry are also highly saline soils. Due to the high osmotic pressure of the soil solution, the water of saline soils is inaccessible to many plants.
Well-moistened soil warms up easily and cools down slowly. On its surface, sharper temperature fluctuations occur than in depth. At the same time, its daily fluctuations affect layers to a depth of 1 m. If we take into account that in winter the temperature of the soil increases with depth, and in summer, on the contrary, it falls, then it is easy to imagine seasonal vertical migrations of soil inhabitants, which are caused by changes in environmental conditions. Naturally, soil animals are deeper in winter than in summer.
plays an important role in soil formation relief. On identical and coeval landforms, similar and similar soils are formed. On terrain with dissected relief, unequal level ground water there are differences in climate, heat regime, evaporation rate of surface moisture and in the distribution of precipitation. All this significantly affects the physical and chemical properties of soils, as well as the nature of the vegetation cover and wildlife.
Ecological groups of soil organisms. The number of organisms in the soil is enormous (Figure 5.41).
Rice. 5.41. Soil organisms (no to E. A. Kriksunov et al., 1995)
Plants, animals and microorganisms living in the soil are in constant interaction with each other and with the environment. These relationships are complex and varied. Animals and bacteria consume vegetable carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Due to these relationships and as a result of fundamental changes in the physical, chemical and biochemical properties of the rock, soil-forming processes are constantly taking place in nature. On average, the soil contains 2 - 3 kg / m 2 of living plants and animals, or 20 - 30 t / ha. At the same time, in the temperate climate zone, plant roots are 15 tons (per 1 ha), insects - 1 ton, earthworms - 500 kg, nematodes - 50 kg, crustaceans - 40 kg, snails, slugs - 20 kg, snakes, rodents - 20 kg, bacteria - Zt, fungi - Zt, actinomycetes - 1.5 t, protozoa - 100 kg, algae - 100 kg.
Despite the heterogeneity of environmental conditions in the soil, it acts as a fairly stable environment, especially for mobile organisms. A large temperature and humidity gradient in the soil profile allows soil animals to provide themselves with a suitable ecological environment through minor movements.
The heterogeneity of the soil leads to the fact that for organisms of different sizes it acts as a different environment. For microorganisms, the huge total surface of soil particles is of particular importance, because the vast majority of microorganisms are adsorbed on them. The complexity of the soil environment creates the greatest diversity for a variety of functional groups: aerobes, anaerobes, consumers of organic and mineral compounds. The distribution of microorganisms in the soil is characterized by small foci, since different ecological zones can be replaced over several millimeters.
According to the degree of connection with the soil as a habitat, animals are combined into three ecological groups: geobionts, geophiles and geoxenes.
Geobionts - animals that live permanently in the soil. The entire cycle of their development takes place in the soil environment. These are such as earthworms (Lymbricidae), many primary wingless insects (Apterydota).
Geophiles - animals, part of the development cycle of which (more often one of the phases) necessarily passes in the soil. Most insects belong to this group: locusts (Acridoidea), a number of beetles (Staphylinidae, Carabidae, Elateridae), centipede mosquitoes (Tipulidae). Their larvae develop in the soil. In adulthood, these are typical terrestrial inhabitants. Geophiles also include insects that are in the soil in the pupal phase.
Geoxenes - animals that occasionally visit the soil for temporary shelter or shelter. Insect geoxenes include cockroaches (Blattodea), many hemipterans (Hemiptera), and some beetles that develop outside the soil. This also includes rodents and other mammals living in burrows.
At the same time, this classification does not reflect the role of animals in soil-forming processes, since each group contains organisms that actively move and feed in the soil and passive ones that stay in the soil during certain phases of development (larvae, pupae, or eggs of insects). Soil inhabitants, depending on their size and degree of mobility, can be divided into several groups.
Microbiotype, microbiota - these are soil microorganisms that make up the main link in the detrital food chain, they are, as it were, an intermediate link between plant residues and soil animals. These include primarily green (Chlorophyta) and blue-green (Cyanophyta) algae, bacteria (Bacteria), fungi (Fungi) and protozoa (Protozoa). In essence, we can say that these are aquatic organisms, and the soil for them is a system of micro-reservoirs. They live in soil pores filled with gravitational or capillary water, like microorganisms, part of their life can be in an adsorbed state on the surface of particles in thin layers of film moisture. Many of them live in ordinary water bodies. At the same time, soil forms are usually smaller than freshwater ones and are distinguished by the ability to remain in an encysted state for a considerable time, waiting out unfavorable periods. So, freshwater amoeba have a size of 50-100 microns, soil - 10-15 microns. Flagella do not exceed 2-5 microns. Soil ciliates are also small in size and can largely change the shape of the body.
For this group of animals, the soil is presented as a system of small caves. They do not have special tools for digging. They crawl along the walls of soil cavities with the help of limbs or wriggling like a worm. Soil air saturated with water vapor allows them to breathe through the integument of the body. Quite often, animal species of this group do not have a tracheal system and are very sensitive to desiccation. The means of salvation from fluctuations in air humidity for them is to move deeper. Larger animals have some adaptations that allow them to tolerate a decrease in soil air humidity for some time: protective scales on the body, partial impermeability of covers, etc.
Animals experience periods of soil flooding with water, as a rule, in air bubbles. The air lingers around their body due to the non-wetting of the integuments, which in most of them are equipped with hairs, scales, etc. The air bubble plays a kind of role of a “physical gill” for the animal. Breathing is carried out due to oxygen diffusing into the air layer from the environment. Animals of meso- and microbiotypes are able to tolerate winter freezing of the soil, which is especially important, since most of them cannot go down from layers exposed to negative temperatures.
Macrobiotype, macrobiota - these are large soil animals: with body sizes from 2 to 20 mm. This group includes insect larvae, centipedes, enchytreids, earthworms, etc. The soil for them is a dense medium that provides significant mechanical resistance during movement. They move in the soil, expanding natural wells by pushing soil particles apart, digging new passages. Both modes of movement leave an imprint on the external structure of animals. Many species have developed adaptations to an ecologically more beneficial type of movement in the soil - digging with clogging the passage behind them. Gas exchange of most species of this group is carried out with the help of specialized respiratory organs, but along with this, it is supplemented by gas exchange through the integuments. In earthworms and enchitreids, only cutaneous respiration is noted. Burrowing animals can leave layers where unfavorable conditions arise. By winter and drought, they concentrate in deeper layers, for the most part several tens of centimeters from the surface.
Megabiotype, megabiota - these are large shrews, mainly from among mammals (Fig. 5.42).
Rice. 5.42. Burrowing activity of burrowing animals in the steppe
Many of them spend their entire lives in the soil (gold moles in Africa, moles in Eurasia, marsupial moles in Australia, mole rats, mole voles, zokors, etc.). They make whole systems of passages and holes in the soil. Adaptability to a burrowing underground lifestyle is reflected in appearance and anatomical features of these animals: underdeveloped eyes, compact valky body with a short neck, short thick fur, strong compact limbs with strong claws.
In addition to the permanent inhabitants of the soil, among the group of animals they are often distinguished into a separate ecological group. burrow dwellers. This group of animals includes badgers, marmots, ground squirrels, jerboas, etc. They feed on the surface, but they breed, hibernate, rest, and escape from danger in the soil. A number of other animals use their burrows, finding in them a favorable microclimate and shelter from enemies. Burrow dwellers, or norniki, have structural features characteristic of terrestrial animals, but at the same time have a number of adaptations that indicate a burrowing lifestyle. So, badgers are characterized by long claws and strong muscles on the forelimbs, a narrow head, and small auricles.
To a special group psammophiles include animals inhabiting free-flowing moving sands. In vertebrate psammophiles, the limbs are often arranged in the form of a kind of "sand skis", facilitating movement on loose ground. For example, in the thin-toed ground squirrel and crested-toed jerboa, the fingers are covered with long hair and horny outgrowths. Birds and mammals of sandy deserts are able to travel long distances in search of water (runners, grouse) or do without it for a long time (camels). A number of animals receive water with food or store it during the rainy season, accumulating it in the bladder, in the subcutaneous tissues, in abdominal cavity. Other animals hide in burrows during a drought, burrow into the sand, or hibernate in summer. Many arthropods also live in shifting sands. Typical psammophiles include marbled beetles of the genus Polyphylla, larvae of antlions (Myrmeleonida) and racehorses (Cicindelinae), a large number of Hymenoptera (Hymenoptera). Soil animals living in moving sands have specific adaptations that provide them with movement in loose soil. As a rule, these are “mining” animals, pushing sand particles apart. Loose sands are inhabited only by typical psammophiles.
As noted above, 25% of all soils on our planet Earth are saline. Animals that have adapted to life on saline soils are called halophiles. Usually, in saline soils, the fauna is greatly depleted in quantitative and qualitative terms. For example, the larvae of click beetles (Elateridae) and beetles (Melolonthinae) disappear, and at the same time specific halophiles appear, which are not found in soils of normal salinity. Among them are the larvae of some desert beetles (Tenebrionidae).
Relationship of plants to soil. We noted earlier that the most important property of the soil is its fertility, which is determined primarily by the content of humus, macro- and microelements, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, copper, boron, zinc, molybdenum etc. Each of these elements plays a role in the structure and metabolism of a plant and cannot be completely replaced by another. There are plants: distributed mainly on fertile soils - eutrophic or eutrophic; satisfied with a small amount of nutrients - oligotrophic. Between them there is an intermediate group mesotrophic types.
Different types of plants relate differently to the content of available nitrogen in the soil. Plants that are especially demanding on the increased content of nitrogen in the soil are called nitrophils(Fig. 5.43).
Rice. 5.43. Plants that live in soils rich in nitrogen
Usually they settle where there are additional sources of organic waste, and, consequently, nitrogen nutrition. These are clearing plants (raspberry - Rubus idaeus, climbing hop - Humulus lupulus), garbage, or species - satellites of human habitation (nettle - Urtica dioica, amaranth - Amaranthus retroflexus, etc.). Nitrophils include many umbrella plants that settle on the edges of the forest. In the mass, nitrophils settle where the soil is constantly enriched with nitrogen and through animal excrement. For example, on pastures, in places where manure accumulates, nitrophilous grasses grow in spots (nettle, amaranth, etc.).
Calcium - the most important element, not only one of the plants necessary for mineral nutrition, but also an important constituent of the soil. Plants of carbonate soils containing more than 3% carbonates and effervescent from the surface are called calciepipami(Venus slipper - Cypripedium calceolus). Siberian larch - Larix sibiria, beech, ash are among the trees of the kalyschefilny. Plants that avoid lime-rich soils are called calciumphobes. These are sphagnum mosses, marsh heather. Among tree species - warty birch, chestnut.
Plants react differently to soil acidity. So, with a different reaction of the environment in soil horizons, it can cause uneven development of the root system in clover (Fig. 5.44).
Rice. 5.44. The development of clover roots in soil horizons at
different reactions of the environment
Plants that prefer acidic soils, with a low pH value, i.e. 3.5-4.5, called acidophiles(heather, white-bearded, small sorrel, etc.), plants of alkaline soils with a pH of 7.0-7.5 (coltsfoot, field mustard, etc.) are classified as basifilam(basophils), and soil plants with a neutral reaction - neutrophils(meadow foxtail, meadow fescue, etc.).
An excess of salts in the soil solution has a negative effect on plants. Numerous experiments have established a particularly strong effect on plants of chloride salinization of the soil, while sulfate salinity is less harmful. The lower toxicity of sulfate salinization of the soil, in particular, is due to the fact that, unlike the Cl ion, the SO 4 ion in small quantities is necessary for the normal mineral nutrition of plants, and only its excess is harmful. Plants that have adapted to growing in soils with a high salt content are called halophytes. Unlike halophytes, plants that do not grow on saline soils are called glycophytes. Halophytes have a high osmotic pressure, which allows them to use soil solutions, since the sucking power of the roots exceeds the sucking power of the soil solution. Some halophytes excrete excess salts through their leaves or accumulate them in their bodies. Therefore, sometimes they are used to produce soda and potash. Typical halophytes are European saltwort (Salicomia herbaceae), knobby sarsazan (Halocnemum strobilaceum), etc.
