Sociology is a science that studies society, its functioning and development. Abstract Personality from the point of view of sociology: concept, structure, types

The term “ sociology" derived from Latin word“societas” (society) and Greek “logos” (word, doctrine). Literally sociology- science of society. An attempt to know, comprehend society, and express one’s attitude towards it has accompanied humanity at all stages of its history.
Concept “ sociology”introduced into scientific use by the French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798-1857) in the 30s years XIX Art. He thought of sociology as a science identical to social science, combining all areas of knowledge about society. Comte's philosophy was called “positivism”. The “positive philosophy” he proclaimed was reduced to a simple accumulation of general conclusions from individual sciences. The same principle was extended by Comte to sociology, the role of which he saw in the observation, description and systematization of facts and processes. public life. He fundamentally rejected their philosophical understanding as “scholasticism” and “metaphysics.”
Comte's opinion on sociology prevailed until the end of the 19th century. At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. in scientific studies of society, along with economic, demographic, legal and other aspects, social began to be highlighted. Accordingly, the subject of sociology was narrowed, limited to the study of the social aspects of social development.
The first to give a “narrow” interpretation of the interpretation of sociology as a science was Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), a French sociologist and philosopher who created the so-called French sociological school. His name is associated with the transition of sociology from a science identical to social science to a science focused on the study of social processes and social phenomena of public life, i.e. independent science, which borders on other social sciences - history, philosophy, political economy, etc.
The subject and object of sociology, like any science, are not identical, since the object of science is everything that the corresponding research is aimed at, and the subject is the individual aspects, properties, relationships that make up the object of a particular study. The same object can be studied by different sciences, the subject always clearly outlines the scope and goals of the study.
A modern interpretation of the subject of sociology must take into account the features this stage sociological knowledge, first of all, that sociology is specific scientific knowledge about society, which differs from other social sciences and has its own independent subject.
Sociology– the science of the formation, development and functioning of society, social communities, social relations and social processes, the mechanism and principles of their interaction.
Being a non-philosophical science, relying on generalization social facts, sociology defines its subject at the level of macro-theoretical analysis. It is closely related to the socio-philosophical level.
In addition to the general theoretical understanding of its subject, sociology covers a number of sociological theories, the subject of which is the study of special states and forms of existence of social communities: social structure, culture, social institutions and organizations, individuals, as well as processes of socialization of individuals in social communities.
As the science of social communities, sociology studies mass social processes and behavior, states and forms social interaction and social relationships of people forming social communities.
In all illuminated projections, the personality is in the foreground. But sociology views it not through the prism of individually unique properties and qualities (this is the subject of psychology), but from the position of its social-typical features as a subject of the development of society.
Sociology is the science of society, and this definition is recognized by almost all sociologists. But then the situation becomes more complicated, because it is society, its structure and the driving forces of its development that are understood differently by different scientists. For some sociologists, society is the same object of study as nature, therefore, when studying it, one can apply methods borrowed from the natural sciences. According to this group of scientists, society develops, like all living things, through evolution: from lower forms to higher ones, this process is objective and essentially independent of humans. Close to this is the Marxist understanding of society, the development of which is based on objective economic laws leading to social revolutions and the transition from lower (initial, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist) to higher (communist socio-economic formation with the first phase - socialism) stages social order. There is virtually no place left for a person in this concept; she is forced to submit to the cruel will of these laws and has no opportunity to change anything in their course.

Other authors of social concepts, on the contrary, place the person first of all as the basis for understanding society, trying to find out why, how and for what purpose this person creates society and lives in it despite such traits as selfishness, aggressiveness, etc. Here the will and desire of people to cohabitate and create social groups come to the fore; consciousness that unites people and communities; human intelligence, through more and more discoveries and inventions, leads technical progress and progress, other phenomena of spiritual life, communication between people and interaction between them.
All these ways of explaining society’s place and role of man in it have had and still have their supporters. Today, in conditions of ideological freedom, this is not the first time that we have the opportunity to familiarize ourselves with the works of scientists who embody the above approaches to understanding society, and choose for ourselves the one that best suits our tastes and beliefs. Now there is no single, historically correct and comprehensive theory of society and its development. The present situation is determined by theoretical pluralism, i.e. the right to the existence of various research directions, because life is multifaceted and complex, and therefore attempts to describe and understand it are identically diverse and dissimilar.
But if we approach sociology from this point of view, then we will be forced to study various sociological theories almost all our lives in search of the one most suitable to our ideas and tastes. Is some kind of compromise possible? Are there any attempts in the world of sociological science to integrate sociological knowledge, ideas of a certain function of the theoretical language of sociology? If human society as a whole tends towards integration and unification, then synthesis is possible, based on thorough empirical (experimental) data.
A complete attempt in this direction is to understand sociology as the science of the social communities that make up society. A social community is a really existing collection of individuals, which is characterized by relative integrity. Social communities arise in the course of the historical development of human existence at all levels of its existence and are distinguished by a huge variety of forms and meaningful connections within them. These social communities are the product of the activities of people who, throughout their lives, enter existing communities and create new ones. On early stages development of mankind, people united into families, clans and tribes based on consanguinity, seeking in these primitive communities protection from wild animals, natural forces or external enemies. That is, at the first stage of development, humanity gravitated towards creating communities, guided rather by external reasons, the desire to ensure its existence and survival in a hostile and threatening world. Over time, other incentives come into play, and the union occurs on the basis of certain industrial interests and needs, religious beliefs, political views, etc. In other words, with the development of society, the external objective factors that determined the creation of primitive communities are increasingly giving way to internal subjective factors of human society.
In a simplified version, the social system can be represented as a certain pyramid, all components of which interact with each other.
From this point of view, sociology can be defined as the science of the formation and functioning of social communities, between which certain social relationships and interactions develop, as well as of the social person - the creator of these communities and the main subject of historical development.

