The Civil War is the national tragedy of Russia. The Civil War is the greatest tragedy in the history of Russia in the 20th century

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"North-West Academy of Public Administration"

Department of History and World Politics

Civil War- national tragedy of Russia

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Introduction

civil war historiography Bolshevik

Civil War 1918-1920 continues to be one of the most important events in national history. It left an indelible mark on the memory of the peoples of Russia, and its consequences are still being felt in the political, economic and spiritual spheres of our society.

The theme of the civil war occupies a special place in the historical and fiction, brochures, articles, documentary publications and feature films, in the theater, on television, in songwriting.

Suffice it to say that about 20 thousand books and scientific articles. At the same time, it should be noted that many of our contemporaries have formed ambiguous and often distorted ideas about this tragic page in the history of Russia. For some, Pavka Korchagin remains a hero, for others - Lieutenant Golitsyn. Some know the war from the films "Wedding in Malinovka", "The Elusive Avengers" and songs like "Old Man Makhno looks out the window ...", the views of others are based on M.A.'s "Quiet Don". Sholokhov, memoirs of A.I. Denikin, on more accurate historical facts.

Generations of citizens of the USSR were brought up on the heroism and romance of the revolution. In the 1930s, millions of boys in the USSR saw their favorite hero in Chapaev and sang Aleksey Surkov's Cavalry Song.

Meanwhile, memories were being written abroad, scientific works, composed odes in honor of heroes and martyrs white movement. Their courage, devotion to duty, loyalty to the unfortunate Motherland in the fight against the Bolshevik monsters, their readiness to carry the martyr's cross through the cellars of the Lubyanka and the dungeons of the Odessa Gubchek were sung.

So, the civil war was seen, reflected, studied from two opposite sides- on the part of the winners and on the part of the vanquished. Distortions and tendentiousness were allowed on both sides. This is natural and inevitable. The wise Romans have long noticed a simple truth: "Times are changing, and we are changing with them."

It is no coincidence that a number of historians believe that "the civil war has not yet become history in the full sense of the word, reconciliation (in Russian society) has not yet come, and the time for balanced judgments has not yet come."

With collapse Soviet Union the atmosphere of civil war is in the air. Dozens of regional conflicts brought the country to the brink of war: Transnistria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Chechnya (December 1994 - October 1996). All this requires current political leaders of all countries of endurance, restraint, readiness to compromise.

As before, everything that is said, written, sung, filmed, staged about the civil war is permeated with intransigence, i.e. psychology of the civil war.

The purpose of this work: - to reveal approaches to the coverage of the history of the civil war in domestic and foreign historiography; - to show the essence, causes, composition of the opposing forces and the main stages and events of the war; - highlight the consequences and lessons of the civil war, their significance for modern stage development of Russia.

1. Essence, causes and main stages of the civil war in Russia

Civil wars have been known in history since ancient times. At the household level, a civil war is a war between citizens of one state. International Encyclopedia social sciences(USA) defines it as follows: "A civil war is a conflict within a society caused by attempts to seize or maintain power by illegal means."

This definition fits the civil wars in England (XVII century), in the USA in 1861-1865, in Spain in the 30s. 20th century It also applies to the civil wars of the early seventeenth century. and 1918-1920. in Russia. At the same time, armed struggle always acts as "illegal means". Therefore, a civil war is, due to deep social, political, economic and other contradictions, an armed struggle for power between various groups and segments of the population within a country.

In relation to Russia - the civil war of 1918-1920. - this is an armed struggle for power between various groups and strata of the country's population, due to deep social, political, economic, national and other contradictions, which took place with the active intervention of foreign states and included military operations of regular armies, uprisings, rebellions, partisan and sabotage-terrorist actions and other forms.

Why did the civil war start in Russia? What are its reasons? Who is to blame for its unleashing, escalation, millions of human victims? The answers to these questions are ambiguous. At present, under the influence of publicists and especially electronic media, the point of view that the Bolsheviks unleashed the civil war has become widespread in Russian society. They allegedly usurped power, killed the most humane tsar in the world, aggravated the confrontation in society and unleashed a fratricidal war in the name of approaching the world revolution.

More reasoned is the point of view of Lenin and the Bolsheviks, enshrined in numerous books and school textbooks. Soviet period. Its essence: In 1917, workers and peasants came to power in Russia. The bourgeoisie and the landlords did not want to put up with this. But they did not have the strength for any serious resistance to Soviet power. The rebellion of Krasnov-Kerensky, Kaledin on the Don and Dutov in the Southern Urals were easily and quickly suppressed. However, foreign states organized open intervention and helped the internal counter-revolution. Thus, international imperialism acted as the initiator and catalyst of the civil war in Russia.

We are well acquainted with this interpretation of the causes of the civil war, but even it is one-sided, biased, and unscientific. The causes of the war cannot be reduced to the guilt of any of the parties in its beginning. Its historical background should be sought in the state Russian society until February 1917, when Russia was permanently entering a state of civil war, and the reasons were in the actions or inaction of the main political forces of the country in the period from February 1917 to about the summer of 1918.

If we retrospectively evaluate the prerequisites and causes of the civil war in Russia, then they can be reduced to the following:

1. Exacerbation of social contradictions in Russian society, which accumulated over decades and even centuries and deepened to the limit during the First World War. The most acute problems of Russian society have not been solved for decades. In the West, the acuteness of social contradictions was more or less smoothed out. In Russia, violence against the people was the leading principle of the functioning of power.

At the end of the XIX-beginning of the XX centuries. especially noticeable was the stubborn unwillingness of the autocracy to carry out significant reforms of the political and economic order. The conflict between power and society was so deep that the autocracy had no defenders in February-March 1917, they simply did not exist in a country of many millions.