A special group is represented by plants adapted to loose moving sands, - psammophytes. Loose sand plants in all climatic zones have common features of morphology and biology; they have historically developed peculiar adaptations. Thus, tree and shrub psammophytes, when covered with sand, form adventitious roots. Adventitious buds and shoots develop on the roots if the plants are exposed when blowing sand (white saxaul, kandym, sand locust and other typical desert plants). Some psammophytes are saved from sand drift by the rapid growth of shoots, the reduction of leaves, the volatility and springiness of fruits are often increased. The fruits move along with the moving sand and are not covered by it. Psammophytes easily tolerate drought due to various adaptations: root covers, root corking, strong development of lateral roots. Most psammophytes are leafless or have distinct xeromorphic foliage. This significantly reduces the transpiration surface.
Loose sands are also found in humid climates, for example, sand dunes along the shores of the northern seas, sands of a drying river bed along the banks of large rivers, etc. Typical psammophytes grow here, such as sandy hair, sandy fescue, willow sheluga.
Plants such as coltsfoot, horsetail, field mint live on moist, predominantly clay soils.
The ecological conditions for plants growing on peat (peat bogs) are extremely peculiar, a special kind of soil substrate formed as a result of incomplete decomposition of plant residues in conditions of high humidity and difficult air access. Plants that grow in peat bogs are called oxylophytes. This term refers to the ability of plants to endure high acidity with strong moisture and anaerobiosis. Oxylophytes include wild rosemary (Ledum palustre), sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), etc.
Plants that live on stones, rocks, scree, in whose life the physical properties of the substrate play a predominant role, belong to lithophytes. This group includes, first of all, the first settlers after microorganisms on rocky surfaces and collapsing rocks: autotrophic algae (Nostos, Chlorella, etc.), then crustaceous lichens, densely adhering to the substrate and coloring the rocks in different colors(black, yellow, red, etc.), and finally foliose lichens. They, releasing metabolic products, contribute to the destruction of rocks and thus play a significant role in the long process of soil formation. Over time, on the surface and especially in the cracks of stones, organic residues accumulate in the form of a layer, on which mosses settle. A primitive layer of soil is formed under the moss cover, on which lithophytes from higher plants settle. They are called slit plants, or khasmofi-tami. Among them are species of the genus saxifrage (Saxifraga), shrubs and tree species (juniper, pine, etc.), fig. 5.45.
Rice. 5.45. Rock form of pine growth on granite rocks
on the coast of Lake Ladoga (according to A. A. Nitsenko, 1951)
They have a peculiar form of growth (curved, creeping, dwarf, etc.), associated with both harsh water and thermal regimes, and with a lack of nutrient substrate on the rocks.
The role of edaphic factors in the distribution of plants and animals. Specific plant associations, as already noted, are formed in connection with the diversity of habitat conditions, including soil, as well as in connection with the selectivity of plants in relation to them in a certain landscape-geographical zone. It should be borne in mind that even in one zone, depending on its topography, groundwater level, slope exposure, and a number of other factors, unequal soil conditions are created that affect the type of vegetation. So, in the feather-grass-fescue steppe, you can always find areas where feather grass or fescue dominates. Hence the conclusion: soil types are a powerful factor in the distribution of plants. Terrestrial animals are less affected by edaphic factors. At the same time, animals are closely related to vegetation, and it plays a decisive role in their distribution. However, even among large vertebrates it is easy to find forms that are adapted to specific soils. This is especially characteristic of the fauna of clay soils with a hard surface, free-flowing sands, waterlogged soils and peat bogs. In close connection with soil conditions are burrowing forms of animals. Some of them are adapted to denser soils, others can only tear through light sandy soils. Typical soil animals are also adapted to different kinds of soils. For example, in Central Europe, up to 20 genera of beetles are noted, which are distributed only on saline or alkaline soils. And at the same time, soil animals often have very wide ranges and are found in different soils. The earthworm (Eisenia nordenskioldi) reaches a high abundance in tundra and taiga soils, in soils of mixed forests and meadows, and even in mountains. This is due to the fact that in the distribution of soil inhabitants, in addition to the properties of the soil, their evolutionary level and the size of their body are of great importance. The tendency towards cosmopolitanism is clearly expressed in small forms. These are bacteria, fungi, protozoa, microarthropods (ticks, springtails), soil nematodes.
In general, according to a number of ecological features, the soil is an intermediate medium between terrestrial and aquatic. The presence of soil air brings the soil closer to the air environment, the threat of desiccation in the upper horizons, relatively drastic changes temperature regime of the surface layers. The soil is brought closer to the aquatic environment by its temperature regime, the reduced oxygen content in the soil air, its saturation with water vapor and the presence of water in other forms, the presence of salts and organic substances in soil solutions, and the ability to move in three dimensions. As in water, chemical interdependencies and mutual influence of organisms are highly developed in soil.
Intermediate ecological properties of the soil as a habitat for animals make it possible to conclude that the soil played special role in the evolution of the animal kingdom. For example, many groups of arthropods in the process of historical development have passed hard way from typically aquatic organisms through soil inhabitants to typically terrestrial forms.
Living organisms as a living environment
For the whole life or part life cycle many types of heterotrophic organisms live in other living organisms whose bodies serve for them ... Feathers serve as food for lice and mites; some flies feed on skin; fleas, lice,…BIOTIC FACTORS
Unlike abiotic factors, covering all kinds of actions of inanimate nature, biotic factors are a combination of influences ... The action of biotic factors can be considered as their effect on the environment, ... Ecological studies on the effect of biotic factors on organisms were originally of an applied nature - in ...Homotypic and
Heterotypic reactions
Clements and Shelford (1939) gave the name coactions to the interactions between different organisms inhabiting a given environment. Coactions were divided into two ... Homotypic reactions, or interactions between individuals of the same ... Heterotypic reactions, i.e. relationships between individuals of different species. The influence they have on each other...Types of Coactions Existing Between Different Species
Types of coactions Species living together Species living separately A B A B ... Note: (0) - the relationship between species does not affect them ... (+) - the development of the species is made possible or facilitated:Zoogenic factors
Living organisms live surrounded by many others, enter into various relationships with them, both negative and positive for themselves ... Interactions between individuals of the same species, the so-called ... organizing animals into groups according to ...Phytogenic factors
In the domestic literature, the most common classification of the forms of relationships between plants according to V. N. Sukachev (Table 6.2).
Table 6.2
The main forms of relationships between plants
(according to V.N. Sukachev, N.V. Dylis et al., 1964)
Direct (contact) interactions between plants.
Mutual pressure and adhesion of trunks often has a negative effect on plants. However, such contacts are more often found in the underground ... The use as a substrate also belongs to the form of mechanical contacts ...Anthropogenic factors
The action of man as an ecological factor in nature is enormous and extremely diverse. At the present time, none of the environmental factors… Random impacts occur in nature under the influence of… Man can exert both direct and indirect influence on the animals and vegetation cover of the Earth. Diversity…BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS
One of the fundamental properties of living nature is the cyclicity of most of the processes occurring in it. Between the movement of heavenly bodies and the living...External rhythms
External rhythms are of a geographical nature, associated with the rotation of the Earth relative to the Sun and the Moon relative to the Earth (Fig. 7.2).Internal, physiological, rhythms
Internal, physiological, rhythms arose historically. Not a single physiological process in the body is carried out continuously. Discovered... The internal rhythms of the body are subordinated, integrated into an integral system and... Changes in the vital activity of organisms often coincide in period with external, geographical cycles. Among them…The biological clock
Circadian and circadian rhythms underlie the body's ability to sense time. The mechanism responsible for such periodic activity is... As can be seen from the above curves, the leaves of legumes fall off at night, and again during the day...photoperiodism
The photoperiod, or the length of the day, which is the most important characteristic of the light regime, varies throughout the year. The length of the day is not indifferent to ... The ability of living organisms to respond to the length of the day is called ... The following main groups of plants are distinguished by the type of photoperiodic reaction (Fig. 7.10).LIFE
FORMS OF ORGANISM
The concept of "life form" of an organism
Organisms and the environment in which they live are in constant interaction. As a result, a striking correspondence of systems arises: organisms ... The need to typify organisms according to the similarity of their adaptations to the environment ...Plant life forms
The concept of "life form" as a set of adaptive traits was first introduced in 1884 by one of the founders of plant ecology, Danish ... Widely used in ecological and phytocenotic studies is ... All plants K. Raunkier divided into five types life forms(fig.8.2).Animal Life Forms
The classification of life forms of animals, as well as plants, is very diverse and depends on the principles underlying them (Table 8.2).
Table 8.2
The main groups of animal life forms
I 1. 2. a) II. 1. 2. III 1, 2. 3. IV. V. ... Based on the diversity of life forms, conclusions can be drawn about the characteristics of the habitat and the adaptability of various ...STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS
POPULATIONS
The concept of a population
In nature, each existing species is a complex complex or even a system of intraspecific groups that include individuals with ... The term "population" is currently used in the narrow sense of the word, when ... A population is a genetic unit of a species, the changes of which are carried out by the evolution of the species. As a group together...Morphological and ecological features in populations
Spatial subdivisions
populations
The space or area occupied by a population may be different both for different species and within the same species. The size of the population range is determined to a large extent by the mobility of individuals or radius of individual activity. If the radius of individual activity is small, the size of the population range is usually also small (Table 9.2).
Table 9.2
The value of the radius of individual activity of animals
Species Radius of activity Grape snail (Helixpomaceae) Herring (Clupea narengus) Arctic fox (Alopex… In plants, the radius of individual activity is determined by the distance over which pollen, seeds…Number and density of populations
The main indicators of the structure of populations are the number and distribution of organisms in space and the ratio of individuals of different quality. In ... Population size is the total number of individuals in a given area or in ... Population density is determined by the number of individuals or biomass per unit area or volume, for example: 400 ...Birth and death rates
The dynamics of the number and density of populations is closely dependent on the birth rate or fertility and mortality. Fertility is the ability of a population to increase in numbers. ... . (9.2)Age structure of the population
Birth and death rates, population dynamics are directly related to age structure populations. The population consists of different in age and sex ... The large life cycle of plants includes all stages of individual development - from ...Periods and age conditions in the life cycle of plants
Periods Age conditions of individuals Accepted designation 1. Primary dormancy (latent) ...The sex composition of the population
The genetic mechanism of sex determination provides for the splitting of offspring by sex in a ratio of 1: 1, the so-called sex ratio. But this does not ... Ecological and behavioral differences between males can be ... Secondary and tertiary sex ratio in animals and plants can fluctuate within very small limits in ...Genetic processes in populations
Start genetic study populations put the work of V. Johansen "On inheritance in populations and clean lines”, published in 1903, where ... It is now known that all natural populations are heterogeneous and saturated ... Suppose that in a population the number of forms homozygous for different alleles of one gene (AA and aa) is the same. If individuals are...Population Growth and Growth Curves
If the birth rate in a population exceeds the death rate, then the population will tend to grow. With increasing density, the rate of population growth... Migration, or dispersal, as well as a sudden decrease in rate... Thus, the rate of population growth in natural habitats will depend on climate change, from…INTRA-SPECIES AND INTER-SPECIES RELATIONSHIPS IN POPULATIONS,
HOMEOSTASIS AND ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGIES
Intraspecific relationships
The diverse population of a population constantly interacts with each other. Satisfying the needs for food, distribution of fodder lands, choice ... These relationships developed as the species was formed and developed as a whole ...Interspecies relationships
They can be indifferent, harmful or beneficial to partners. With neutralism, both species live on the same territory, without entering into relations with each other ... When Paramaecium caudatum is kept together in culture, it is somewhat faster ... Mutualism brings benefits to both partners - vital in symbiosis, not very significant in protocooperation. ...Fluctuations in numbers and
Population homeostasis
In nature, populations fluctuate. Due to the size of the range of populations, the number of individuals in ... Due to the fact that any population has a strictly defined genetic, ... This is the principle of the minimum size of populations. Minimum strength populations providing...GENERATIONS
Environmental resistance has the strongest effect on young individuals, who suffer more than others from predators, diseases, lack of water and food, or ... Maintaining a certain number or equilibrium state has received ... Hence, the principle of population change can be formulated as follows: a change in the population of a species is ...Ecological strategies of populations
Adaptations of individuals in a population are ultimately aimed at increasing the likelihood of survival and leaving offspring. Among the adaptations ... The ecological strategies of populations are very diverse. So, when ... Species with a relatively low value of r are called K-species. Their reproduction rate is sensitive to population density...BIOCENOSES
The concept of biocenosis
Diverse living organisms are found on Earth not in any combination, but in the process of coexistence they form biological units ... The term "biocenosis" (from Latin bios - life, cenosis - general) was proposed by K. ... component - zoocenosis; microorganisms. They form microbial biocomplexes in the soil, in the aquatic or air environment - ...Species structure of biocenosis
The structure of any system is the patterns in the ratio and connections of its parts. The species structure of a biocenosis is understood as the diversity of species in it and ... Young, emerging communities, as a rule, have a smaller set of species than ... (11.1)Spatial structure of biocenosis
The spatial structure of the biocenosis is determined primarily by the addition of its plant part - the phytocenosis, the distribution of ground and underground ... Layering is the vertical stratification of biocenoses into equally high ...Relationships of organisms in biocenoses
Various forms of biotic relationships that certain species enter into in the biocenosis (competition, commensalism, mutualism, predator-prey and ... Direct and indirect interspecific relationships in terms of the value they have for ... Trophic relationships are observed when one species feeds on another or their dead remains, or their products ...Ecological niches
An ecological niche is the position of a species that oi occupies in the general system of biocenosis, the complex of its biocenotic relationships and requirements for ... The existence of a species in a community is determined by the combination and action of many ...Ecological structure of biocenosis
Biocenoses are made up of certain ecological groups of organisms that express the ecological structure of the community. Ecological groups of organisms, ... Differences in the ecological structure of the biocenosis are most clearly manifested when ...border effect
The most important feature of the structural characteristics of biocenoses is the presence of community boundaries. At the same time, it should be noted that they are very rare ... So, the boundaries between the forest and the steppe, the forest and the meadow, the forest and the swamp, between ...ECOSYSTEMS
The concept of ecosystems
Living organisms and their non-living (abiotic) environment are inextricably linked with each other, are in constant interaction. Any unit... The very idea of an ecosystem arose much earlier. Mention of ... Currently, the following definition of an ecosystem is widely used. An ecosystem is any...Ecosystem classification
The ecosystems that exist on Earth are diverse. Allocate microecosystems(for example, the trunk of a rotting tree), mesoecosystems(forest, pond, etc.), macroecosystems(continent, ocean, etc.) and global - biosphere.