Having gone through a fairly long path of development, sociology has become a science whose task is to study a constantly changing society. Sociological research identifies patterns and patterns of various social connections and, based on these general patterns and patterns, tries to show (and sometimes predict) why certain phenomena and events occur at a particular time and place.

Many sociological works are descriptive, they show external properties social actions and events - verbally and through numbers. The result of such descriptive research are usually hypotheses concerning various social phenomena. These hypotheses are used in subsequent studies to identify causal relationships and develop theories.

Thus, models of social values ​​and social change; deviant behavior and family life. The relationship between social class and educational goals, between the structure of the organization and the information system, the living environment and family forms, technology and leadership style.

The listed dependencies represent simple sociological objects, but in reality the sociologist is faced with very multifaceted interconnected social processes.

The primary objects of sociological research are communities of people and the social structures and processes existing in them, the development and change of these structures and processes. A sociologist is interested in the patterns and regularities of the social world (Baldridge, 1980).

Social facts (this term was used by Durkheim) are, as a rule, broader and more multifaceted than in the ordinary worldview. Social facts include, for example, bureaucracy, overpopulation, crime, unemployment, and many others. etc. Such facts can only be studied in the totality of all social phenomena associated with them and involved in their environment. (For example, the social fact “crime”: economic, psychological, mental reasons, educational qualification, presence/absence and quality of leisure places, alcoholism, genetics, etc.)

Already from these examples it is clear that sociology can be considered a complex science, since: a) the subject of its research is extremely diverse, b) it examines multivariable causal relationships in the sphere of society and culture, c) it is faced with various models of changing social problems. ,

Sociology is based on facts and operates with theories, that is, sociology is empirical and theoretical. In this sense, it can be considered a “conservative” science. It is radical because it leaves nothing outside the field of research, not a single area human activity for her it is not sacred and not taboo. Public opinion is necessarily taken into account by sociology, but it approaches it critically.

Sociology has its own special approaches and methods, its main goal is the development of sociological theory. A sociological perspective reflects the world and human experience in new ways.

Sociology is objective in the sense that the knowledge obtained through the research of sociologists can be verified by the life practices of other people. The objectivity of science is often understood as freedom from values. People are associated with different values, but researchers strive to avoid such connection whenever possible, that is, to be objective or at least present their initial positions clearly and impartially, so that the reader can see for himself possible value connections. Weber became famous for his differentiation of empirical knowledge and evaluation. This issue is still debatable today, and doubts are even expressed about the possibility of having social sciences value-free statements in general.

4. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS OF RESEARCH

A sociologist uses information acquired in various ways in his research. He must resort to his observations, hunches, or common sense, but he can only achieve actual scientific knowledge through sound research methodology. Methodology refers to the system of various rules, principles and measures that govern scientific research.

Along with its own methodology, sociology is also guided by the following general criteria scientific research.

Systematicity in conducting observations, processing material and reviewing results.

Comprehensiveness: the researcher strives to identify general patterns and invariances, and is not content with describing one-time and isolated cases. The more comprehensive the explanation of a phenomenon, the more likely it is to predict its manifestation.

Accuracy in the measurement of attributes and in the use and definition of concepts. Reliability and validity are required from measurement methods and results.

The requirement for simplicity, i.e. cost-effectiveness of scientific research. The desire to achieve goals with as few basic concepts and connections as possible. The results of the study must be clear and definite.

Objectivity. A detailed and precise statement of the question will make it possible to check and control the study.

The methodology of sociology determines the ways and methods of collecting sociological material to obtain (generally speaking) answers to the questions of why certain phenomena and events occur in certain time and in a certain place. The methodology indicates which research methods can and are recommended to be used in each case. Sociological questions are those that can be answered using observable or verifiable facts.

The most common methods of collecting information for sociological research are experiment, survey and interview, observation, and the use of statistics and documents.

Experiment. The experimental situation allows, under specially controlled conditions, to study the effect of the variable under study in the experimental group. To determine the impact, measurements are taken before and after the experiment in certain situations in both the experimental and control groups. When compiling experimental and control groups, they strive, with the exception of the experimental variable, to be as similar as possible.

In sociological research, it is often difficult to create a controlled experimental situation, so it is necessary to resort to various situations similar to the experimental setting. Of these, perhaps the most common is the use of “ex post facto” data, i.e., based on facts that have already occurred, experimental and control groups are drawn up, and conclusions are drawn only after events that are significant from the point of view of the issue being studied.