2. Leading policy political parties(Kadets, Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks), who could not stabilize the situation after the overthrow of the autocracy. The struggle for the army in the conditions of the ongoing war led to its collapse.

3. The seizure of power by the Bolsheviks and the desire of the overthrown classes to restore their rule.

4. Contradictions in the camp of the socialist parties, which received more than 80% of the votes in the elections to the Constituent Assembly, but failed to secure agreement, at the cost of mutual concessions.

5. Intervention of foreign states in the internal affairs of Russia. The intervention became a catalyst for the civil war, and the support of the White Guard troops and governments by the Entente countries largely determined the duration of this war.

6. Biggest Mistakes and miscalculations of the Bolsheviks, the Soviet government in a number of important issues internal policy (the split of the village in the summer of 1918, decossackization, the policy of "war communism", etc.).

7. We should also highlight the socio-psychological aspect of the civil war. Psychology and psychopathology revolutionary era largely predetermined the behavior of every person and large social groups of people during the war years. A habit was formed to first make a control shot, and then check the documents. Violence was seen as universal method solutions to many problems. Russia has traditionally been a country where the price human life has always been negligible. In the era of the civil war, the mutual exasperation of people devalued this value as well.

Periodization of the Civil War. The problem of periodization of the history of the Civil War has repeatedly been the subject of scientific discussions. But to this day there is no single point of view. Until recently, the Leninist approach dominated Russian historical science. IN AND. Lenin considered the civil war in two aspects: a) civil war as the most acute form of class struggle (continued in Russia from October 1917 to October 1922); b) civil war as a special period in the history of the Soviet state, when the military question acted as the main, fundamental issue of the revolution (from the summer of 1918 to the end of 1920). The second (Lenin) period Soviet historians of the 60-80s. divided, as a rule, into three stages: 1st - end of May 1918 - March 1919 2nd - March 1919 - March 1920 3rd - April 1920 - November 1920 But there were other approaches: in the war, both 4 and 5 periods were singled out.

During the years of Stalin's rule, naturally, his periodization dominated: the campaign of Kolchak, the campaign of Denikin, the campaign of Poland and Wrangel. Somewhere else in schools and universities, historical study cards"The first campaign of the Entente against Soviet Republic"," Second Campaign ..." and "Third Campaign", made in the light of the instructions of Comrade Stalin. But in such a periodization, 1918 falls out.

Western historians give their own periodization of the civil war in Russia: the 1st period - 1918 - is called anarchist; 2nd period - 1919 - the struggle of the reds with the whites; 3rd period - 1920 - the struggle of the Bolsheviks against the peasantry. At the same time, they believe that the victory in the civil war was won by the peasants, since the Bolsheviks abandoned the policy of "war communism" and switched to the NEP.

In the 90s at the institute Russian history RAS Academician Yu.A. Polyakov proposed a new periodization of the history of the civil war in Russia. It covers the period from February 1917 to 1922 and consists of 6 stages:

February-March 1917 - the violent overthrow of the autocracy, the open split of society, mainly along social lines;

March-October 1917 - the failure of Russian democracy in an attempt to establish civil peace, the intensification of socio-political confrontation in society, the escalation of violence;

October 1917 - March 1918 - the overthrow of the Provisional Government by the Bolsheviks, the establishment of Soviet power, a new split in society, the spread of armed struggle (including the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as one of the factors of the split);

March-June 1918 - local hostilities, formation of white and red armed forces, terror on both sides, further escalation of violence

Summer 1918 - late 1920 - "a big civil war between massive regular armies, foreign intervention, partisan struggle in the rear, militarization of the economy (this is actually a civil war in the full sense of these words, although it is more accurate to call this time - the stage of" big " civil war).

1921-1922 - the gradual attenuation of the civil war, its localization on the outskirts and the complete end. Of course, the approach of Yu.A. Polyakova is far from perfect. But he is more high level understanding the history of the civil war in Russia.

Thus, the causes of the civil war in our country cannot be reduced to the search for its unequivocal culprits, but should be considered as the result of a multi-stage process of growing and aggravating socio-political confrontation in Russian society.

2. The composition of the opposing forces and the main events of the "big" civil war

By the summer of 1918, the overwhelming majority of Russian citizens did not want to fight. This thesis can be confirmed by the fact that at the beginning of 1918 no more than 2-3% of the officers of the old Russian army opposed the Bolsheviks.

So, 2341 officers participated in the first campaign of the Volunteer Army (including generals - 36, colonels - 190, lieutenant colonels - 52, captains - 215, staff captains - 251, lieutenants - 394, second lieutenants - 535, ensigns - 668) , and the entire army consisted of 3377 people.

However, as the hostilities unfolded, millions of people were inevitably drawn into the war. And the front of the civil war passed not only through forests and fields, it passed through families, through the souls and hearts of people. Therefore, when characterizing the composition of the opposing forces in a civil war, one should avoid a primitive "class" division into rich and poor.

The composition of the red and white armies was not so different from each other. Hereditary noblemen served in the Red Army, and the workers of Izhevsk and Votkinsk fought under the red banners in Kolchak's army. The bloody meat grinder of the civil war drew people in most often without their desire, and even, despite their resistance, circumstances often decided everything. Much, for example, depended on under whose mobilization a person fell, what was the attitude of certain authorities towards him personally, his family, at whose hands his relatives and friends died. A significant role was played by the characteristics of the region, nationality, religion and other factors.

It should also be borne in mind that the positions of specific individuals, political parties and social strata during the war were not static. They changed - and often repeatedly - in radical ways.

The main struggle during the "big" civil war took place between the Reds and the Whites. But a third force was also very significant, acting under the slogan: "Beat the reds until they turn white, beat the whites until they turn red." In the history of the civil war, she entered under the name "green".