Large terrestrial ecosystems are called biomes. Each biome includes a number of smaller, interconnected ecosystems. There are several classifications of ecosystems. For example, one of them, based on the features of the macrostructure, is given in Table. 12.1
Table 12.1
The main types of natural ecosystems and biomes (according to Yu. Odum, 1986)
| Terrestrial biomes Evergreen Tropical Rainforest Semi-Evergreen Tropical Forest: Pronounced wet and dry seasons Desert: Herbaceous and shrubby Chaparral - areas with rainy winters and dry summers Tropical Grassland and Savannah Temperate steppe Temperate deciduous forest Boreal coniferous forests Tundra: arctic and alpine Types of freshwater ecosystems Banded (stagnant waters): lakes, ponds, etc. Logical (flowing waters): rivers, streams, etc. Wetlands: marshes and swamp forests Types of Marine Ecosystems Open ocean (pelagic) Continental shelf waters (coastal waters) Upwelling areas (fertile areas with productive fisheries) Estuaries (coastal bays, straits, estuaries, salt marshes, etc.) |
Terrestrial biomes are distinguished here by natural or initial features of vegetation, and types of aquatic ecosystems by geological and physical features. Listed in Table. 12.1 The 16 main types of ecosystems represent the environment in which human civilization has developed, represent the main biotic communities that support life on Earth.
human activities and
Evolution of the biosphere
E. I. Kolchinsky (1988) identifies the following trends in the evolution of the biosphere: gradual increase its total biomass and productivity; progressive... The mass extermination of man could not but change the natural processes... As we already know, the evolution of living things began with the emergence of pre-life forms, and later also proto-organisms (Fig....Development of the biosphere in
Noosphere - the sphere of the mind
With the advent of human society, under the influence of which the further evolution of the biosphere takes place in modern conditions, it leads to a change ... The scientific and practical significance of the activities of V. I. Vernadsky as the founder ... V. I. Vernadsky, assessing the role of the human mind and scientific thought, draws the following conclusions .ANTHROPOGENIC
IMPACT ON NATURE
The concept of nature, natural resources
Nature. In a broad sense, nature is the entire material, energy and information world of the Universe. Nature is a set of natural conditions… Man's interaction with nature is an eternal problem and at the same time… All elements of nature represent the environment. The concept of "environment" does not include man-made ...population growth
We have previously considered the question that humanity is part of the biosphere, a product of its evolution (Chapter 12.11). However, the relationship… Fig. 13.3. The growth of the world's population (according to UN forecasts)Anthropogenic material balance
There have been two important shifts in the last hundred years. First, the population of the Earth has increased dramatically. Secondly, it grew even more sharply... Biologically, a person already at the prehistoric phase of development was different from everyone else...Resource cycles
V.A. Chernikov et al. (2000) believe that with the growth of productive forces… According to T.A. Akimova, V.V. Haskin (1994) the total mass of matter that a person moves on the surface of the planet at the end ...World reserves of fuel and energy resources
*Stocks that can be extracted at a cost of up to $66 per 1 kg…Anthropogenic impacts on
Energy flows and cycles of matter
Almost 300 million tons of substances and materials are extracted daily by all branches of the human economy, about 30 million tons of fuel are burned, ... Comparison of anthropogenic material flows with the parameters of the biosphere ...Classification of anthropogenic
impacts
The intensity of the use of natural resources and the state of the environment closely related to it in the modern era are objectively influenced by two ... scientific and technological revolution for development and territorial…Environmental crises
And environmental disasters
Irrational use of natural resources is the cause of environmental crises and environmental disasters. An ecological crisis is a reversible change ... In the prehistory and history of mankind, a number of ecological crises and ...The concept of environmental pollution
Wednesdays. Types of pollutants
Environmental pollution is understood as any introduction into a particular ecological system of living or non-living components that are not characteristic of it, ... There are natural pollution caused by natural, often ... Anthropogenic pollutants are divided into material (dust, gases, ash, slags, etc.) and physical, or energy ...Main sources of pollution
Environment
With an abstract approach, all environmental problems can be reduced to a person, to say that any negative impact on the environment ... Until recently, it was considered indisputable that serious violations of the environment ... Energy production. Energy is the basis for the development of any region or sector of the economy. Rates of growth…Atmospheric pollution during the operation of CHP
On different types of fuel, g/kW/h
Acid rain, in turn, acidifies the soil, thereby reducing ... In general, the energy sector in terms of emissions into the atmosphere accounts for 26.6% of the total emissions of the entire industry ...Man-made accidents and natural
catastrophes
Serious factors destabilizing the environment of human life are man-made accidents and natural disasters. Many scientists, experts point out… - the crisis of environment and development caused by drought in Africa has led to… - the explosion of tanks with liquid gas in Mexico City has led to the death of 1,000 people, several thousand inhabitants have lost their homes;Ecological situation
The ecological situation is a local or regional deterioration of the environment, for example, water pollution, air pollution, soil degradation, etc., ... The severity of the manifestation of regional environmental problems is determined by ...Regions of the Russian Federation with a very acute environmental
Region Environmental problems caused by anthropogenic impact 1. Kola Peninsula ... On ecological situation in Russia, the state of the environment of neighboring states has a great influence. ...ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS
TO ATMOSPHERIC AIR
Structure and composition of the atmosphere
Atmosphere - the gaseous shell of the planet, consisting of a mixture of various gases, water vapor and dust. The exchange of matter is carried out through the atmosphere ... It is customary to distinguish between constant and variable components of the atmosphere, depending on ... The main components of the atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide.Sources and composition of pollution
Atmospheric air
The problem of cleanliness of the atmosphere is not new. It arose along with the advent of industry and transport, working on coal, and then on oil. During… Atmospheric pollution has a natural and artificial origin (Fig.…Physical and environmental
Consequences of atmospheric pollution
Earth's atmosphere is constantly circulating: rising upwards warm air at the equator it is replaced by cold air currents moving from ... Fig. 14.4. Relationship between atmospheric pollution and cyclingPrevention measures
Air pollution
From all that has been said above, it is obvious how important work is on air purification and its protection. These issues are dealt with in all ... An effective way to reduce harmful emissions into the atmosphere is the introduction of waste-free ...ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS
TO THE HYDROSPHERE
Basic information about the hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is the totality of all the waters of the Earth: continental (deep, soil, surface), oceanic, atmospheric. As a special water ... The hydrosphere is closely related to the lithosphere (groundwater), ... Table 15.1Distribution of water masses in the Earth's hydrosphere
Parts of the hydrosphere Volume (in thousand km3) % of the total volume World Ocean Groundwater, total in tons ... The vast majority of the mass of natural waters (94.2%) is the waters of the World Ocean, which is a unique natural ...The role of water in nature and human life
When we want to emphasize the value of something, we usually compare it to gold. Cotton is called white gold, wood is green, oil is black.… Where did water on Earth come from? Until now, this seemingly simple ... The chemical formula of water - H2O - is striking in its simplicity. However, water that seems so simple in its structure and ...Fresh water reserves
Of the total amount of water on Earth, fresh water so necessary for humanity is a little more than 2% of the total volume of the hydrosphere, or approximately ... Table 15.2 Fresh waters of the hydrosphere (according to M. I. Lvovich, 1974)Use of water resources
We mistakenly believed that mankind had an inexhaustible supply of fresh water and that they were sufficient for all needs. It follows ... The problem of lack of fresh water has arisen for the following main reasons: 1. An intensive increase in water needs due to the rapid growth of the world's population and the development of industries ... A source that introduces into surface or groundwater various harmful substances, microorganisms or heat, is called a source of pollution, ... Water can be contaminated with a biological nature: bacteria, viruses, ... In the 90s. In the 20th century, anthropogenic pollution of natural waters began to be global in nature and significantly reduced ...Mercury that got into the lake many years ago
From enterprises producing chlorine and caustic
Rice. 15.7. Pollution of the lake with mercury (according to P. Revell, C. Revell, 1995) The possibility of these two processes - the transformation of substances in the environment and their selective accumulation by living ...Water treatment and protection measures
Water has an extremely valuable property of continuous self-renewal under the influence of solar radiation and self-purification. It lies in…ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS
FOR VEGETATION
The value of plants in nature
And the life of a man
Plants are the primary source of existence, prosperity and development of life on Earth, and primarily due to their ability to carry out ...Human impact on
Vegetation
Human activity has a huge impact on vegetation, both positive and negative. Vegetation as an object of protection ... Aquatic vegetation plays an important role in the life of reservoirs and their inhabitants, but ... Soil vegetation - bacteria, algae, certain types of fungi play an important role in the formation processes ...Forest is the most important plant resource
The forest is part of a diverse flora and is of particular value. This is a natural complex consisting of woody plants of one…Forest and human activities
In the process of evolution of society, the nature and extent of human impact on the forest, as well as on nature as a whole, changed. Scientists believe that it is already at the stage… Fig. 16.7. Tropical deforestation by exampleThe death of forest plantations in Russia in 1991
The area of foci of harmful insects in the forests of Russia annually reaches ... One of the alarming phenomena of recent years is the drying up of forests: the new kind destruction leading to the destruction of all...Forest and tourism
Since ancient times, the forest has always attracted a large number of hunters, pickers of berries and mushrooms, and those who just want to relax. With the development in our ... Not the last place in the damage to the forest is the custom of decorating ...Measures for the protection of vegetation
The plant resources of the planet are colossal and can ensure the existence of much more than at the end of the 20th century. people, domestic and wild animals, ... Plant species do not exist in isolation. They are connected by many threads with… The main tasks of forest protection are irrational use and restoration. Increasing importance...Protection of economic valuable
and rare plant species
On the territory of Russia there are many plants with a variety of useful properties. Their use for practical purposes is still ... The world of medicinal plants has not been sufficiently studied. Currently... Some plants are becoming rare and endangered due to their extermination. An example of this is ginseng, or…ANTHROPOGENIC
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Importance of animals in the biosphere
And the life of a man
The animal world is an important part of the biosphere of our planet. Together with plants, animals play an exceptional role in the migration of chemical... Animals, which, according to scientists, number more than 1.8 million today... Many birds and fish exist due to insects. Their great role in the formation of soils. They have a variety of meanings…Human impact on
Animals, the reasons for their extinction
Organic remains and other evidence indicate that five or six catastrophic events have occurred on Earth over the past 500 million years ... In parallel with the development of human civilization, scientific and technical ... In 1850, a prominent ornithologist A. Wilson observed how one migratory flock of passenger pigeons over four hours...Animal protection measures
In the past, when human influence on the abundance and diversity of animals was much less than in our time, animal protection could ... General principles make it possible to assert that life can exist ... The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and its Resources (IUCN), with the support of the United Nations environment (HNEP) and…IMPACT
HUMAN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON NATURE
Agriculture as a source
food resources
A person in agricultural activities, using land, water, plant, animal and energy resources, provides himself in ... In the 90s of the XX century. every day about 250 thousand people come to the world who are needed ... Soil is the main means of production in agriculture. Starting from the 7th century BC. soil is the base...