Survey and interview. Surveys and interviews are called the survey method. This is a general coverage of the issue, after which the data are subjected to statistical generalizations. Surveys are perhaps the most frequently used methods of collecting information, especially since they began to spread, in addition to sociology, in other areas of science. Postal surveys make it possible to reach a large number of respondents conveniently and at relatively low economic cost, but this method also has many disadvantages. Concise questionnaires are best for surveys.

The interview provides, due to its versatility, good starting points for a very thorough study of social behavior, various social relations, opinions, etc. The success of the interview largely depends on the formulation of the questions, on the interviewer, the person interviewed and the interview situation and, of course, also on the relevance of the problem being studied for the respondent. An interview is a very effective, but methodologically complex method of collecting information.

Survey and interview methods include many different variations. These include, in particular, group surveys and telephone interviews, which are suitable in certain cases.

Observation. A sociologist often has to resort to observation in his research to supplement and clarify information obtained using other methods. Moreover, observation itself is also a method of collecting information, since through participant (participant) and non-participant (non-participant) observation it is possible to systematically and reliably collect information about phenomena to which other methods are not suitable. An example of participant observation is a study of a prison community conducted by I. Galtung, who himself was in prison as a pacifist; non-participant observation - a study by K. Bruun on the norms and customs of drinking alcoholic beverages (which did not make the author a fan of Bacchus).

Statistics and documents. Different types of statistics provide multifaceted opportunities for sociological research. Official and unofficial statistics collect information about society and social phenomena to such an extent that one can find materials in them to consider a wide variety of problems.

Various newspapers and magazines, television and radio programs, films, books and written materials in general are excellent starting points for considering many social phenomena and problems by analyzing the content. The currently widespread discourse analysis is also successfully used to interpret social relations and social phenomena. Statistics and documents largely ensure the objectivity and scientific character of sociological research.

Sample. The object of sociological research can be so broad that it is practically impossible to conduct research on this object as a whole, examining each unit of a certain general population. The only alternative is to draw conclusions from a sample that is representative of the population. Using various sampling methods developed by statistics, a certain part is selected from the population optimal parameters(i.e. selection), which is subject to research and study. The results obtained in this way allow us to draw conclusions about the population as a whole.

The most common sampling methods include probability sampling using random numbers and systematic sampling with equal number intervals. When the population consists of different groups, it is perhaps most convenient to use split sampling, with a sample drawn from each group. In studies covering an entire country, it is possible to use cluster sampling, in which the subjects of the study are first divided into groups from which samples are drawn. For example, when the population consists of students in grades 1-4 in rural communities, the communities under study are selected first, then the schools, classes, and finally the students. This method is called four-stage cluster sampling.

Research model. Below is a summary of the empirical research step by step. The general lines that guide researchers (with some variations) are given:

1. Statement of the problem. Naturally, the research problem is its starting point and essence.

3. Proposing a hypothesis. The research problem must be subject to experimentation and testing. This requires a testable statement that first identifies the relationship between the variables. So, a hypothesis is scientific educated guess on the essence of the problem under study.

4. Choosing a method for collecting information and analyzing data.

5. Collection of information.

6. Processing of material, analysis of results. Actually research: connection, classification, comparison and statistical verification of information, compilation of tables based on the data received, etc. to verify, refute or confirm the hypothesis and to find answers to the questions posed.

7. Conclusions. Presentation of research results, indication of findings and omissions, unclear points, assessment of the fulfillment of the research task, justification of the theoretical and practical significance of the results obtained; first approximation definition advanced research, arising from the results of this, etc. These issues should be presented in the published research report.

Above, we considered mainly quantitative methods, i.e., methods based on various measurements. Along with them, sociological research also uses methods that can be called qualitative, using so-called “soft” materials (for example, documents, diaries, letters). They can use complex statistical solutions, but above all various methods of interpretation, inference and philosophical interpretation. It all has to do with linguistic expression.

Modern sociological research is multi-methodical, i.e. it uses simultaneously various ways and methods for solving problems and making results as reliable as possible.

Sociological research is, simply put, the search for answers to problems chosen by the researcher himself or given to him.

THEORY

The goal of sociological research is to identify, describe and explain the patterns of social processes, relationships, phenomena, and, as in any science, to provide a satisfactory explanation for everything that requires explanation. This explanation can be considered a sociological theory. According to E. Hahn (1968), a theory can be spoken of when there is: 1) a scientific level of knowledge or research and 2) systematically organized terminology.

In its broadest sense, “theory” refers to everything that is formal or abstract as opposed to empirical. With the help of correct sociological theory, it is possible to explain human behavior caused primarily by the influence of the environment, social expectations and social structure.

Although the theory reflects the essence of the object under consideration, it as such, in pure form, cannot be observed in reality. For example, the proposition that members of society are divided into social strata is not a theory, but an empirical fact or knowledge. However, the explanation of the underlying causes of this division is already a sociological theory.

Sociological theory is a theory about social phenomena or society. Based on scientific sociological theory, it is possible to make certain predictions about the state of society and possible social events. A more specific component of the theory are “concepts”.

Looking ahead, we note that theoretical concepts express something abstract and are at the same time the opposite of an empirical fact, which is concrete and observable. Typical sociological concepts are, for example, group, norm, role and status (see Chapter 5 for details). Several types of sociological theories can be distinguished.

An explanatory theory identifies and studies the social causes of phenomena existing in society.