Red. The backbone of this camp was the Bolshevik Party, which created a powerful vertical structure and under the slogan of the dictatorship of the proletariat actually established its own dictatorship.

The social base of the Soviet camp consisted of:

Workers of the central industrial region;

A significant part of the peasantry, which in the end largely predetermined the victory of the Reds;

Part of the officer corps of the Russian army (about 1/3 of its composition); petty bureaucracy, quickly making a career under the new government, incl. marginalized strata that seized power.

Some aspects of the creation of the Red Army. On January 15, 1918, the SNK decree proclaimed the creation of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army, and on January 29, 1918, a decree on the organization of the Red Fleet was adopted. But the first results of the creation of a new revolutionary army did not inspire optimism. Largest number volunteers were recorded in peripheral areas under the immediate threat of capture by whites, and in large industrial centers. In addition, under the guise of volunteers, a significant number of declassed elements entered the Red Army, considering the war as a source of personal enrichment.

In July 1918, the Decree on the general military service of the male population aged 18 to 40 was published. A network of military commissariats was created throughout the country to keep records of those liable for military service, organize and conduct military training, and mobilize the population fit for military service.

By the autumn of 1918, 300 thousand people were mobilized into the ranks of the Red Army, by the spring of 1919 - 1.5 million people, by October 1919 - up to 3 million people, by 1920 the number of Red Army soldiers close to 5 million.

The Bolsheviks paid great attention to the training of command personnel. In addition to short-term courses and schools for the training of the middle command level of the most distinguished Red Army soldiers, in 1917-1919. higher military educational institutions were opened: the Academy of the General Staff of the Red Army, Artillery, Military Medical, Military Economic, Naval, Military Engineering Academy.

At the same time, in the spring of 1918, a notice was published in the Soviet press about the recruitment of military specialists to serve in the Red Army. old army. As of January 1, 1919, there were approximately 165,000 soldiers in the Red Army. former officers tsarist army.

The so-called policy of "war communism" played a special role during the years of the civil war. It included a number of measures: on December 2, 1918, a decree was promulgated dissolving the committees of the poor, which came into conflict with the local Soviets, seeking to usurp power; On January 11, 1919, the Decree “On the distribution of bread and fodder” was issued, according to which the state reported in advance the exact figure of its needs for grain. But in reality, this meant taking away from the peasants all the surplus grain, and often the necessary supplies; in area industrial production a course was taken for the accelerated nationalization of all industries, and not just the most important ones, as provided for by the decree of July 28, 1918; were abolished commodity-money relations(free trade prohibited food products and consumer goods), which were distributed by the state as wages;

Why was this policy called "war communism"? "Military" - because this policy was subordinated to the only goal - to concentrate all forces for military victory over their political opponents, "communism" - because the measures of the Bolsheviks coincided with the Marxist forecast of some socio-economic features of communist society.

Describing the policy and composition of the Red forces, it is impossible not to reflect some points related to their policy of "Red Terror". In general, this is a policy of intimidation of the population. For the first time, on a large scale, terror was used against the peasantry on the basis of the decree of May 9, 1918 "On the granting of emergency powers to the food commissar." In the cities, the "Red Terror" assumed wide proportions from September 1918 - after the assassination of the chairman of the Petrograd Extraordinary Commission, M.S. Uritsky and the attempt on the life of V.I. Lenin.

The terror was widespread. Only in response to the attempt on V.I. Lenin was shot by the Petrograd Cheka, official reports, 500 hostages. In the famous armored train, on which Leon Trotsky made his journeys along the fronts, a military revolutionary tribunal with unlimited powers worked tirelessly. In Murom, Arzamas, Sviyazhsk, the first concentration camps. Between the front and the rear, special barrage detachments are formed to fight deserters.

What were the whites? White. Usually under this concept they unite the entire camp of the counter-revolution, which opposed the Reds. The anti-Soviet camp consisted of:

and the landowners and the bourgeoisie deprived of power and property. Number with family members - about 6 million people;

b Cossacks - about 4.5 million people, united in 13 Cossack troops. Usually this military estate is portrayed as an implacable opponent of Soviet power. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the Cossacks participated in the civil war and often fought on two fronts, protecting their interests, their special position in the state, which had developed historically and seemed unshakable to the Cossacks from both the Reds and the Whites. Thus, the Don Army was extremely reluctant to leave the Don Cossack Region. The top of the Kuban Cossacks pursued an openly separatist policy aimed at the formation of an independent state. Such aspirations were characteristic of the activities of atamans Semenov and Kalmykov in the East;

l part of the officer corps of the Russian army (about 40%);

the clergy. Only in the Orthodox Russian Church there were more than 200 thousand clergy, many of them fought against the Bolsheviks;

l workers and peasants who lived in the territory occupied by the white armies. At the same time, some were mobilized, others, mainly from among wealthy peasants, joined the ranks of the resistance on the basis of dissatisfaction with the policy of the Bolsheviks;

a significant part of the intelligentsia. This can include the top political parties (Socialist-Revolutionaries and, to a lesser extent, the Mensheviks), and the various governments they created during the civil war.

The White camp was heterogeneous. It included monarchists and liberals, supporters of the Constituent Assembly and an open military dictatorship, supporters of pro-German and pro-Ententine orientation, people of ideas and people without definite political convictions. In terms of civilization, the anti-Soviet camp included both supporters of the traditional path of development and those who advocated the development of Russia according to Western models.