1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100
Rice. 18.3. Prospects for satisfaction in cultivated land and actual land that can be used for crops (Meadows, 1972):
1 - the area of cultivated land required to maintain the current level of productivity; 2 and 3 - the area of cultivated land required to double and quadruple productivity, respectively; 4 - area of land suitable for crops; 5 - theoretical area of arable land in the world
Impact of agricultural
Human activity on the ecological
Balance in nature
For many centuries, it seemed to a person contemplating the rural landscape that he was joining something unshakable, eternal. It brought the feeling... Wonderful day! Centuries will passPower consumption, operation
and bioproductivity of agroecosystems
We have previously considered (chapter 4.1) that every minute 2 calories of solar energy enter 1 cm2 of the upper layer of the earth's atmosphere - so ... In developing world agriculture, they differ in quantity ... 1. Natural ecosystems. The only source of energy is solar (ocean, mountain forests). These ecosystems...The relationships of organisms
Agroecosystems
The components of the agro-ecosystem are agricultural lands where cereals, row crops, fodder and industrial crops are grown ... 1. Cultivated plants sown or planted by man. 2. Weeds that have penetrated into the agrobiocenosis in addition to, and sometimes against the will of man.landscape organization
Agroecosystems
At the end of the XX century. The following definition of landscape is the most widely used. The landscape is a piece of green space with natural boundaries…The main indicators of the potential of renewable resources for some types of flat landscapes in the European part of Russia
Landscape types Annual solar radiation MDD, C/m2 Total active Т °С Average annual precipitation, … Anthropogenic landscape, in modern understanding, is a landscape transformed by human economic activity ...The role of individual components
In agroecosystems
It is known that natural ecosystems show significant uniformity in their overall response to random natural stresses (the effect of low temperatures, ... A cultivated plant is the main component of the agroecosystem. Crops ... Cultivated plants, occupying a central place in agrocenosis, have the strongest, often dominant ...Environmental aspects
Agricultural intensification
The productivity of agricultural crops depends on many factors. Some of them, such as temperature, solar radiation, do not ... Other factors are provided by human production activities. K ... The highest productivity is achieved with a combination of optimal conditions for the growth and development of plants. Dropout, even...The problem of protecting land resources
Processes and phenomena that reduce soil fertility, destroy the land resources of the country, reduce the area of agricultural land, with ... 1. Natural processes, the adverse impact of which on the soil cover ... 2. Natural processes that a person can sometimes prevent or reduce to some extent unfavorable…Alternative farming
The negative consequences of the intensification of agriculture contributed to the development from the beginning of the 60s. 20th century abroad, and later in our country, ... Scientists believe that modern agriculture has become like an industrial one ... The essence of alternative agriculture lies in the complete or partial rejection of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, ...Land reclamation
Lands on which, as a result of economic activity, the hydrological regime and terrain have changed, the soil cover has been destroyed and polluted, ... All disturbed territories are divided into two groups: - lands with bulk soil - industrial waste, dumps of underground mining (heaps);Natural meadows and pastures
In agroecosystems
Meadows and pastures are natural fodder lands. The term “pasture” refers to a forage area used for grazing herds… Natural meadows and pastures in Russia and the CIS countries occupy an area of 320 million… Natural meadows and pastures are heterogeneous. They differ in habitat conditions, species composition of herbage and abundance ...POLLUTION
ENVIRONMENT AND POPULATION HEALTH
human environment
The concepts of "environment" and "habitat" are widely used to designate a set of environmental conditions. At the same time, first of all ... The human environment according to N.F. Reimers (1994) consists of four ... The natural environment surrounding a person is the factors of a purely natural or natural-anthropogenic system ...human needs
Human needs stem from his biosocial structure. Scientists (N.F. Reimers, 1994, etc.) believe that a person cannot be reduced to either biological or to ... Considering a person and humanity as a whole as a systemic formation, ... - As a representative of his species, a person has a number of genetic and phenotypic anatomical and physiological features…Influence of the state of the environment
Environments on people's health
For many years there was no generally accepted idea of a quantitative relationship between environmental pollution and health status ... In the 70s. 20th century, according to the World Health Organization (WHO),…The dynamics of the incidence of the population in the cities of Russia since
increased air pollution in 1987-1989,
Number of cases per 100 thousand people
Living in cities with petrochemical and organic synthesis enterprises... The quality of drinking water has a great influence on the health of the population. In Amur, Kurgan, Kemerovo, ...Mortality rates by cause of death
The number of deaths per 100 thousand people) for 1990-1994.
Data on changes in demographic indicators under the influence of…environmental risk
It is believed that critical situations associated with a threat to security, health, and life of people from environmental factors are of great fundamental importance ... On the other hand, a healthy environment is a means of satisfaction ... Environmental risk is not the only one, and often for individual territories is not the main type of risk to life, health and...WAYS OF SOLUTION
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Relationship Laws
man nature
The course of historical relations between nature and man according to N.F. Reimers (1994) leads to simultaneous changes in nature and in the forms of economy. Forms… The irreplaceable biosphere until a certain time worked within the framework of the Le principle… Thus, from the rule of the measure of transformation of natural systems, we can come to the following conclusions:Ways to solve environmental problems
Birth control. Four main factors determine the size of the population and the rate of its change: the difference between the birth and death rates, migration, fertility and ... The period of time during which the growth of the population of the world or a particular country stabilizes after ...Resort and health-improving zones
Note: B - balneological, K - climatological, G - mud therapy. …Standards for protected zones of natural objects
Note. The first number shows the minimum removal of industrial… Protection of anthropogenic landscapes. Man, as a result of his economic activity, has transformed huge ...The international cooperation
International cooperation in solving global problems the interaction of society and nature is an objective need of the era, a condition ... International conventions and agreements on environmental issues have been held since ... In the 20-40s. 20th century Our country has concluded agreements with Finland on fishing in border waters, joint…environmental education
And enlightenment
Environmental education and enlightenment (formal and non-formal education in the field of the environment) is the formation of a person ... The task of such education is complex, complex, acquiring everything ...ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
Environmental forecast and
Forecasting
Since ancient times, mankind has sought to know the future. Egyptian priests, oracles of Ancient Greece and Rome, medieval fortune-tellers and astrologers, the first ... Forecast - any specific prediction or probabilistic judgment about ... Forecast, therefore, is a specific type of knowledge, where, first of all, research is not being done, ...U.S. Territory Use
The extrapolation method is a transfer established character... In conclusion, we should recall the words of Jules Verne: "Everything that can come true." You should not discard what is from the first ...Modeling of natural processes
In solving environmental problems
Superorganismal systems (populations, biocenoses, ecosystems, biosphere) studied by ecology are extremely complex. A large number arise in them ... The term "model-" has a number of semantic meanings: 1) physical (material-natural) or sign (mathematical, logical) similarity (usually simplified) ...Environmental monitoring
Environmental monitoring is a system of observation, assessment and forecasting, which makes it possible to identify changes in the state of the environment under the influence of ... The term "monitoring" is derived from Latin word"monitor" - observing, ... Professor R. Mann in 1973, in a staging aspect, outlined the concept of monitoring, which was discussed at the first ...Ground environmental monitoring system
Monitoring unit Monitoring objects Characterized indicators Services and support bases … Biological, or bioecological (sanitary and hygienic) monitoring unit constantly monitors…Environmental quality assessment
An important area of monitoring research is the assessment of the quality of the environment. The quality of the environment is the degree of compliance with natural conditions ... Environmental standards establish the maximum allowable norms of anthropogenic impact on the environment, ...Rationing of pollutants
Substances in the environment
Of decisive importance for the control and management of environmental quality are hygienic standards aimed primarily at ... Sanitary and hygienic standards are those established in the legislative ... Scheme of hygienic regulation of the content of chemicals in environmental objects according to V.F. Protasov, A.V.…Environmental certification
And passportization
Environmental certification and certification serve to document the environmental and economic characteristics of environmental protection objects ... The environmental passport of an enterprise is developed to take into account all types ... Information on the initial data for calculation is entered into the environmental passport, periodically corrected and updated ...Environmental assessment
When carrying out activities related to the impact on the environment, natural ecosystems, human health, it is necessary in advance, at the level ... The objects of environmental expertise are: - all types of pre-plan and pre-project documentation for the development and deployment of the country's production forces and industries ...Maximum allowable concentration of pollutants
Maximum Permissible Emissions (MAE) - the maximum amount of emissions of substances per unit of time, which does not lead to exceeding their MPC. Nature is a set of natural conditions for human existence ... The natural environment is a complex and diverse combination and interaction of abiotic and biotic systems and components ...LITERATURE
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Biosphere and its resources/ Collection of articles, ed. V.A. Kovdy. - M.: Nauka, 1971. - 312 p.
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Laskorin BN et al. Waste-free technologies in industry. - M.: Stroyizdat, 1986. - 160 p. Lacko R. Economic problems of environmental protection. - M .: Progress, 1979. ... Lemeshev M. Ya. Nature and we. - M.: Soviet Russia, 1989. - 272 p.CONTENTS
FOREWORD.. 4 1. INTRODUCTION. SUBJECT OF ECOLOGY.. 5 1.1. Brief history of ecology.. 5Stepanovskikh Anatoly Sergeevich
ECOLOGY
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Ecology. Korobkin V.I., Peredelsky L.V. 12th ed., add. and reworked. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2007.
General ecology: Textbook for universities
The problem of collection and disposal of production and consumption waste is one of the oldest in the history of mankind. All the ancient cities of the world were built on landfills: the nearest ravines were filled with household and industrial waste, and as cities grew in these territories, new construction began. Uncontrolled waste disposal led to pollution of underground and surface waters, increased content of methane and other decay products in the air, the reproduction of rats, cockroaches, and the spread of infectious diseases. Overpopulated Western Europe, having lost a significant part of its inhabitants from "diseases of dirty hands", earlier than Russia began to solve the problems of sanitary cleaning of cities from waste, their storage and processing.
At present, the main goal of handling production and consumption waste is to prevent them. harmful effects on human health and the natural environment. The sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population is ensured through: disease prevention in accordance with the sanitary and epidemiological situation and the forecast of its change; control over the implementation of sanitary and anti-epidemic (preventive) measures and the obligatory observance by citizens, individual entrepreneurs and legal entities of sanitary rules as an integral part of their activities; licensing of activities that pose a potential danger to humans; state registration of chemical and biological substances potentially hazardous to humans, certain types of products, radioactive substances, production and consumption waste. Waste is subject to collection, use, neutralization, transportation, storage and burial, the conditions and methods of which must be safe for public health and the environment, which must be carried out in accordance with sanitary rules and other regulatory legal acts.
In the XX century. Due to rapid urbanization, the complex of problems associated with the generation of waste has become particularly acute. At the same time, the growth rate of waste is determined not so much by the rate of population growth as by the change in its income and lifestyle, i.e. the problem of a sharp increase in the volume of production and consumption waste is largely a consequence of the value orientations of society. For one inhabitant of the Earth there is a day from 0.5 kg in developing countries to 2 kg of waste in developed countries. With the urban population growth rate of 5% per year in developing countries, and with towns and villages practically merging in Western Europe, waste problems will worsen.
According to official statistics, Russia annually generates from 2.7 to 3.9 billion tons of waste: 2.6 billion tons of industrial waste; 700 million tons of liquid waste from poultry and livestock; 35-40 million tons of MSW; 30 million tons of sewage sludge; 3 million tons of medical waste. The total volume of non-utilized (accumulated) waste is 82 billion tons, of which more than 1.5 billion tons are highly toxic.