Predictive theory seeks to predict the future based on knowledge of existing trends in society.

The classifying theory is more descriptive than explanatory or predictive; it represents the identification of the most abstract essential features of a phenomenon. For example, " ideal type Weber can serve as an example of such a theory.

Functional theory refers to classifying theories. It classifies and interprets phenomena and their consequences. Functional theory shows the cause-and-effect relationships of various parts of a system and the impact of each part on the whole.

Instead of functional theory, researchers may use the term "functional analysis", which can be considered synonymous with functional theory, or the term "systems theory", when emphasizing the meaning of the whole. Many researchers have noted that social Sciences do not yet have a systematic approach, there are only research methods and a number of generalizations, and those at a relatively low level. Robert Merton (1968) used the expression “middle-range theory” to refer to this. Some researchers compare theory with paradigm, which is understood as a way of thinking or direction of science (Wiswede, 1991).

Despite criticisms leveled at theory, it is possible to use the concept of theory especially when it can provide useful information about social relationships. Theory has a close connection with the reality being studied. A theory is a paradigm or model of reality. Sociological theory is based on the relationships of factors, variables, and concepts. A “competent”, correct sociological theory should not be something divorced from reality, an end in itself, but should be a way to discover new relationships and patterns.

The following is a diagram of the research process according to Walter L. Wallace (1969), which discusses the development of theory and its application to research. Wallis believes sociology is unconditional scientific discipline and identifies in it, according to this scheme, five areas that correlate with each other.

We use Durkheim's analysis of suicide as an example. It comes from observations about people who have committed suicide. These observations provide some empirical generalizations such as “Protestants have a higher suicide rate than Catholics.”

Next level knowledge depends on the answers to the questions:

1. What is the meaning of belonging to a particular religion in that special case, when it comes to suicide rates?

2. Can the frequency of suicides generally be considered a special case?

These questions, taken together, address the phenomenon to be explained (suicide) and the phenomenon to be explained (religion). In this case, it is possible, by induction, to “raise” an empirical generalization above its original form and, as a result, increase the scientific information used. Belonging to a particular religion, i.e., an explanatory phenomenon, can be generalized using one or another degree of integration. Suicide, as an explainable phenomenon, is only one of the expressions of the so-called disorganization, that is, a functional disorder of society, or a weakening of predictability. With the help of these broader concepts, the named empirical generalization can be represented in the form next theory: “The state of personal disorganization varies inversely with the degree of social integration.”

The above can be clearly shown using the diagram located on p. 85. It is clear from it that in empirical generalizations we are talking about the relationship between two variables (a - 1), but at the theoretical level attention is drawn to the mutual connection of theoretical concepts (A - B).

The next step is to test the theory. Based on the theory, hypotheses are put forward through logical deduction. According to this theory, unmarried women and unmarried men are less socially integrated than married women and men.

For this reason, the former have a higher suicide rate than the latter. This hypothesis is tested through collected observations, after which empirical generalizations are made, and finally the hypothesis is incorporated by logical induction into a theory.

The development of a theory, on the one hand, and its application, on the other, can be stated according to Wallis (1971) as follows: in the development stage of a theory, observations obtained during the research process are important, and in the application stage of a theory, the objects of application are important. When making observations and drawing conclusions, it is necessary to take into account the provisions of the theory. Theory helps guide research to address substantive questions.

Once a hypothesis has been tested, it is considered proven and serves as the basis for logical conclusions leading to a theory.

As noted above, the development of sociological theory and empirical research are in a relationship of mutual influence. The validity and generalizability of research findings is directly dependent on this interaction.

LITERATURE

Asplund Johan (red.). Sociologiska teorier. Studi-er i sociologins historia. ( Sociological theories. Studies in the history of sociology). Stockholm, 1967.

Baldridge Victor J. Sociology: A Critical Approach to Power, Conflict and Change. Johan Wiley and Sons, New York, 1980.

Bourdieu Pierre. Kultursociologiska texter. (Texts on the sociology of culture). Salamander, Stockholm, 1986.

Durkheim Emil. Method in sociology // Emile Durkheim. Sociology. M., 1995.

Eskola Antti. Sosiologian tutkimusmenetelmat 1 (Sociology Research Methods, 1). WSOY, 1981.

Fichter Joseph H. Sociology. Second edition. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1971.

Khan Erich. Historical materialism and Marxist sociology. M., 1971.

Jyrinki Erkki. Kysely ja haastattelu tutkimuk-sessa (Survey and interviews in research). Hame-enlinna, 1974.

Kloss Robert Marsh & Ron E. Roberts & Dean S. Dorn. Sociology with a Human Face. Sociology as if people mattered. The C. V. Mosby Company, Saint Louis, 1976.

Liedes Matti & Pentti Manninen. Otantame-netelmut (Sampling methods). Oy Gaudeamus Ab, Helsinki, 1974.

Merton Robert. Social Theory and Social Structure. New York, 1968.

Mills Wright C. Sosiologinen mielikuvitus (The Sociological Imagination). Gaudeamus, Helsinki, 1982.

Robertson lan. Sociology. Worth Publishers Inc., New York, 1977.

Sariola Sakari. Sosiaalitutkimuksen menetelmat (Methods of social research). WSOY, Por-voo, 1956.