However, extreme monarchists such as V.M. did not find their place in the white movement. Purishkevich, as well as extreme socialists like Kerensky and Savinkov. Due to political differences, the whites did not have a generally recognized leader. The programs of the Whites (Kolchak, Denikin, Wrangel) did not take into account the interests of the majority of the population. Thus, the program drawn up at Denikin's headquarters provided for:

The destruction of Bolshevik anarchy and the establishment of a legal order in the country;

Restoration of a powerful, united and indivisible Russia;

Convening a people's assembly on the basis of universal suffrage;

Democratization of power through the establishment of regional autonomy and broad local self-government;

Guarantee of complete civil liberty and freedom of religion;

Implementation of land reform;

The introduction of labor legislation, the protection of workers from exploitation by the state and capital.

Kolchak's program contained similar measures: Constituent Assembly, market economy, protection private property etc. For example, paragraph 3. Kolchak's "Agrarian Declaration" (March 1919) read: Retention of the owners of their rights to land. If we compare it with the Decree on Land, which proclaimed measures that are more understandable and acceptable to the peasantry, then the question is which of the programs will the majority of the peasantry follow? looks rhetorical (Kolchak Alexander Vasilievich (1873-1920). Admiral since 1918. From the family of a naval officer. Member of the Russian-Japanese and World War I, in 1916-1917 - commander Black Sea Fleet. At the end of 1918 he agreed to become the dictator of Russia. Admiral Kolchak was extradited by the Czechoslovaks to Irkutsk Political Center in exchange for the unhindered passage of their echelons through the city. February 7, 1920, by order of the Military Revolutionary Committee of Irkutsk, Kolchak was shot).

There were also supporters of the so-called "greens" in the civil war. What is this power? Greens. The green movement was not institutionalized. It proceeded quite spontaneously. It acquired its most massive character in the spring and summer of 1919, when the Bolsheviks tightened the food dictatorship, and Kolchak and Denikin restored the old order. Peasants prevailed among the insurgents, and the Russian-speaking population prevailed in the national regions.

Thus, in the spring of 1919, the uprisings engulfed the Bryansk, Samara, Simbirsk, Yaroslavl, Pskov, Smolensk, Kostroma, Vyatka, Novgorod, Penza, Tver and other provinces. At the same time, in Ukraine, the uprising was led by the former staff captain of the tsarist army, N.A. Grigoriev, who fought against the world bourgeoisie, the Directory, the Cadets, the British, Germans and French. For some time, Grigoriev with his detachments even entered the Red Army (6th Ukrainian Soviet division), but then opposed the Bolsheviks under the slogan "For the Soviets, but without the Communists."

The ideas and practices of the Greens manifested themselves especially clearly in the Makhnovist movement, which engulfed significant area south of Ukraine. It is characteristic that Makhno and other green leaders did not have a clear program. SR-anarchist views prevailed, the movement was not politically organized. In general, the insurrectionary movement in Russia was doomed, partisan detachments could not resist regular military units (Grigoriev, Makhno, Antonov, Basmachi) for a long time.

When analyzing the events of the civil war, it is necessary to take into account external factor: interference of foreign states in the internal affairs of Russia. The Entente countries refused to recognize the power of the Bolsheviks, but tried to prevent Russia from leaving the world war.

Initially, the Entente tried in every possible way to maintain cooperation with the new government both in Moscow and on the outskirts of the former Russian Empire. At a conference in Paris, the spheres of influence of the allies on the territory of Russia were divided. At the beginning of 1918, the first troops landed in Murmansk, Odessa, Vladivostok and other ports. In March 1918, the Entente decided to support the anti-Soviet forces through military intervention. The goal was extremely clear: "The destruction of Bolshevism and the encouragement of the creation of a regime of order in Russia."

Three directions can be distinguished in the actions of Russia's former allies: 1) encouraging the collapse of Russia by supporting independent governments; 2) sending military contingents to zones of their "vital interests"; 3) providing all kinds of assistance to the White armies and other anti-Soviet forces.

In modern national historiography there has been a tendency to "justify" the intervention or downplay its role in the civil war in Russia. They write that the interventionist corps was not numerous, that the interventionists acted far from Moscow and did not conduct active hostilities against the Reds. By February 1919, there were foreign troops on the territory of Russia with a total number of 202.4 thousand people, incl. 44.6 thousand English, 13.6 thousand French, 13.7 thousand American, 80 thousand Japanese, 42 thousand Czechoslovak, 3 thousand Italian, 3 thousand Greek, 2.5 thousand Serbian.

They spared no expense to fight the Bolsheviks even during the civil war. Only in December 1917 - the first half of January 1918, the volunteer army received: 60 million pounds from England, 500 thousand dollars from the USA, over 1 million rubles. from France and from special sources. England equipped the 200,000-strong army of Kolchak with everything necessary. By March 1, 1919, the United States provided the supreme ruler with 394,000 rifles, 15.6 million rounds of ammunition, machine guns, guns, and medicines. The reasons for such generosity were explained back in 1919 by W. Churchill: “It would be a mistake to think that during this year we fought for the Russian White Guards,” he noted, “On the contrary, the Russian White Guards fought for our cause.”

The role of Germany should not be forgotten either. After the Brest Peace, it occupied an area of 1 million square meters. km with a population of over 50 million people. There were about 300 thousand German troops on the territory of Russia.

Chronicle of the main events of the war. A characteristic feature of a "great" civil war is the confrontation between regular armies. By the end of 1917, the old Russian army had lost its combat effectiveness and practically disintegrated. The support of the Bolsheviks - the Red Guard - numbered more than 460 thousand people, but did not have combat experience, trained command personnel, heavy weapons.

On December 16, 1917, the Council of People's Commissars abolished all ranks and ranks, introduced the election of command personnel and transferred power in the old army to soldiers' committees and Soviets.

On January 15, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree on the creation of the Red Army and on January 29 - the RKKF on a volunteer basis.