Production and consumption wastes are divided into industrial, solid household (MSW), medical, biological, radioactive, wood and vegetable, bulky waste, construction waste and soil, sediments treatment facilities water supply and sewerage, precipitation from stormwater treatment plants.
The greatest problem for housing and communal services is solid household waste, since, firstly, they are generated everywhere and, secondly, the development of methods for their collection, neutralization and disposal is hindered by the fact that this group of waste is a multicomponent mixture of different fractional composition. .
Over the past decades, the structure of MSW has undergone significant changes. If at the beginning of the 20th century the garbage dumps of cities consisted mainly of food residues and the heavy fraction of sewage, now such components as paper, glass, metals, and polymers are in the first place.
Average estimates of the share of the main components of MSW in individual countries are usually characterized by the following average proportions: 20–50% waste paper, up to 40% food waste, 2–5% each of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and plastics, 4–6% glass and textiles.
To date, a number of methods for processing MSW have been developed. According to the technological principle, they are divided into biological, chemical, thermal, mechanical, mixed. The most widespread methods of storage (mechanical), incineration (thermal) and composting.
Due to the large heterogeneity of the quantitative, qualitative and fractional composition of MSW in all countries of the world, the method of their storage in specially prepared landfills or landfills is mainly used. As a result, the problem of landfills is one of the most pressing today. Quantitatively, this is illustrated by the following indicators: the population of the planet is growing annually by 1.5–2%, and the volume of landfills by 6%, i.e., 3–4 times faster. Each inhabitant of European cities annually throws out 377 kg of waste, and a resident of the United States - up to 500 kg.
The main problems of MSW disposal are that, firstly, landfills require the allocation of significant areas, and secondly, when waste is disposed of, there is an irretrievable loss of useful components contained in them. In addition, the formation of landfills, especially unorganized ones, is accompanied by a number of related problems: air pollution with methane, sulfur dioxide, solvent vapors, etc.; contamination of soil and groundwater with heavy metals, solvents, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxides, insecticides and other toxic compounds; epidemiological danger, etc.
In this regard, the main principle of landfill design is environmental protection. In order to protect surface and groundwater, land plots with certain types of soil are selected for the construction of landfills. Atmospheric protection is provided by external isolation of the compacted layer of MSW with soil, construction (or inert) and industrial waste. Such an outer insulating layer eliminates the possibility of fires. Soil protection in the areas adjacent to the landfills is achieved by installing mesh fences around the garbage truck unloading site, which trap light fractions of MSW carried by the wind. External insulation of MSW, their crushing, compaction with heavy rollers create a barrier for flies and rodents.
All of the above shows the enormous danger to the environment of unorganized landfills. Despite this, their number is in the hundreds. In the Moscow Region, there were 210 landfills and landfills for solid household and industrial waste with a total area of 678 hectares. 96 of them were active. In addition, there were over 200 unauthorized dumps of solid waste and industrial waste in forests, ravines, abandoned quarries, and roadside ditches. Currently, there are about 70 unauthorized dumps in the city.
Such a source of environmental pollution as landfills subject to reclamation is extremely important. In Moscow in 1997, 88 landfills were registered with a total area of about 387.73 ha. These are, as a rule, old natural dumps that still emit methane, contain salts of heavy metals, have radioactive elements, poison groundwater, soil, and atmospheric air.
AT different countries various methods of disposal, processing and disposal of solid waste are used. Thus, in Denmark, only 9% of them are buried in landfills, and 87% are burned in waste incineration plants (ISU), in Japan, these ratios are respectively 14 and 82%, in the USA - 81 and 12%, while in Russia 96% of waste is disposed of in landfills and landfills, and only 2% is destroyed in waste incineration plants (Incinerators).
The environmental and hygienic efficiency of MSU is determined by a set of conditions, the main of which are: the composition of MSW, the amount and distribution of air in the furnaces used for their oxidation, the temperature of flue gases and combustion in general, the residence time of waste in furnaces, features of mixing air with a volatile emission fraction . Waste incineration in recent years causes more and more objections from specialists and the public. Despite cleaning, MSU emissions into the atmosphere contain heavy metals and dioxins. For these reasons, despite the high purification technology, 34 plants out of 36 were closed in France. The only MSZ built in Russia in Vladimir on domestic equipment, when burning a ton of MSW, forms an average of 320 kg of sludge, 30 kg of fly ash and 6 thousand m3 of flue gases containing dioxins, heavy metals and other toxicants. Dioxin contamination of cow's milk within a radius of 30 miles from Rotterdam (Netherlands) has reached such a level as a result of many years of work that its sale and consumption were prohibited. In Sweden, waste incineration results in the annual release of 3.3 tons of mercury, 0.5 tons of cadmium and 8400 tons of hydrochloric acid into the environment. Ash and slag of MSU contain high concentrations heavy metals.
In the United States, a large-scale program for the modernization of LSG is being implemented, which requires additional costs at the level of 300-500 million dollars a year. At the same time, the task is to reduce emissions of dioxins and furans by 99%, polychlorinated biphenyls, chlorobenzenes, PAHs - by 95%, heavy metals - by 99%. Other countries are developing more effective methods MSW incineration: stratified incineration, low-temperature gasification, incineration in fluidized bed furnaces (23 plants in Japan). Gas cleaning systems, burners, and the fuel itself are being improved. There are indications that the injection of water vapor into the combustion chamber reduces the likelihood of the formation of any polyaromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins and furans. In the West, MSZ and enterprises producing equipment for them are being closed. These outdated and environmentally hazardous technologies cannot be allowed to be used in Russia.
The Moscow government has approved a draft resolution "On the development of the technical base of the municipal waste management system." According to it in the city by 2012, in addition to the four existing incinerators, it was decided to build six new ones. After their launch, 93% of the capital's household waste will be burned, and not sent to landfills near Moscow, as it is now. Ecologists regard the project as extremely dangerous.
Sewer waste is generated at urban aeration stations. There are currently three such facilities in Moscow: Luberetskaya, Zelenogradskaya and the most powerful Kuryanovskaya station in Europe. A decision was made to build aeration stations in Butovo and in the north of Moscow. The largest aeration stations in Russia also include NUE Vodokanal (St. Petersburg), MP Samaravodokanal (Samara), MP Nizhny Novgorod Vodokanal (Nizhny Novgorod), MUP Vodokanal (Yekaterinburg), etc.
In addition to large volumes of formation, a feature of sewage sludge, which significantly complicates the development of technologies for their disposal, is high humidity. For example, at Moscow aeration stations, 10 million m3 of precipitation with a moisture content of 97% is formed annually. Sewer waste consists of waste biologically active sludge, sand, textile particles, paper, etc. Waste sludge could be used as a fertilizer in the green economy of cities, but due to the high content of heavy metal salts, it is stored in aeration fields, where it is already there are tens of millions of cubic meters of previously removed sediment. The storage of such sludge poses a risk to groundwater and soil.
Storm sewage sludge poses an environmental hazard, primarily due to the presence of suspended solids, oil products, and chlorides.
Greenhouse waste is practically harmless to the environment and is usually stockpiled. In Western Europe, they are often crushed and used to make compost.
The group of radioactive waste includes spent radiation sources of various devices, medical installations, as well as slightly radioactive soil stored on the territory of enterprises.
Waste from medical institutions makes up only about 2% of MSW. However, this group of wastes is epidemiologically dangerous, since in addition to toxic chemicals they contain pathogenic bacteria and viruses, including tuberculosis, plague, anthrax, hepatitis, helminth eggs, and radioactive substances. The amount of hazardous and highly hazardous medical waste in Russia is about 1 million tons per year. In Moscow alone, about 100 thousand tons of them are produced annually. At the same time, if over the past 10-15 years their number has increased by 3-4% per year, then at present there is a tendency towards more intensive growth.
Medical waste is assessed as a direct and indirect risk factor for infectious and noncommunicable diseases among the population due to the possible contamination of almost all elements of the environment - water, air, soil, food, hospital environment. However, the system of their collection, removal, processing and neutralization is currently far from perfect. Due to the lack of a regulatory framework, the issue of destruction of medicines that are not approved for use or expired, drugs confiscated by customs, and counterfeit medicines has not been resolved.
Systems for the collection, removal, processing and disposal of medical waste in Russia are at the stage of developing projects of technological schemes and new technologies, but have not been brought to practical implementation.
Part of medical waste is burned in incinerators. Organic postoperative waste (organs, tissues) is usually decontaminated with a formaldehyde solution and burned in dissecting cremators, crematoria, and muffle furnaces. In the absence of special ovens or crematoria, this type of waste is buried in cemeteries, in specially designated graves.
Class G waste - used fluorescent lamps, mercury-containing devices, are stored in closed packages and taken to specialized enterprises for demercurization (Vladimir, Voronezh, Magadan, Smolensk regions, Moscow, etc.).
Disposal of expired and counterfeit medicines is becoming a big problem nowadays. In accordance with the Federal Law “On Production and Consumption Waste”, each manufacturer of products that turn into consumer waste must have a method for its disposal or destruction that is safe for the environment and human health, i.e. pharmaceutical companies must have appropriate technologies for their disposal or destruction. In the pharmacological article for the medicinal product, and preferably on the package, a method for handling such waste should be presented.
Class “D” waste generated in the radiological departments of medical facilities: cotton wool, filter paper, gloves, etc., contaminated with technetium-99, iodine-131 radionuclides, are stored in storage facilities until complete decay, then disposed of at landfills. How this affects the state of the environment is still unknown.
One of the priority types of waste from the point of view of the development of a neutralization system is biological. Their education is the result of the functioning of medical, veterinary, medical institutions, educational institutions, markets, zoos, circuses, municipal and customs organizations.
In countries Western Europe burial of biological waste is prohibited, since, for example, a particularly dangerous spore-forming microbe of anthrax retains the viability of the pathogen in the ground for more than 100 years, even after the complete decomposition of the corpse.
The whole range of biological waste, based on the existing requirements for their processing, can be divided into three groups:
- especially hazardous waste - thermal neutralization at a temperature not lower than 1250°С;
– hazardous waste – thermal neutralization at a temperature not lower than 850°С;
- conditionally hazardous waste - thermal and chemical methods of processing into a secondary product (meat and bone meal, etc.).
In the 80s, up to 50 thousand tons of biological waste were generated annually in Moscow alone, by the end of the century this amount reached 75 thousand tons. According to official data, about 6 thousand tons of this amount were animal waste of the first hazard class from vivariums research institutes, captured and euthanized domestic animals, rodents and birds, which, according to veterinary legislation, are subject to incineration at a temperature that allows to destroy the infection.
Of particular danger are situations when, as a result of local epidemics or the supply of large batches of low-quality food, it is necessary to urgently destroy a large amount of biological waste, which otherwise can become a breeding ground for rodents, carnivores and birds. In recent years, the number of cases of rabies in wild and domestic animals has increased significantly, cases of outbreaks of acute infectious diseases in humans and domestic animals have become more frequent.
Sufficient legislative, organizational and administrative and regulatory and methodological documentation is required to manage activities related to waste. The issues of waste management essentially fell out of the sphere of centralized state administration. The current situation is exacerbated by the lack of cost-effective legal, institutional and organizational conditions in the Russian Federation in the field of waste management.
The federal law “On Production and Consumption Waste” contains an incomplete and undisclosed conceptual apparatus, which does not even mention such hazardous and widespread types of waste as medical, biological and sewage sludge. There are no distinctions in the regulation of waste management in relation to human health and environmental protection. The Law does not provide for such norms as ensuring the priority of waste disposal over their disposal; the principle of producers' responsibility for the disposal of their products at the end of their life cycle; prohibition of import into the territory of the state of products that at the end of their life cycle cannot be used as secondary resources; application of the best existing technologies in the field of waste management; use of the latest scientific and technological achievements in order to implement low-waste and waste-free technologies, etc.
The existing legal framework does not allow to stimulate individuals and legal entities involved in the field of waste management, as well as to take adequate measures against persons that damage the environment and human health by unauthorized disposal of waste. Provisions concerning the clarification of the hazard level of wastes, the activities for the treatment of which must be subject to licensing, have not been regulated.