Stinchcombe Arthur L. Constructing Social Theories. New York, 1968.

Valkonen Tapani. Haastattelu, ja kyselyaineiston analyysi sosiaalitutkimuksessa (Analysis of survey and interview materials in social research). Hameenlinna, 1974.

Wallace Walter L. Sociological Theory. An Introduction. Chicago, 1969.

Wallace Walter L. The Logic of Science in Sociology. Aldine. Atherton. Chicago, 1971.

Warren Carol A. B. (ed.). Sociology, Change and Continuity. The Dorsey Press, Homewood, Illinois, 1977.

Wiswede Gunther. Soziologie. Verlag Moderne Industrie. Landsberg am Lech, 1991.

Sociology(from Greek socio - society, Latin logos - word, science) - the science of society, its functioning, system, interaction of people. Its main goal is analysis of the structure of social relations that develop during social interaction.

First this term used by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in 1840. However, even earlier, Confucius, Indian, Assyrian, and ancient Egyptian thinkers showed interest in society. Social ideas were also traced in the works of Plato, Aristotle, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Robert Owen and others. But it was in the 19th century that it received a new development, becoming a science, giving a new understanding of the role of man - the study of the consciousness and behavior of people as active participants in economic, social, political and cultural changes.

IN difference from philosophy, sociology does not operate high level communication, and shows life in all its contradictions, reveals the essence of human nature in reality. She comprehends society, public life, not as something abstract, but as reality, trying to express it in her provisions.

The specificity of sociology is that that society is considered as an ordered system of social communities, and the individual, individual action is studied against the background of the relations of social groups. That is, the individual is not an independent object, but a part of some group, expressing his attitude towards other social groups.

Sociology studies how the system of order is formed and reproduced in the course of social practice, how it is fixed in the system of such social norms, roles and assimilated by individuals in such a way that it becomes socially typical and predictable.

This typicality indicates the existence of objective social laws that sociology studies as a scientific discipline.

1. Positivism and naturalism.
2. Antipositivism (understanding sociology). The basic concept is that society is different from nature because it is man-made, with his own values ​​and goals.

In addition to these areas, there is also a huge system of classifications and divisions. Sociology is a complex structure.

As practical application of sociology today The following areas can be distinguished:

• Political sociology,
• Measures of social order, family and society,
• Human Resources Study,
• Education,
• Applied social research (public opinion research),
• Public policy,
• Demographic analysis.

Sociologists also study problems gender relations, environmental equity issues, immigration, poverty, isolation, organizational studies, mass communications, quality of life, etc.

Not in sociology unified theory. There are many contradictory schemes and paradigms in it. This or that approach can be brought to the fore, giving a new direction for the development of this science. This is due to constant changes in the development of society's consciousness. However, the entire complex of basic principles developed by sociology theoretical approaches basically preserved and creatively developed. All of them reflect the real aspects of society, the real factors of its development, thereby allowing sociology to occupy itself important place in modern scientific knowledge.

The word "sociology" comes from the Latin "societas" (society) and Greek word"hoyos" (teaching). It follows from this that sociology is the study of society. We invite you to take a closer look at this interesting area knowledge.

Briefly about the development of sociology

At all stages of its history, humanity has tried to comprehend society. Many ancient thinkers spoke about it (Aristotle, Plato). However, the concept of “sociology” was introduced into scientific circulation only in the 30s of the 19th century. It was introduced by Auguste Comte, a French philosopher. Sociology as an independent science was actively formed in Europe in the 19th century. Scientists writing in German, French and English participated most intensively in its development.

The founder of sociology and his contributions to science

Auguste Comte is the man who gave birth to sociology as a science. The years of his life are 1798-1857. It was he who first spoke about the need to separate it into a separate discipline and justified such a need. This is how sociology arose. Briefly characterizing the contribution of this scientist, we note that he, in addition, was the first to define its methods and subject matter. Auguste Comte is the creator of the theory of positivism. According to this theory, it is necessary to create an evidence base similar to that of the natural sciences when studying various social phenomena. Comte believed that sociology is a science that studies society only based on scientific methods, with the help of which empirical information can be obtained. These are, for example, methods of observation, historical and comparative analysis facts, experiment, method of using statistical data, etc.

The emergence of sociology played an important role in the study of society. The scientific approach to its understanding proposed by Auguste Comte opposed the speculative reasoning about it that metaphysics offered at that time. According to this philosophical school, the reality in which each of us lives is a figment of our imagination. After Comte proposed his scientific approach, the foundations of sociology were laid. It immediately began to develop as an empirical science.

Rethinking the content of the subject

Until the end of the 19th century, the point of view on it, as identical to social science, dominated in scientific circles. However, in studies conducted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the theory of sociology received further development. It began to stand out along with legal, demographic, economic and other aspects and social. In this regard, the subject of science that interests us gradually began to change its content. It began to be reduced to the study of social development, its social aspects.

Emile Durkheim's contribution

The first scientist who defined this science as specific, different from social science, was the French thinker Emile Durkheim (lived 1858-1917). It was thanks to him that sociology ceased to be considered as a discipline identical to social science. It became independent and joined the ranks of other social sciences.