By April 1918, the armed forces of Soviet Russia numbered about 195 thousand people. During the summer - autumn of 1918, 300 thousand people were mobilized into the ranks of the Red Army. By the spring of 1919, the strength of the Red Army increased to 1.5 million people, and by October 1919 - up to 3 million people.

By 1920, the number of Red Army soldiers approached 5 million.

Simultaneously created their armed forces and opponents Soviet power. In November 1917, the Alekseevskaya organization was formed in Novocherkassk (from December 27 it became known as the Volunteer Army). Its number at the beginning of 1918 was 3377 people, incl. 2341 officers. In April 1918, with the support of Germany, the Don Cossack Army (P.N. Krasnov) began to be created. Armies were also formed in other regions of Russia: in Transbaikalia - ataman G.M. Semenov, in Primorye - I.M. Kalmykov, in Harbin - L. Horvat, People's Army Komuch - in the Volga region, the Ural and Siberian armies, the army of the Central Rada in Ukraine, the Muslim, Armenian and Georgian corps in the Transcaucasus.

Everywhere two methods of recruitment were used: a) voluntarily; b) forcibly on mobilization. The officer corps of the Russian army in the civil war. Officers form the backbone of the army. This is an axiom. The creation of both the red and white armies was impossible without the involvement of the officers of the old Russian army. As of October 1917, the officer corps numbered approximately 250 thousand, among which about 220 thousand (i.e. 88-90%) were wartime officers. And if the pre-war officer corps consisted mainly of nobles, then by the autumn of 1917, as a result of heavy losses during the war in the combat regiments of the active army, regular officers could be counted on the fingers of one hand. In other words - social composition officer corps, especially in the regimental level, has changed significantly: from nobility he became versatile.

How did the officers of the Russian army react to Bolshevik revolution? Some historians, and especially modern publicists, argue that most of the officers met the Bolsheviks coming to power with hostility. Historical facts testify that the position of the vast majority of officers in relation to the Soviet government can be called expectant or watchfully expectant. Immediately after October 25, 1917, 2-3% of the officers came out in the fight against the Bolsheviks. Even in the first campaign of the Volunteer Army at the beginning of 1918, only 2341 officers (including about 500 personnel) participated, and the entire army numbered 3377 people.

When analyzing the position of the officer corps, an important aspect is often overlooked. The collapse of the old army has left almost a quarter of a million officers unemployed. By decree of the Council of People's Commissars, generals and officers were equated with soldiers in terms of legal and material status. War was their profession, and military service- the only source of livelihood for tens of thousands of officers. And many were drawn to the Don, not because they fiercely hated the Bolsheviks and Soviet power, but mainly because they promised service there. The Soviet government turned to military professionals only in the summer of 1918, when the construction of a regular Red Army began. By the end of the year, 60 divisions had to be formed. This required about 55,000 commanders of all levels, and only 1,773 red officers could be trained in the courses, suitable only for primary officer positions.

And many officers went to the Red Army not because they firmly believed in the ideals of the world revolution and the future socialist Russia. For most, the reasons for joining the Red Army were more prosaic. But without their participation in the construction and combat operations of the Red Army, victory in the civil war is out of the question. Of the 20 front commanders, 17 were military specialists (including 10 officers of the General Staff and generals). Of the 100 army commanders, 82 were officers of the old Russian army (including 62 were career officers). The positions of chiefs of staff of fronts (100%) and armies (83%) were also filled by military experts (out of 25 NSh fronts, 22 were officers of the General Staff). The commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the Republic was also colonels of the General Staff I.I. Vatsetis and S.S. Kamenev. In general, 53% of the officers of the General Staff served in the Red Army.

In the course of studying the participation of the officer corps in the civil war on one side or another, one should avoid the primitive "class" approach: for the poor, for the rich, for the nobles. According to this logic, the son of the Cossack L.G. Kornilov, son of a soldier General M.V. Alekseev, as well as General A.I. Denikin and many others would have to serve in the Red Army, and aristocrats, hereditary nobles Brusilov, Tukhachevsky, Danilov - to create volunteer army. In life, everything turned out to be much more difficult. Of the 250 thousand officers, approximately 75 thousand served in the Red Army (30%). About 100 thousand (40%) - in the white and other armies. The remaining 30% - turned into a "primitive state", i.e. returned to pre-war occupations or perished, died, scattered across the territory of Russia, emigrated abroad.

The civil war in Russia led to a phenomenal phenomenon, when the troops of the opposite sides were commanded by officers and generals yesterday still united Russian army. So, on the one hand, there were M.V. Alekseev, L.G. Kornilov, A.I. Denikin, A.V. Kolchak, N.N. Yudenich, and on the other hand, their yesterday's brother-soldiers who entered the service of the Soviet government: Commanders-in-Chief of the Red Army I.I. Vatsetis, S.S. Kamenev, Commanders of the troops of the fronts - V.M. Gittis, A.I. Egorov, V.N. Egoriev, P.P. Sytin, M.N. Tukhachevsky, V.I. Shorin; large staff workers - P.P. Lebedev, N.N. Petin, N.I. Rattel, B.M. Shaposhnikov; Army commanders - M.I. Vasilenko, A.I. Gekker, A.I. Cork, M.K. Levandovsky, I.P. Uborevich, R.P. Eideman.

extremely confusing in contemporary literature is the question of the size of the armed forces. Often total number The Red Army is compared with the number of troops of one or another white army in a particular operation.

In this work, the focus is on the most important events: summer 1918-winter 1919 - as the apogee of the civil war. The active actions of the anti-Soviet forces opened the rebellion of the Czechoslovak corps. It was formed from prisoners of war of the Austro-Hungarian army in 1917 and, by agreement of the Entente and the Council of People's Commissars, was evacuated to France through Vladivostok. On the night of May 26-26, 1918, parts of the corps, stretched in echelons along railway from Penza to Khabarovsk opposed the Bolsheviks.