The danger of waste is manifested in environmental pollution and the indirect impact of its components on human health. To date, no extensive epidemiological studies have been conducted to identify patterns or dependencies of the impact of toxic waste on the health of the population and its living conditions. The development of work in this direction is hampered by the lack of necessary information about how quantitative characteristics the degree of pollution of the environment (soil, water, atmosphere) by various chemical, biological and other substances, and the proven facts of the relationship between the incidence of the population and the quality of the environment. Only clear, dynamic, objective information about the hygienic state of the environment (monitoring system) can solve this problem.
To identify the adverse effects of production and consumption waste on humans, a wide range of toxicological and physico-chemical research methods should be applied. Given the principle of complexity and the criterion for assessing the harmful effects on human living conditions, it is extremely important to use environmental tests. The complexity of the problem of assessing the hazard of industrial waste lies in the fact that they differ sharply in their qualitative and quantitative composition even at enterprises of the same type.
In order to improve the regulatory framework in the field of production and consumption waste management, it is necessary to either supplement or develop a new version of the Federal Law "On Production and Consumption Wastes" with the mandatory inclusion of sections related to medical, biological waste and sewage sludge. In order to improve the state of legality in this area, it is necessary to solve the issues of ensuring the effective work of state regulatory bodies, the strict fulfillment by local governments of duties in the field of production and consumption waste management. When establishing tax and other benefits for enterprises engaged in waste disposal, introducing low-waste and resource-saving technologies, it is imperative to take into account their safety for human health and the environment.
Some problems of safe handling of production and consumption waste have now been resolved - there are legislative, organizational and administrative documents both in the state and in local level. Their implementation to a certain extent protects a person from the direct influence of waste. However, there remains a huge layer of little-studied problem of the impact of waste on public health through adjacent environments. By taking waste to landfills, we protect people, as it were, but the hazardous components contained in them penetrate water, air, soil, which affect already living people, but can have an even greater impact on future generations. The development of measures to protect them is a complex, complex social, technical, environmental and hygienic problem.
Ecological danger of burials
There is one more factor to pay attention to, which usually goes almost unnoticed when talking about the state of the environment in cities. This is an ecological danger of cemeteries and crematoria. Excessive introduction of organic remains into the soils of cities and suburbs can disrupt the self-purification process of soils, which occurs with a predominance of decay and fermentation and can stop at the stage of mineralization, i.e. the processes of nitrification - further oxidation of decomposition products with the formation of the simplest compounds and elements - and humification are delayed for a long period. The biochemical processes occurring in the soil of cemeteries can lead to air pollution with toxic gases - hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, ammonia, etc.; contamination of groundwater with decomposition products, especially if the cemetery is located in flooded or periodically flooded areas; penetration of decomposition products into open water bodies; spread of pathogens in groundwater. (It should be borne in mind that some types of pathogenic microorganisms can remain in the ground in a viable state from several months (brucella, pathogens of tularemia, tuberculosis, etc.) to several decades (pathogens of anthrax, tetanus clostridium, anaerobic gas infection, etc.) and pose an epidemiological hazard during the transfer of cemeteries, natural disasters, exhumations); saponification of corpses, which slows down or stops the processes of decomposition; karst and suffusion-karst hazard, which consists mainly in the formation of underground depression funnels, which leads to the transfer of groundwater, together with the organic substances contained in them, over long distances and their entry into underground artesian waters.
The environmental hazard of crematoria is associated with the combustion technology used in them, which is characterized by:
emissions of combustion products into the atmosphere in case of non-compliance with technological regimes;
constant thermal emissions, which can lead to local climate change in the territory adjacent to the crematorium, as well as contribute to the formation of a mesoclimate in cities;
- the probability of toxic substances entering the atmosphere: dioxins, mercury vapor, radioactive substances, etc.
In addition, the construction of cemeteries and crematoria is associated with the alienation of residential areas. For example, in Moscow, about 6% of the total area of cemeteries is located in the residential area and about 43% - in natural-residential or public-residential areas. According to expert estimates of the Federal Agency for Construction, Housing and Communal Services of the Russian Federation, more than half of the cemeteries in Russia are arranged or operated with deviations from the requirements of the current normative documents. Requirements for land plots for cemeteries are developed by the law "On Burial and Funeral Business" and SanPiN. However, it is very difficult to find land plots with sufficiently strict parameters, especially near large cities.
A special article is cemeteries that have historically found themselves within the city limits during the growth of megacities. However, they can be transferred only in exceptional cases, stipulated by law, and only by decision of the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation or local self-government. Therefore, it is necessary to coexist with such cemeteries, bringing their parameters to the normative ones with the help of engineering measures, architectural, construction, urban planning techniques, etc.
The main ways to neutralize the negative impact of funeral facilities on the environment are to use the natural absorption capacity of soils; application of natural or creation of artificial biogeochemical barriers; using a natural or creating an artificial geological landscape with good natural drainage of rainwater and low groundwater; compliance with the requirements for the depth and quality of backfilling of graves; established sizes of sanitary protection zones; creation and maintenance of drainage systems and surface stormwater drainage; acceleration of decomposition processes through the use of special chemicals, air-entraining additives, etc.; the use of rigid pavements for driveways and passages in the burial area; introduction of new high-tech methods of burial.
Measures to reduce the negative impact of crematoria include: compliance with passport burning regimes; effective cleaning of exhaust gases; pretreatment of remains and accessories; use of modern cremation equipment.
Public health as an indicator of the state of the environment
Human activity leads not only to a change in natural biochemical cycles, a violation of the ecological balance in the biosphere, but also affects itself. To assess the health of the population World Organization health (WHO) has introduced a special indicator - "Healthy life expectancy". In Russia in 2007, it was 56.1 years for the male and 66.4 years for the female population, with an average life expectancy of 59 and 72 years, respectively (According to data for 2008, the average life expectancy in Russia increased by 3 years, in Moscow - for 5 years). In terms of the number of deaths per 1,000 inhabitants, our country ranks 29th in the world.
According to expert estimates, environmental factors determine the state of health by 18-20% and are in second place after lifestyle. This dependence is especially evident in cities. From the data on the growth of the genetic load among the population of Europe, it follows that from 1987 to 1997 its volume increased by 2 times, every tenth European is aggravated by a hereditary disease or a serious malformation. At the same time, 2-3% of defects are caused by environmental pollution.
A significant proportion of the total morbidity in the industrial countries of the world are diseases caused by air pollution. According to WHO, only the incidence of asthma in recent years has increased by 30%.
In Russia, the incidence attributable to air pollution averages 17% for children and 10-20% for adults. The same factor causes 20-40% of diseases of the respiratory system, 16% of the endocrine system, 9% of the hematopoietic system, 2.5% of oncological diseases in people aged 30-34 years and 11% in people 50-55 years old.
Atmospheric air is most polluted near highways and large industrial enterprises. The impact of industrial facilities on the health of the population is noted within a radius of more than 10 kilometers. As a result, in a number of cities there is a significant increase in the average incidence rate of the population.
One of the most common and strong carcinogens contained in the atmospheric air is benzapyrene. In cities where its concentrations exceed the MAC by 2–4 times, the frequency of oncological diseases in people over 40 years of age is increased by 12–20%, and when 4 MPC is exceeded, by 22–24% compared with cities where benzapyrene concentrations are lower 2 MPC.
Already a twofold excess of the MPC for industrial dust, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide causes cancer. This circumstance deserves special attention, since the steady increase in the content of nitrogen dioxide in the air of cities is due to the growth of the fleet of cars, emissions from which in more than 150 cities of Russia exceed industrial ones.
The danger of atmospheric pollution is clearly shown by the statistics of eye diseases: eye injuries caused by the presence of fly ash and other pollutants in the air account for 30-60% of all eye diseases. At the same time, if in the green areas of cities they make up only 1.08%, then in the zones of industrial enterprises - 22.95%, and near thermal power plants - 30.3%.
The quality of water consumed has a similar impact on public health. According to the WHO, up to 80% of diseases on the planet are caused by the use of poor-quality water. The constant use of drinking water with a high level of chemical pollution is one of the main causes of diseases of the digestive system, kidneys and urinary tract. The annual damage from the loss of health of the population of Russia, caused by the use of poor-quality water, in the mid-90s. reached 30 billion rubles.
Soil pollution is high in cities: 13.8% of residential areas do not meet hygienic standards for the content of heavy metals, pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls. Only in St. Petersburg, 22% of soils have a high level of pollution with chemical compounds. In Moscow, 50% of soils have a dangerously high level of microbiological contamination.
The dependence on the state of the environment of the health of children is especially clearly visible. To a certain extent, this indicator can serve as an indicator of pollution and the degree of danger of the environment. In industrial cities such as Novodvinsk, Bryansk, Kommunarsk, the incidence of diseases of the endocrine system in children is increased by 4, 4 and 7 times, respectively; digestive tract - 1.5, 2 and 5 times; urinary system - 1.5, 2 and 2 times higher than the national average.
It is known that from 5 to 10% chemical compounds, used by man in economic activities, are mutagens and can cause disturbances in the genetic apparatus of germ and somatic cells. Violation in the germ cells leads to infertility, death of embryos, the birth of children with hereditary defects. Violation in somatic cells causes oncological diseases, disorders in the immune system, and a decrease in life expectancy.
From this point of view, one of the most hazardous industrial wastes are heavy metals - chromium, nickel, zinc, lead, cadmium, etc. auto-, aircraft construction, electronics, etc. The gonadotropic, embryotropic and mutagenic effects of heavy metals have been proven. Serious consequences due to the ability of heavy metals to accumulate in the human body and act directly on the function of reproduction deserve special attention.
Medical statistics show that the increase in the frequency of births of children with developmental anomalies and hereditary diseases occurring in the country is associated with environmental pollution in cities. Physicians and biologists have repeatedly warned that the uncontrolled mutagenic action of heavy metals creates a high danger to the health of present and future generations, and this danger is increasing every year.
The health of the population is significantly affected by the physical factors of environmental pollution: noise, vibration, electromagnetic fields.
The main sources of vibration in cities are rail transport, as well as enterprises using powerful compressor equipment. Thus, vibration from the subway worsens the well-being of 57.6% and disrupts sleep in 45.7% of residents. Prolonged action of vibration leads to a decrease in attention and mental performance, functional disorders of the central nervous system and disorders of vascular regulation.
One of the most acute problems of urban areas is the increased noise level. Noise load is accompanied by shifts in the structures of the brain and other body systems. Prolonged exposure to noise has an impact on psychological status, functional state physiological systems of the body, the development of adaptive and regulatory reactions of the body. Exposure to noise disrupts sleep, reduces performance, leads to inadequate response for various life situations.
The main sources of noise in urban areas are transport, construction equipment, industrial enterprises, engineering equipment of buildings (including ventilation systems), etc. From 30 to 60% of the inhabitants of Russian cities are subject to the action of this factor. In Moscow, the zone of chronic acoustic discomfort is 30.3% of the residential area with a population of more than 4 million people.
The most acute problems associated with acoustic discomfort are manifested in the territories of existing development, since noise protection measures are implemented in full only during new construction and reconstruction of urban facilities. Currently, Moscow is developing a concept for reducing noise in the city.
Stepanovskikh A.S.
| A specialist in any field of activity must have environmental knowledge, understand the essence of modern problems of interaction between society and nature, understand the causality of possible negative impacts of economic activity on the environment, be able to expertly assess the nature, direction and consequences of the impact of a particular human activity on nature, linking the decision production tasks in compliance with relevant environmental requirements, to develop and implement science-based solutions to environmental problems. Hence the great role of training environmental personnel, environmental education and upbringing of the country's population. |
|
M.: UNITI-DANA, 2001. -703 p.
The textbook outlines the main provisions of modern ecology, the structure of the biosphere, the role of living matter in the biosphere, considers the main environments of life and adaptation of organisms to them, the ecology of populations, communities and ecosystems, gives the concept of the noosphere, highlights the issues of anthropogenic impact on nature as a whole and on individual components - air, water, flora and fauna, considerable attention is paid to the impact of human agricultural activities on nature, ways to solve environmental problems, environmental regulation of economic activity.
For university students, as well as anyone interested in ecology.