Institutionalization of sociology in Russia

The foundations of sociology were laid in our country after the resolution of the Council of People's Commissars was adopted in May 1918. It stated that conducting research on society is one of the main tasks Soviet science. In Russia, a sociobiological institute was founded for this purpose. In the same year, the first sociological department in Russia was created at Petrograd University, headed by Pitirim Sorokin.

In the process of development in this science, both domestic and foreign, 2 levels were distinguished: macro- and microsociological.

Macro- and microsociology

Macrosociology is a science that studies social structures: educational, social, political, family, economic institutions from the point of view of their interrelation and functioning. This approach also studies people who are involved in a system of social structures.

At the level of microsociology, the interaction of individuals is considered. Its main thesis is that phenomena in society can be understood by analyzing the individual and his motives, actions, behavior, and value orientations that determine interaction with others. This structure allows us to define the subject of science as the study of society, as well as its social institutions.

Marxist-Leninist approach

In the Marxist-Leninist concept, a different approach arose in understanding the discipline of interest to us. The model of sociology in it is three-level: special theories and historical materialism. This approach is characterized by the desire to fit science into the structure of the worldview of Marxism, to create connections between historical materialism (social philosophy) and specific sociological phenomena. The subject of the discipline in this case becomes philosophical. That is, sociology and philosophy have one subject. Clearly this is the wrong position. This approach isolated knowledge about society from the global process of development.

The science that interests us cannot be reduced to social philosophy, since the peculiarity of her approach is manifested in other concepts and categories that are correlated with verifiable empirical facts. First of all, the peculiarity of it as a science lies in the ability to consider existing in society social organizations, relationships and institutions as subject to study through empirical data.

Approaches of other sciences in sociology

Let us note that O. Comte pointed out 2 features of this science:

1) the need to apply scientific methods to the study of society;

2) use of the obtained data in practice.

Sociology, when analyzing society, uses the approaches of some other sciences. Thus, the use of a demographic approach allows us to study population and human activities related to it. The psychological one explains the behavior of individuals with the help of social attitudes and motives. The group or community approach is associated with the study of collective behavior of groups, communities and organizations. Cultural studies studies human behavior through social values, rules, and norms.

The structure of sociology today determines the presence in it of many theories and concepts related to the study of individual subject areas: religion, family, human interactions, culture, etc.

Approaches at the level of macrosociology

In understanding society as a system, that is, at the macrosociological level, two main approaches can be distinguished. It's about about conflictological and functional.

Functionalism

Functional theories first appeared in the 19th century. The idea of ​​the approach itself belonged to (pictured above) who compared human society with a living organism. Like it, it consists of many parts - political, economic, military, medical, etc. Moreover, each of them performs a specific function. Sociology has its own special task related to the study of these functions. By the way, the very name of the theory (functionalism) comes from here.

Emile Durkheim proposed a detailed concept within the framework of this approach. It was continued to be developed by R. Merton and T. Parsons. The main ideas of functionalism are the following: society is understood as a system of integrated parts, in which there are mechanisms through which its stability is maintained. In addition, the need for evolutionary transformations in society is substantiated. Its stability and integrity are formed on the basis of all these qualities.

Conflict theories

Marxism can also be considered as a functional theory (with certain reservations). However, it is analyzed in Western sociology from another point of view. Since Marx (his photo is presented above) considered the conflict between classes to be the main source of the development of society and based his idea of ​​its functioning and development on this basis, approaches of this kind received a special name in Western sociology - conflict theories. From Marx's point of view, class conflict and its resolution are the driving force of history. From this followed the need to restructure society through revolution.

Among the supporters of the approach to viewing society from the point of view of conflict, one can note such German scientists as R. Dahrendorf and the latter believed that conflicts arise due to the existence of an instinct of hostility, which intensifies when a clash of interests occurs. R. Dahrendorf argued that their main source is the power of some over others. Conflict arises between those who have power and those who do not.

Approaches at the level of microsociology

The second level, microsociological, developed in the so-called theories of interactionism (the word “interaction” is translated as “interaction”). Important role C. H. Cooley, W. James, J. G. Mead, J. Dewey, and G. Garfinkel played a role in its development. Those who developed interactionist theories believed that interactions between people could be understood using the categories of reward and punishment - after all, this is what determines human behavior.

Role theory takes special place in microsociology. What characterizes this direction? Sociology is a science in which the theory of roles was developed by such scientists as R. K. Merton, Y. L. Moreno, R. Linton. From the point of view of this direction, the social world is a network of social statuses (positions) interconnected. They explain human behavior.

Basis of classification, coexistence of theories and schools

Scientific sociology, considering the processes occurring in society, classifies it on various grounds. For example, when studying the stages of its development, one can take as a basis the development of technology and productive forces (J. Galbraith). In the tradition of Marxism, classification is based on the idea of ​​formation. Society can also be classified on the basis of the dominant language, religion, etc. The meaning of any such division is the need to understand what it represents in our time.

Modern sociology is structured in such a way that in it there are equal different theories and schools. In other words, the idea of ​​a universal theory is rejected. Scientists began to come to the conclusion that there are no hard methods in this science. However, the adequacy of the reflection of processes occurring in society depends on their quality. The meaning of these methods is that the phenomenon itself, and not the causes that gave rise to it, is given the main importance.