In the summer of 1918, about 30 different predominantly Socialist-Revolutionary governments arose in the Volga region, in the Urals and in Siberia: in Samara - the "Committee of members of the constituent assembly", in Yekaterinburg - the Ural Regional Government", in Tomsk - the "Siberian Government". Under the slogan " All power to the Constituent Assembly!” they launched armed operations against the Bolsheviks.

At the end of September, an SR-Cadet government was formed in Ufa - the Directory, which declared itself all-Russian. Then the government moved to Omsk, where on November 18 it was dispersed by Kolchak, who became the Supreme Ruler.

In the autumn of 1918 - in the winter of 1919, the main areas of hostilities were: a) Eastern front(functioned from June 13, 1918 to January 15, 1920. Commanded the Eastern Front: M.A. Muravyov, I.I. Vatsetis, S.S. Kamenev, A.A. Samoilo, P.P. Lebedev, M. V. Frunze, V. A. Olderogge) where the Red Army defeated the enemy and advanced to the Urals, where it united with the troops of the Turkestan Republic. b) Southern Front (functioned from September 11, 1918 to January 10, 1920. Front commanders: P.P. Sytin, P.A. Slaven, V.M. Gittis, V.N. Egoriev, A.I. Egorov ) fought heavy battles against the Don army on Tsaritsyno and Voronezh directions and then went on the offensive. However, on January 24, 1919, the Organizing Bureau of the Bolshevik Central Committee demanded that mass terror be carried out against the Cossacks who took part in the struggle against Soviet power. This deprived the Bolsheviks of all support on the Don and led to an uprising of the Cossacks in March. The offensive was suspended. c) in the north - the Red troops defended themselves in the Vologda and Petrograd directions. d) after the annulment of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Soviet troops occupied Belarus, a significant part of the Baltic states and the entire Left-Bank Ukraine.

Spring 1919-Spring 1920

a) in March 1919, the Kolchak armies (Siberian, Western, Ural, Orenburg and Southern army groups) launched an offensive. But on April 28, the Eastern Front of the Reds launched a counteroffensive (first with its southern flank, and from June 21 with all armies). Kolchak's armies retreated to Siberia, where in January 1920 they were defeated.

To avoid war with Japan, the Soviet troops stopped the offensive. In April 1920, a buffer state was created - the Far Eastern Republic.

b) in the summer of 1919, after the obvious failure of the Kolchak offensive, Denikin launched a campaign against Moscow. fighting went with varying degrees of success. At first he was on the side of Denikin, then the initiative passed into the hands of Soviet command. The cavalry raid of General Mamontov largely disorganized the work of the Southern Front of the Reds. However, by the spring of 1920, Soviet troops took Odessa and Novorossiysk. The remnants of the Armed Forces of the South of Russia under the command of Wrangel withdrew to the Crimea.

c) during the battles with Kolchak and Denikin, Yudenich's army, supported by Finnish, Estonian, Lithuanian, Latvian and other troops, tried three times to capture Petrograd, but failed to do so and was ultimately defeated.

Spring 1920-late 1920 After the defeat of the troops of Kolchak and Denikin, the Soviet government received a respite. But she was short-lived. Poland, with the support of the Entente countries, demanded the restoration of the border that existed before 1772, i.e. before the first partition of Poland. Russia did not agree to this. On April 21, Poland signed an agreement with the Ukrainian Directory: a) Poland recognizes the Directory as the Supreme Government of independent Ukraine; b) Ukraine for this agrees to the annexation of Eastern Galicia, Western Volhynia and part of Polissya to Poland; c) all Ukrainian troops are subordinate to the Polish command.

On April 25, 1920, the Poles launched an offensive and on May 6 captured Kyiv. On May 26, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive, which approached Warsaw by mid-August. This caused some of the Bolshevik leaders to hope that the idea of a world revolution in Western Europe would soon be realized. In the order for Western front Tukhachevsky wrote: “On our bayonets we will bring happiness and peace to working humanity. To the west!". However, the inconsistency of actions between the fronts and the collapse of hopes for the help of the Polish proletariat led to the defeat of the Soviet Western Front.

On October 12, 1920, a peace treaty was signed in Riga with Poland, according to which the territories of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus passed to it.

During the Soviet-Polish war, Wrangel began active operations. His troops were stopped at Kakhovka and other bridgeheads. At the end of October, the troops of the Southern Front launched a counteroffensive, broke through the Perekop and Chongar fortifications and defeated Wrangel. On November 16, 1920, after the capture of Kerch, the Southern Front was liquidated. Almost 100 thousand people were forced to leave their homeland.

The civil war ended with the victory of the Reds. In April 1920 Soviet troops defeated the White Guards in Semirechye. At the end of April 1920, the 11th Caucasian Army, under the pretext of helping the rebels, entered Baku. was proclaimed Azerbaijan SSR. In May 1920, the Volga-Caspian flotilla under the command of F.F. Raskolnikov entered the territorial waters of Persia. In June, after the occupation of Rasht, the Persian SSR was proclaimed, which existed for about a year. In November 1920 and February 1921, the same 11th Army occupied Erivan and Tiflis, respectively, and "proclaimed" the formation of the Armenian and Georgian Soviet Republics.

3. Historical implications and the lessons of the civil war

In a fierce civil war that lasted more than 5 years, the Bolsheviks managed to seize and hold on to power. The White movement remained fragmented, heterogeneous, without clear and popular slogans. The absence of an ideology in this movement greatly contributed to its rebirth, and started by "almost saints", it fell into the hands of "almost bandits."