Format: doc/zip
The size: 11.7 MB
FOREWORD 4
1. INTRODUCTION. SUBJECT OF ECOLOGY 5
1.1. A BRIEF HISTORY OF ECOLOGY 5
1.2. CONTENT, SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF ECOLOGY 16
1.3. INTERRELATION OF ECOLOGY WITH OTHER BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. ENVIRONMENT DIVISIONS 17
1.4. ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS 20
2. BIOSPHERE: DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE. LIVING SUBSTANCE 24
2.1. DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE BIOSPHERE 24
2.2. LIVING SUBSTANCE OF THE BIOSPHERE 29
2.3. LAWS OF BIOGENIC MIGRATION OF ATOMS AND IRREVERSIBILITY OF EVOLUTION, LAWS OF ECOLOGY B. COMMONER 34
3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND GENERAL REGULARITIES OF THEIR ACTION ON ORGANISMS 37
3.1. ENVIRONMENT AND CONDITIONS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF ORGANISMS 37
3.2. THE JOINT ACTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 41
4. THE MOST IMPORTANT ABIOTIC FACTORS AND ORGANISMS ADAPT TO THEM 46
4.1. EMISSION: LIGHT 46
4.2. TEMPERATURE 55
4.3. HUMIDITY 69
4.4. COMBINED ACTION OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY 80
4.5. ATMOSPHERE 82
4.6. TOPOGRAPHY 84
4.7. OTHER PHYSICAL FACTORS 87
5. BASIC ENVIRONMENTS 99
5.1. AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT 99
5.2. GROUND AND AIR ENVIRONMENT 121
5.3. SOIL AS A LIFE ENVIRONMENT 147
5.4. LIVING ORGANISMS AS A LIFE ENVIRONMENT 165
6. BIOTIC FACTORS 177
6.1. HOMOTYPICAL AND 177
HETEROTYPIC REACTIONS 177
6.2. ZOOGENIC FACTORS 179
6.3. PHYTOGENIC FACTORS 188
6.4. ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS 197
7. BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS 201
7.1. OUTER RHYTHMS 201
7.2. INTERNAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, RHYTHMS 202
7.3. BIOLOGICAL CLOCK 210
7.4. PHOTOPERIODISM 212
8. LIFE FORMS OF ORGANISMS 217
8.1. THE CONCEPT OF "LIFE FORM" OF THE ORGANISM 217
8.2. PLANT LIFE FORMS 219
8.3. ANIMAL LIFE FORMS 225
9. STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF POPULATIONS 231
9.1. POPULATION CONCEPT 231
9.2. SPATIAL DIVISIONS OF POPULATIONS 232
9.3. POPULATION SIZE AND DENSITY 234
9.4. FERTILITY AND DEATH 236
9.5. AGE STRUCTURE OF THE POPULATION 238
9.6. SEX COMPOSITION OF POPULATION 243
9.7. GENETIC PROCESSES IN POPULATIONS 244
9.8. POPULATION GROWTH AND GROWTH CURVES 248
10. INTRA-SPECIES AND INTER-SPECIES RELATIONSHIPS IN POPULATIONS, HOMEOSTASIS AND ECOLOGICAL STRATEGIES 251
10.1. INTRA-SPECIES RELATIONSHIPS 251
10.2. INTER-SPECIES RELATIONSHIPS 265
10.3. POPULATION VARIATIONS AND POPULATION HOMEOSTASIS 267
10.4. POPULATION ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGIES 271
11. BIOCENOSES 273
11.1. THE CONCEPT OF BIOCENOSIS 273
11.2. SPECIES STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS 275
11.3. SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS 280
11.4. RELATIONS OF ORGANISMS IN BIOCENOSES 285
11.5. ECOLOGICAL NICHES 288
11.6. ECOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS 294
11.7. BORDER EFFECT 296
12. ECOSYSTEMS 299
12.1. THE CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEMS 299
12.2. ECOSYSTEM CLASSIFICATION 300
12.3. ZONING OF MACROECOSYSTEMS 301
12.4. ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE 306
12.5. THE SUN AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY 309
12.6. CYCLES OF SUBSTANCES 311
12.7. ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS 330
12.8. ECOSYSTEM PRODUCTIVITY 344
12.9. DYNAMICS OF ECOSYSTEMS 348
12.10. THE BIOSPHERE AS A GLOBAL ECOSYSTEM 358
12.11. HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE BIOSPHERE 363
12.12. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BIOSPHERE INTO THE NOOSPHERE - THE SPHERE OF MIND 371
13. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON NATURE 376
13.1. THE CONCEPT OF NATURE, NATURAL RESOURCES 376
13.2. POPULATION GROWTH 378
13.3. ANTHROPOGENIC MATERIAL BALANCE 380
13.4. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON ENERGY FLOWS AND CYCLES OF SUBSTANCES 387
13.5. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS 397
13.6. ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS 399
13.7. THE CONCEPT OF POLLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT. TYPES OF POLLUTANTS 402
13.8. MAIN SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 404
13.9. MAN-MADE ACCIDENTS AND NATURAL DISASTERS 412
13.10. ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION 415
14. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON ATMOSPHERIC AIR 420
14.1. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 420
14.2. SOURCES AND COMPOSITION OF AIR POLLUTION 423
14.3. PHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF AIR POLLUTION 425
14.4. MEASURES TO PREVENT AIR POLLUTION 432
15. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON THE HYDROSPHERE 436
15.1. BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE HYDROSPHERE 436
15.2. THE ROLE OF WATER IN NATURE AND HUMAN LIFE 438
15.3. FRESH WATER RESERVES 441
15.4. USE OF WATER RESOURCES 442
15.5. SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION 444
15.6. MEASURES FOR THE CLEANING AND PROTECTION OF WATER 450
16. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON VEGETATION 457
16.1. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANTS IN NATURE AND HUMAN LIFE 457
16.2. HUMAN IMPACT ON VEGETATION 461
16.3. FOREST IS THE MOST IMPORTANT PLANT RESOURCE 462
16.4. FOREST AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES 466
16.5. FOREST AND TOURISM 469
16.6. VEGETATION PROTECTION MEASURES 470
16.7. PROTECTION OF ECONOMICLY VALUABLE AND RARE PLANTS 472
17. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON ANIMALS 474
17.1. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ANIMALS IN THE BIOSPHERE AND HUMAN LIFE 474
17.2. HUMAN IMPACT ON ANIMALS, CAUSES OF THEIR EXTINCTION 479
17.3. MEASURES FOR THE PROTECTION OF ANIMAL 484
18. IMPACT OF HUMAN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON THE NATURE 493
18.1. AGRICULTURE AS A SOURCE OF FOOD RESOURCES 493
18.2. IMPACT OF HUMAN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON ECOLOGICAL BALANCE IN NATURE 497
18.3. ENERGY CONSUMPTION, FUNCTIONING AND BIOPRODUCTIVITY OF AGROECOSYSTEMS 500
18.4. RELATIONS OF ORGANISMS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 507
18.5. LANDSCAPE ORGANIZATION OF AGROECOSYSTEMS 510
18.6. THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 515
18.7. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF AGRICULTURAL INTENSIFICATION 524
18.8. PROBLEM OF PROTECTION OF LAND RESOURCES 539
18.9. ALTERNATIVE FARMING 545
18.10. LAND RECLAMATION 548
18.11. NATURAL MEADOWS AND PASTURES IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 550
19. POLLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POPULATION HEALTH 557
19.1. HUMAN ENVIRONMENT 557
19.2. HUMAN NEEDS 559
19.3. THE CONCEPT OF "HUMAN HEALTH" 563
19.4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH 566
19.5. ENVIRONMENTAL RISK 572
20. WAYS OF SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 575
20.1. LAWS OF RELATIONSHIP MAN-NATURE 575
20.2. WAYS TO SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 580
20.3. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 594
20.4. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND EDUCATION 596
21. ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 599
21.1. ENVIRONMENTAL FORECAST AND FORECAST 599
21.2. MODELING OF NATURAL PROCESSES IN SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 602
21.3. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 607
21.4. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT 610
21.5. REGULATION OF POLLUTANTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 614
21.6. ENVIRONMENTAL CERTIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION 616
21.7. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT 618
TERMS AND CONCEPTS 621
LITERATURE 634
LITERATURE - Ecology (Stepanovskikh A.S.)
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Akimova T. A., Khaskin V. V. Ecology. M.: UNITI, 1998. - 415 p.
Akimushkin I. I. The world of animals. - M.: Young Guard, 1981. - 238 p.
Alpatiev AM Moisture turnover in nature and their transformations. - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1969. - 269 p.
Ananichev KV Problems of the environment, energy and natural resources. - M.: Progress, 1975. - 168 p.
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CONTENTS Ecology (Stepanovskikh A.S.)
FOREWORD
1. INTRODUCTION. SUBJECT OF ECOLOGY
1.1. A BRIEF HISTORY OF ECOLOGY
1.2. CONTENT, SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF ECOLOGY
1.3. INTERRELATION OF ECOLOGY WITH OTHER BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. ENVIRONMENT DIVISIONS
1.4. METHODS OF ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH
2. BIOSPHERE: DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE. LIVING SUBSTANCE
2.1. DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE BIOSPHERE
2.2. LIVING SUBSTANCE OF THE BIOSPHERE
2.3. LAWS OF BIOGENIC MIGRATION OF ATOMS AND IRREVERSIBILITY OF EVOLUTION, LAWS OF ECOLOGY B. COMMONER
3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND GENERAL REGULARITIES OF THEIR ACTION ON ORGANISMS
3.1. ENVIRONMENT AND CONDITIONS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF ORGANISMS
3.2. COMBINED ACTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
4. THE MOST IMPORTANT ABIOTIC FACTORS AND ORGANISMS ADAPTATION TO THEM
4.1. EMISSION: LIGHT
4.2. TEMPERATURE
4.3. HUMIDITY
4.4. COMBINED ACTION OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY
4.5. ATMOSPHERE
4.6. TOPOGRAPHY
4.7. OTHER PHYSICAL FACTORS
5. BASIC LIFE ENVIRONMENTS
5.1. AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
5.2. GROUND AND AIR ENVIRONMENT OF LIFE
5.3. SOIL AS A LIFE ENVIRONMENT
5.4. LIVING ORGANISMS AS A LIFE ENVIRONMENT
6. BIOTIC FACTORS
6.1. HOMOTYPICAL AND
HETEROTYPIC REACTIONS
6.2. ZOOGENIC FACTORS
6.3. PHYTOGENIC FACTORS
6.4. ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS
7. BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS
7.1. OUTER RHYTHMS
7.2. INTERNAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, RHYTHMS
7.3. THE BIOLOGICAL CLOCK
7.4. PHOTOPERIODISM
8. LIFE FORMS OF ORGANISMS
8.1. THE CONCEPT OF "LIFE FORM" OF THE ORGANISM
8.2. PLANT LIFE FORMS
8.3. LIFE FORMS OF ANIMALS
9. STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF POPULATIONS
9.1. POPULATION CONCEPT
9.2. SPATIAL DIVISIONS OF POPULATIONS
9.3. POPULATION AND DENSITY OF POPULATIONS
9.4. BIRTH AND DEATH
9.5. AGE STRUCTURE OF THE POPULATION
9.6. SEX COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION
9.7. GENETIC PROCESSES IN POPULATIONS
9.8. POPULATION GROWTH AND GROWTH CURVES
10. INTRA-SPECIES AND INTER-SPECIES RELATIONSHIPS IN POPULATIONS, HOMEOSTASIS AND ECOLOGICAL STRATEGIES
10.1. INTRA-SPECIES RELATIONSHIPS
10.2. INTERSPECIES RELATIONSHIPS
10.3. POPULATION VARIATIONS AND POPULATION HOMEOSTASIS
10.4. ECOLOGICAL POPULATION STRATEGIES
11. BIOCENOSES
11.1. THE CONCEPT OF BIOCENOSIS
11.2. SPECIES STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS
11.3. SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS
11.4. RELATIONS OF ORGANISMS IN BIOCENOSES
11.5. ECOLOGICAL NICHES
11.6. ECOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS
11.7. BORDER EFFECT
12. ECOSYSTEMS
12.1. THE CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEMS
12.2. CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS
12.3. ZONING OF MACROECOSYSTEMS
12.4. ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE
12.5. THE SUN AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY
12.6. CYCLES OF SUBSTANCES
12.7. ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS
12.8. ECOSYSTEM PRODUCTIVITY
12.9. DYNAMICS OF ECOSYSTEMS
12.10. THE BIOSPHERE AS A GLOBAL ECOSYSTEM
12.11. HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE BIOSPHERE
12.12. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BIOSPHERE INTO THE NOOSPHERE - THE SPHERE OF MIND
13. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON NATURE
13.1. THE CONCEPT OF NATURE, NATURAL RESOURCES
13.2. POPULATION GROWTH
13.3. ANTHROPOGENIC MATERIAL BALANCE
13.4. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON ENERGY FLOWS AND CYCLES OF SUBSTANCES
13.5. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS
13.6. ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS
13.7. THE CONCEPT OF POLLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT. TYPES OF POLLUTANTS
13.8. MAIN SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
13.9. MAN-MADE ACCIDENTS AND NATURAL DISASTERS
13.10. ECOLOGICAL SITUATION
14. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON ATMOSPHERIC AIR
14.1. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
14.2. SOURCES AND COMPOSITION OF AIR POLLUTION
14.3. PHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
14.4. MEASURES TO PREVENT AIR POLLUTION
15. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON THE HYDROSPHERE
15.1. BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE HYDROSPHERE
15.2. THE ROLE OF WATER IN NATURE AND HUMAN LIFE
15.3. FRESH WATER RESERVES
15.4. USE OF WATER RESOURCES
15.5. SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
15.6. MEASURES FOR CLEANING AND PROTECTION OF WATER
16. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON VEGETATION
16.1. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANTS IN NATURE AND HUMAN LIFE
16.2. HUMAN IMPACT ON VEGETATION
16.3. FOREST IS THE MOST IMPORTANT PLANT RESOURCE
16.4. FOREST AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES
16.5. FOREST AND TOURISM
16.6. VEGETATION PROTECTION MEASURES
16.7. PROTECTION OF ECONOMICLY VALUABLE AND RARE PLANTS
17. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON ANIMALS
17.1. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ANIMALS IN THE BIOSPHERE AND HUMAN LIFE
17.2. HUMAN IMPACT ON ANIMALS, THE REASONS FOR THEIR EXTINCTION
17.3. MEASURES FOR THE PROTECTION OF ANIMALS
18. IMPACT
HUMAN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON NATURE
18.1. AGRICULTURE AS A SOURCE OF FOOD RESOURCES
18.2. IMPACT OF HUMAN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON ECOLOGICAL BALANCE IN NATURE
18.3. ENERGY CONSUMPTION, FUNCTIONING AND BIOPRODUCTIVITY OF AGROECOSYSTEMS
18.4. RELATIONS OF ORGANISMS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS
18.5. LANDSCAPE ORGANIZATION OF AGROECOSYSTEMS
18.6. THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS
18.7. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF AGRICULTURAL INTENSIFICATION
18.8. THE PROBLEM OF PROTECTION OF LAND RESOURCES
18.9. ALTERNATIVE FARMING
18.10. LAND RECLAMATION
18.11. NATURAL MEADOWS AND PASTURES IN AGROECOSYSTEMS
19. POLLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POPULATION HEALTH
19.1. HUMAN LIFE ENVIRONMENT
19.2. HUMAN NEEDS
19.3. THE CONCEPT OF "HUMAN HEALTH"
19.4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH
19.5. ENVIRONMENTAL RISK
20. WAYS OF SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
20.1. LAWS OF RELATIONSHIP MAN-NATURE
20.2. WAYS TO SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
20.3. THE INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
20.4. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND EDUCATION
21. ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
21.1. ENVIRONMENTAL FORECAST AND FORECASTING
21.2. MODELING OF NATURAL PROCESSES IN SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
21.3. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
21.4. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT
21.5. REGULATION OF POLLUTANTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
21.6. ENVIRONMENTAL CERTIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION
21.7. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
TERMS AND CONCEPTS
LITERATURE
Ecology. Stepanovskikh A.S.