Economic sociology

This is a direction of social research that involves analysis from the perspective social theory economic activity. Its representatives are M. Weber, K. Marx, W. Sombart, J. Schumpeter and others. Economic sociology is a science that studies the totality of social socio-economic processes. They may concern the state or markets, as well as individuals or households. In this case, various methods of data collection and analysis are used, including sociological ones. Economic sociology, within the framework of the positivist approach, is understood as a science that studies the behavior of any large social groups. At the same time, she is not interested in any behavior, but related to the use and receipt of money and other assets.

Institute of Sociology (RAN)

Today in Russia there is an important institution related to Russian Academy Sci. This is the Institute of Sociology. Its main goal is to carry out fundamental research in the field of sociology, as well as applied developments in this area. The institute was founded in 1968. Since that time, it has been the main institution of our country in such a branch of knowledge as sociology. His research is very great importance. Since 2010, he has been publishing the "Bulletin of the Institute of Sociology" - scientific electronic journal. The total number of employees is about 400 people, of which approximately 300 are scientists. Various seminars, conferences, and readings are held.

In addition, the sociological faculty of GAUGN operates on the basis of this institute. Although this department enrolls only about 20 students per year, it is worth considering for those who have chosen the sociology major.

Developed a fundamentally different theory Karl Marx(1818-1883) - an outstanding German political economist, philosopher and sociologist. Having based his theory on the principle of the material factor of historical development, Marx understood by “material factor” the development of the productive forces of society, which, in combination with the corresponding relations between people, create a socio-economic formation that dictates a specific mode of production and the corresponding forms of ownership.

The material forces that dominate society determine the “spiritual” superstructure, to which Marx attributed various kinds of political, moral, spiritual and other social institutions. Meanwhile, the dynamic picture of social development is determined not only by the scientific, technical, economic and socio-political progress of society, but also by the specific “location” of social classes, that is large groups people who have their own special relationship to the means of production, property and political institutions.

Social development, which takes shape as a result of economic progress and the corresponding development of class forces, moves from one stage to another, as a rule, through a powerful totalitarian crisis that covers all institutions of society. Marx called this crisis a social revolution, which, in his opinion, is the engine of history. Moreover, one of the social classes accelerates the arrival of the revolution, while other classes resist it.

In the social production of their lives, people enter into certain, necessary, relations independent of their will - production relations that correspond to a certain stage of development of their material productive forces. The totality of these production relations constitutes the economic structure of society, the real basis on which the legal and political superstructure and to which certain forms of social consciousness correspond. The method of production of material life determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general. It is not the consciousness of people that determines their existence, but, on the contrary, their social existence determines their consciousness.

Marx introduces the concept of formations

Socio-economic formation, (or system) is a historically established type of society, which is based on a certain way of producing society, for procreation or offspring - that is, the creation of a new formation.

The mode of production that underlies the socio-economic formation is the unity of interaction between productive forces and production relations (relations of ownership of the means of production). Based on the method of production, superstructural relations are formed (political, legal and ideological institutions of society), which seem to consolidate the existing relations of production. The unity of interaction between the superstructure and the method of production constitutes a socio-economic formation.

According to Marx, humanity has gone through several socio-economic formations - primitive, slaveholding, feudal and capitalist, and the last - communist - should come in the future and is final.

At a certain stage of their development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production, or - which is only the legal expression of the latter - with the property relations within which they have hitherto developed. From forms of development of productive forces, these relations turn into their fetters. Then comes the era of social revolution. With a change in the economic basis, a revolution occurs more or less quickly in the entire enormous superstructure. When considering such revolutions, it is always necessary to distinguish between a material revolution, stated with natural-scientific precision, in economic conditions production from legal, political, religious, artistic or philosophical, in short - from ideological forms in which people are aware of this conflict and struggle to resolve it.

Not a single social formation dies before all the productive forces for which it provides sufficient scope have developed, and new, higher relations of production never appear before the material conditions of their existence have matured in the depths of the old society itself.

Marx considered human history as a history of struggle between large social groups

The revolution of the proletariat, according to Marx, will be for the first time in history a revolution of the majority for everyone, but not minorities for their own sake. “When, in the course of development, class differences disappear and all production is concentrated in the hands of an association of individuals, then public power will lose its political character. Political power, in the proper sense of the word, is the organized violence of one class to suppress another. If the proletariat in the struggle against the bourgeoisie certainly unites into a class, if through a revolution it turns into a ruling class and, as a ruling class, forcibly abolishes the old relations of production, then together with these relations of production it destroys the conditions for the existence of class opposition, destroys classes in general, and thereby its own dominance as a class. From the old bourgeois society with its classes and class oppositions comes an association in which the free development of everyone is the main goal.

7. Subjective method and psychological direction
in the sociology of Russia at the end of the 19th century.

Subjectivist paradigm focuses research on what people do and how they do it. Here, society is viewed from the point of view of the interaction of social groups, each of which has special values, attitudes, habits and statuses.