The Bolsheviks, on the contrary, managed to combine the communist ideology (at the level of slogans) with those features of the Russian mentality, in which the new ideology often replaced religion.

What are the historical consequences of the civil war? The civil war led to huge material and human losses. total amount damage amounted to 50 billion gold rubles, and human casualties are estimated today at 13-16 million people.

The losses of the Red Army in battles amounted to 939,755 people, about the same amount were the combat losses of its opponents. The rest died from starvation and war-related epidemics. About 2 million people emigrated from Russia. If we take into account the decline in population growth during the war years, i.e. count the unborn Russians, then the amount of the loss can be estimated at about 25 million people.

As a result of the victory in the civil war, the Bolsheviks managed to preserve the statehood, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Russia. With the formation of the USSR in 1922, a Russian civilizationally heterogeneous conglomerate with obvious imperial features was practically recreated.

The victory of the Bolsheviks in the civil war led to the curtailment of democracy, the dominance of a one-party system, when the party ruled on behalf of the people, on behalf of the party the Central Committee, the Politburo and, in fact, the General Secretary or his entourage.

As a result of the civil war, not only were the foundations of a new society laid, its model was tested, but the tendencies that led Russia to western way civilizational development.

During the Civil War, the struggle was for the further development of the country. There were several of these paths. The first is the preservation of Soviet power and its extension to the entire territory of the former Russian Empire, the suppression of all forces that disagree with the policy of the Bolshevik leadership. This path meant the creation of a socialist state, a state of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

The second path is an attempt to preserve a bourgeois-democratic republic in Russia and the continuation of the policy that was declared by the Provisional Government and the Soviets in the spring and summer of 1917: further development democracy, free enterprise. This path was mainly advocated by the parties " revolutionary democracy”, participants in the Provisional Government and the Soviets - Mensheviks, Socialist-Revolutionaries (from autumn - Right Socialist-Revolutionaries), the left wing of the Cadets.

The third path was in the interests of the big bourgeoisie, the nobility, the supreme leadership of the tsarist army, and meant an attempt to preserve the limited monarchy and Russia as a "single and indivisible" country, true to "allied obligations."

The most important results of the Civil War: the defeat of all anti-Soviet, anti-bolshevik forces, the defeat of the White Army and interventionist troops; the preservation, including by force of arms, of a significant part of the territory of the former Russian Empire, the suppression of attempts by a number of national regions to secede from the Republic of Soviets; the overthrow of national governments in Ukraine, in Belarus and Moldova, in the North Caucasus, in Transcaucasia (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan), in Central Asia, and then in Siberia and on Far East the establishment of Soviet power there. This actually laid the foundations of the unitary state created in 1922 - the USSR.

Victory in the Civil War created geopolitical, social, ideological and political conditions for further strengthening Bolshevik regime. It meant the victory of the communist ideology, the dictatorship of the proletariat, state form property.

Lessons from the Civil War. Russian society has two poles of stability: either "the people are silent" or "resolute and merciless rebellion." Moreover, the transition from one to another takes a little time. In such a mental field, a special responsibility falls on the modern political elite of the country.

Historical experience shows that civil war is easier to prevent than to stop. But, unfortunately, even today the psychology of the civil war is not only present, but often reanimated, deliberately pumped up by both politicians and the media.

Our society is still divided into reds and whites. And this is a warning sign. The collapse of the Russian army largely contributed to the civil war. And the real state in which the modern Armed Forces of Russia are located makes us think about many things. Are we ready today to repel the aggression of any, the most powerful adversary? As the results of the war in Chechnya show, NATO aggression in Yugoslavia - concern for the Armed Forces should be one of the priorities in the activities of the modern leadership of Russia.

Conclusion

The civil war was generated by a complex set of social contradictions, economic, political, psychological and other reasons, and became the greatest disaster for Russia. The deep, systemic crisis of the Russian Empire ended with its collapse and the victory of the Bolsheviks, who, with the support of the masses, defeated their opponents in the civil war and got the opportunity to put into practice their ideas about socialism and communism.

Historical experience teaches that it is easier to prevent a civil war than to stop it, which the Russian political elite must always remember. The victory of the Bolsheviks in the Civil War was determined by a number of factors:

The political cohesion of the Bolsheviks, headed by a super-centralized party, and in whose hands was a huge state apparatus, while in the White movement there was inconsistency in actions, contradictions with national regions and the troops of the Entente;

The ability of the Bolsheviks to mobilize the masses. In contrast to them, the White movement, which was largely heterogeneous, failed to rally the bulk of the population under its own slogans.

The Bolsheviks, who ruled the central regions of the country, had a powerful economic potential(human resources, heavy industry);

The superiority of the Red Army over the White in terms of numbers (1.5-2.5 times at different stages of the war);

The defeat of the parties advocating the second path of development was due to the weakness of the social forces behind them, the weak support of the workers and peasants.

The failure of the supporters of the third possible way Despite the unification of military forces, their connection with the interventionists was historically predetermined, since this path was rejected by the overwhelming mass of working people.

Literature

1. Anisimov A. Denikin's armies before and after the defeat // Military History Journal. 1996. No. 6.

2. Archive of the Russian Revolution: in 22 vol. M., 1991.

3. White business: Fav. Works in 16 books / Comp. S.V. Karpenko. M., 1992.

4. Air Fleet white armies during the civil war (1918-1920) M., 1998.

5. Wrangel P.N. Memories. In 2 hours. M., 1992.

6. Civil war in the USSR. TT. 1-2. M., 1980-1986.

7. Danilov A.A. History of Russia, XX century. Reference materials. M., 1996.

8. Dolutsky I.I. National history. XX century. M., 1994.

9. Polyakov Yu.A. Civil war in Russia: internal and external consequences//New and recent history.-1992. M., No. 4.

10. Polyakov Yu.A. Civil War: a look through the years. Ufa, 1994.

11. Rybnikov V.V., Slobodin V.P. White movement during the civil war in Russia. M., 1993.

12. Shulgin V.V. Days. 1920.-M., 1989.

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GENERAL EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL

Study the texts and determine which images of "red" and "white" are present in mass consciousness descendants - participants in the Civil War in Russia.