M.: 2001. -703 p.
The textbook outlines the main provisions of modern ecology, the structure of the biosphere, the role of living matter in the biosphere, considers the main environments of life and adaptation of organisms to them, the ecology of populations, communities and ecosystems, gives the concept of the noosphere, highlights the issues of anthropogenic impact on nature as a whole and on individual components - air, water, flora and fauna, considerable attention is paid to the impact of human agricultural activities on nature, ways to solve environmental problems, environmental regulation of economic activity.
For university students, as well as anyone interested in ecology.
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FOREWORD 4
1. INTRODUCTION. SUBJECT OF ECOLOGY 5
1.1. A BRIEF HISTORY OF ECOLOGY 5
1.2. CONTENT, SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF ECOLOGY 16
1.3. INTERRELATION OF ECOLOGY WITH OTHER BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. ENVIRONMENT DIVISIONS 17
1.4. ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS 20
2. BIOSPHERE: DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE. LIVING SUBSTANCE 24
2.1. DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE BIOSPHERE 24
2.2. LIVING SUBSTANCE OF THE BIOSPHERE 29
2.3. LAWS OF BIOGENIC MIGRATION OF ATOMS AND IRREVERSIBILITY OF EVOLUTION, LAWS OF ECOLOGY B. COMMONER 34
3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND GENERAL REGULARITIES OF THEIR ACTION ON ORGANISMS 37
3.1. ENVIRONMENT AND CONDITIONS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF ORGANISMS 37
3.2. THE JOINT ACTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 41
4. THE MOST IMPORTANT ABIOTIC FACTORS AND ORGANISMS ADAPT TO THEM 46
4.1. EMISSION: LIGHT 46
4.2. TEMPERATURE 55
4.3. HUMIDITY 69
4.4. COMBINED ACTION OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY 80
4.5. ATMOSPHERE 82
4.6. TOPOGRAPHY 84
4.7. OTHER PHYSICAL FACTORS 87
5. BASIC ENVIRONMENTS 99
5.1. AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT 99
5.2. GROUND AND AIR ENVIRONMENT 121
5.3. SOIL AS A LIFE ENVIRONMENT 147
5.4. LIVING ORGANISMS AS A LIFE ENVIRONMENT 165
6. BIOTIC FACTORS 177
6.1. HOMOTYPICAL AND 177
HETEROTYPIC REACTIONS 177
6.2. ZOOGENIC FACTORS 179
6.3. PHYTOGENIC FACTORS 188
6.4. ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS 197
7. BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS 201
7.1. OUTER RHYTHMS 201
7.2. INTERNAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, RHYTHMS 202
7.3. BIOLOGICAL CLOCK 210
7.4. PHOTOPERIODISM 212
8. LIFE FORMS OF ORGANISMS 217
8.1. THE CONCEPT OF "LIFE FORM" OF THE ORGANISM 217
8.2. PLANT LIFE FORMS 219
8.3. ANIMAL LIFE FORMS 225
9. STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF POPULATIONS 231
9.1. POPULATION CONCEPT 231
9.2. SPATIAL DIVISIONS OF POPULATIONS 232
9.3. POPULATION SIZE AND DENSITY 234
9.4. FERTILITY AND DEATH 236
9.5. AGE STRUCTURE OF THE POPULATION 238
9.6. SEX COMPOSITION OF POPULATION 243
9.7. GENETIC PROCESSES IN POPULATIONS 244
9.8. POPULATION GROWTH AND GROWTH CURVES 248
10. INTRA-SPECIES AND INTER-SPECIES RELATIONSHIPS IN POPULATIONS, HOMEOSTASIS AND ECOLOGICAL STRATEGIES 251
10.1. INTRA-SPECIES RELATIONSHIPS 251
10.2. INTER-SPECIES RELATIONSHIPS 265
10.3. POPULATION VARIATIONS AND POPULATION HOMEOSTASIS 267
10.4. POPULATION ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGIES 271
11. BIOCENOSES 273
11.1. THE CONCEPT OF BIOCENOSIS 273
11.2. SPECIES STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS 275
11.3. SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS 280
11.4. RELATIONS OF ORGANISMS IN BIOCENOSES 285
11.5. ECOLOGICAL NICHES 288
11.6. ECOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS 294
11.7. BORDER EFFECT 296
12. ECOSYSTEMS 299
12.1. THE CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEMS 299
12.2. ECOSYSTEM CLASSIFICATION 300
12.3. ZONING OF MACROECOSYSTEMS 301
12.4. ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE 306
12.5. THE SUN AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY 309
12.6. CYCLES OF SUBSTANCES 311
12.7. ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS 330
12.8. ECOSYSTEM PRODUCTIVITY 344
12.9. DYNAMICS OF ECOSYSTEMS 348
12.10. THE BIOSPHERE AS A GLOBAL ECOSYSTEM 358
12.11. HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE BIOSPHERE 363
12.12. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BIOSPHERE INTO THE NOOSPHERE - THE SPHERE OF MIND 371
13. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON NATURE 376
13.1. THE CONCEPT OF NATURE, NATURAL RESOURCES 376
13.2. POPULATION GROWTH 378
13.3. ANTHROPOGENIC MATERIAL BALANCE 380
13.4. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON ENERGY FLOWS AND CYCLES OF SUBSTANCES 387
13.5. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS 397
13.6. ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS 399
13.7. THE CONCEPT OF POLLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT. TYPES OF POLLUTANTS 402
13.8. MAIN SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 404
13.9. MAN-MADE ACCIDENTS AND NATURAL DISASTERS 412
13.10. ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION 415
14. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON ATMOSPHERIC AIR 420
14.1. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 420
14.2. SOURCES AND COMPOSITION OF AIR POLLUTION 423
14.3. PHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF AIR POLLUTION 425
14.4. MEASURES TO PREVENT AIR POLLUTION 432
15. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON THE HYDROSPHERE 436
15.1. BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE HYDROSPHERE 436
15.2. THE ROLE OF WATER IN NATURE AND HUMAN LIFE 438
15.3. FRESH WATER RESERVES 441
15.4. USE OF WATER RESOURCES 442
15.5. SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION 444
15.6. MEASURES FOR THE CLEANING AND PROTECTION OF WATER 450
16. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON VEGETATION 457
16.1. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANTS IN NATURE AND HUMAN LIFE 457
16.2. HUMAN IMPACT ON VEGETATION 461
16.3. FOREST IS THE MOST IMPORTANT PLANT RESOURCE 462
16.4. FOREST AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES 466
16.5. FOREST AND TOURISM 469
16.6. VEGETATION PROTECTION MEASURES 470
16.7. PROTECTION OF ECONOMICLY VALUABLE AND RARE PLANTS 472
17. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON ANIMALS 474
17.1. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ANIMALS IN THE BIOSPHERE AND HUMAN LIFE 474
17.2. HUMAN IMPACT ON ANIMALS, CAUSES OF THEIR EXTINCTION 479
17.3. MEASURES FOR THE PROTECTION OF ANIMAL 484
18. IMPACT OF HUMAN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON THE NATURE 493
18.1. AGRICULTURE AS A SOURCE OF FOOD RESOURCES 493
18.2. IMPACT OF HUMAN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON ECOLOGICAL BALANCE IN NATURE 497
18.3. ENERGY CONSUMPTION, FUNCTIONING AND BIOPRODUCTIVITY OF AGROECOSYSTEMS 500
18.4. RELATIONS OF ORGANISMS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 507
18.5. LANDSCAPE ORGANIZATION OF AGROECOSYSTEMS 510
18.6. THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 515
18.7. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF AGRICULTURAL INTENSIFICATION 524
18.8. PROBLEM OF PROTECTION OF LAND RESOURCES 539
18.9. ALTERNATIVE FARMING 545
18.10. LAND RECLAMATION 548
18.11. NATURAL MEADOWS AND PASTURES IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 550
19. POLLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POPULATION HEALTH 557
19.1. HUMAN ENVIRONMENT 557
19.2. HUMAN NEEDS 559
19.3. THE CONCEPT OF "HUMAN HEALTH" 563
19.4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH 566
19.5. ENVIRONMENTAL RISK 572
20. WAYS OF SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 575
20.1. LAWS OF RELATIONSHIPS MAN-NATURE 575
20.2. WAYS TO SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 580
20.3. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 594
20.4. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND EDUCATION 596
21. ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 599
21.1. ENVIRONMENTAL FORECAST AND FORECAST 599
21.2. MODELING OF NATURAL PROCESSES IN SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 602
21.3. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 607
21.4. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT 610
21.5. REGULATION OF POLLUTANTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 614
21.6. ENVIRONMENTAL CERTIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION 616
21.7. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT 618
TERMS AND CONCEPTS 621
LITERATURE 634
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