It is based on the ideas of Max Weber's understanding sociology, on psychological trends, with the exception of behaviorism, as well as on phenomenological philosophy. What unites this paradigm is the following:

1) social reality is understood as arising as a result of interactions mediated by individual meanings and ideas characters;

2) therefore, the main task of sociology is to understand the internal meaning of certain actions, to describe the ideas on the basis of which social reality is constructed, and the process of this construction;

3) this problem must be solved using methods that are fundamentally different from natural science.

Subjective sociology was formed in the 60s and early 70s. XIX century and set out in the works of P.L. Lavrova and N.K. Mikhailovsky, their kinships were shared by S.N. Yuzhakov, not being a populist.

Subjective sociology fundamentally distinguished between natural science and sociological knowledge and, because of this, objective and subjective methods of research. According to subjective sociology, the individual, and not the group, the class, is the basic “unit” of the social structure, as well as historical development. The subjective thoughts and goals of the individual determine it social activity. The study of personality is carried out by a sociologist on the principle of “empathy,” “when the observer puts himself in the position of the observed.” In addition, subjective sociology included an ethical aspect - the researcher’s assessment of social facts from the point of view of his social ideal and moral positions.

Petr Lavrovich Lavrov(1823-1900) was the first to introduce such terms as “anthropologism”, “subjective method”, “subjective point of view” into sociology. “In sociology and history,” Lavrov wrote, there are things that are unchanging and absolute, as in other sciences. They are objective, they may not be known about in a particular era, but they are discovered in another... Sociology and history contains such truths that cannot be discovered until a certain moment, not because of an objective discrepancy with what is already known, but because of the subjective inability of society to understand the question and answer it."

The Russian sociologist explains this idea with the following example: until the working class had a desire to take part in public life, historians had no need to comprehend the past, which contained the origins of this desire, and although the chronicles and memoirs contained many interesting facts on this issue, they have not yet appeared scientific understanding stories.

Revealing the main content of his approach to the life of society and its processes, Lavrov noted that " social forms appear as historically changing products of social creativity of the individual in view of their good, and therefore the individual always has the right and obligation to strive to change existing forms in accordance with his moral ideals, has the right and obligation to fight for what he considers progress (constantly criticizing the basic requirements of ethics their ideas about progress), developing a social force capable of triumphing in such a struggle."

Due to the fact that the majority is guided only by the calculation of benefit, interest is the most general social impulse and in every historical era the progressive movement is strong only when the interests of the majority coincide in their social ideals with the beliefs of the most developed minority. It is based on this theoretical position that Lavrov substantiates the organic connection between sociology and socialism. Socialism, according to Lavrov, fully meets the requirements stated above: “It represents the interests of the working majority, it is so imbued with the consciousness of class struggle; it realizes for the developed minority the ideal of a fair community of life, allowing the most conscious development individuals with the greatest solidarity of all workers, an ideal capable of embracing all of humanity, destroying all distinctions between states, nationalities and races; it exists for individuals who have been most thoughtful about the course of history, and is an inevitable result of the modern process of economic life.

Another major Russian sociologist was also a subjectivist in sociology Nikolai Konstantinovich Mikhailovsky(1842-1904). “The fundamental and indelible difference between the relationship of man to man and to the rest of nature consists primarily in this,” wrote Mikhailovsky, “that in the first case we are dealing not just with phenomena, but with phenomena gravitating towards a known goal, whereas in second - this goal does not exist. This distinction is so important and significant that it itself hints at the need to apply different methods to the two great areas of human knowledge... We cannot evaluate social phenomena except subjectively... the highest control must belong to This is a subjective method." Mikhailovsky believed that one cannot be impartial about the facts of social life. “Tell me,” he said, “what are your social connections, and I will tell you how you look at the world.” Mikhailovsky rejected the evolutionary theory of C. Darwin and G. Spencer and proceeded from the theory of the need to save the individual from the destructive effects of social control. In his opinion, there is an ongoing war between the individual and society, evidence of this is the history of Russia. By drawing attention to the influence that imitation, suggestion, and prestige have on social behavior, Mikhailovsky anticipated the psychoanalysis of S. Freud and V. Adler.

The structural-functional method is an approach to the description and explanation of systems, in which their elements and the dependencies between them are studied within the framework of a single whole; separate social phenomena perform a specific function in supporting and changing the social system.

The basis of structural-functional analysis is the idea of ​​social order, in which agreement (consensus) dominates over conflict. The structural-functional theory is characterized by a conscious desire to build a complete system social action as the most complete system explanations of empirical facts of reality.

Each element of this structure performs specific functions that satisfy the needs of the system. The essence of the method is to divide a complex object into its component parts, study the connections between them and determine their inherent specific functions (roles) aimed at meeting the relevant needs of the personnel management system, taking into account the integrity of the latter and its interaction with the external environment.

In structural-functional analysis, “action” is taken as the unit of study, and society is presented as a set of complex social systems of action (the concept of T. Parsons, R. Merton). Each individual in his behavior is focused on “generally accepted” patterns of behavior. Norms are united in institutions that have a structure and have functions aimed at achieving the stability of society. The purpose of structural-functional analysis is to quantify those changes to which this system can adapt without compromising his basic functional responsibilities.

Structural-functional analysis includes the study of the functional dependencies of the elements of the system, the unity of the institutions of power, the correspondence of their actions (functioning) to the needs of the subjects, identifying how the need to adapt the system to the environment that is changing is realized.