In the mass consciousness of the descendants - participants in the Civil War in Russia, there are opposite images of the "Reds" and "Whites": the Reds are good, brave, honest heroes, and the Whites are insidious, cruel, foolish people. And exactly the opposite: whites are noble, honest heroes, and reds are negative, rude, cruel.

In what ways do you think they contradict each other? What question might arise from this contradiction?

Who are the heroes in the Civil War?

Formulate your option learning problem, and then compare it with the author's.

Who is right in the Civil War

REPEATING THE REQUIRED KNOWLEDGE

Explain the meaning of the term Civil War.

Civil War - large-scale armed confrontation between organized groups within a state or, more rarely, between nations that were part of a previously single unified state. The goal of the parties, as a rule, is to seize power in the country or in a separate region.

Signs of civil war are retraction civilian population and resulting significant losses.

Ways of waging civil wars often differ from traditional ones. Along with the use of regular troops by the warring parties widespread receives partisan movement, as well as various spontaneous uprisings of the population and the like.

Remember in the history of which countries there were civil wars (10th grade).

Civil wars happened in the history of the USA, Italy, Spain.

What are the events of the revolution of 1917-1918. led Russia to the Civil War?

The events of the revolution of 1917-1918 led Russia to the Civil War:

dispersal of the Constituent Assembly,

The signing of the Brest peace with Germany,

The activities of the Bolshevik food detachments and commanders in the countryside (confiscation of bread from wealthy peasants)

Decree on land that caused the economic crisis

Prohibition of free trade in bread

Analyze the composition of the opposing forces.

Make a conclusion: on whose side was the truth in the Civil War?

Three opposing forces:

Reds, Bolsheviks ( most of workers, the poorest peasantry, part of the intelligentsia);

- "democratic counter-revolution", Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, anarchists (part of the workers, the middle peasantry);

Whites, KaDets and monarchists (Cossacks, former landowners, capitalists, officials, officers, a significant part of the intelligentsia)

Conclusion: in the Civil War it is difficult to determine the right. The "whites" defended the rule of law and statehood, the "reds" fought for something new, for changes, but with dictatorial, violent methods.

The White movement began to take shape at the beginning of 1918, when generals M. Alekseev, L. Kornilov and A. Kaledin gathered volunteer units in Novocherkassk. The volunteer army was headed by General A. Denikin. In the east of the country, Admiral A. Kolchak became the leader of the Whites, in the north-west - General N. Yudenich, in the south - A. Denikin, in the north - E. Miller. The white generals failed to connect the fronts.

The Whites, like the Reds, used the peasantry for constant requisitions - the armies had to be fed. This angered the peasants.

Analyze the text and draw a conclusion on the problem of the lesson "Which side was the truth in the Civil War?"

In the Civil War, whites fought for legal order and the preservation of a country with a thousand-year history. The Reds are for the idea of building a new, just socialist society. "Greens" ( peasant detachments) - for the right to live on their own land, without paying taxes to anyone and without state intervention. The share of guilt of each party, any citizen of Russia must determine for himself. Only the desire not to repeat the tragedy of the Civil War, to avoid violence and learn to negotiate with each other can unite us in this matter.

Moscow: Left Socialist-Revolutionary rebellion suppressed - the formation of a one-party Bolshevik dictatorship in Soviet Russia.

Highlight 3-4 main events that, on the one hand, predetermined the victory of the Reds, and on the other, the defeat of their opponents

Armed suppression of opponents of Soviet power by the Bolshevik-Left SR detachments of the Red Guard. The formation of anti-Bolshevik governments in the Ukraine, the Don, the Transcaucasus and other outskirts of the former empire.

Soviet Russia: the announcement of the "Red Terror" (September 5, 1918) - the taking of hostages from the "former propertied strata" and their execution for each attempt on Soviet leaders. Formation of the Republican Revolutionary Military Council headed by L.D. Trotsky (a supporter of strengthening discipline by executions for desertion), the abolition of the election of commanders, the involvement of military experts - former royal officers, control of the army through communist commissars.

Moscow: 10th Congress of the RCP (b) (March 1920): rejection of "war communism" (surplus appraisal, prohibition of trade) and transition to the NEP (tax in kind, freedom of trade), but confirmation of the dictatorship of the proletariat led by the communist party.

PROFILE MATERIAL

Complete your solution to the problem of the general educational level by considering it in a new aspect: "Why did the Reds win the Civil War?"

Spend critical analysis sources and draw a conclusion on the problem of the lesson "Why did the Reds win the Civil War?"

The Reds won the Civil War because their actions were clearly organized, centralized, and tough. In addition, they announced the transition to a new economic policy than attracted the peasants to their side. The Whites did not have such centralization, on the contrary, the commanders of their troops competed with each other and they acted more cruelly than the Reds, restoring the pre-revolutionary order.

Conduct text analysis. What reasons for the victory of the Reds are highlighted in each of them?

Each of these texts gives similar reasons:

Unity and centralization of the Bolsheviks

Attracting military specialists of the tsarist army to the side of the Bolsheviks

Make a conclusion on the problem of the lesson "Why did the Reds win the Civil War?"

The Reds won the Civil War because their actions were clearly organized, centralized, and tough. In addition, they announced the transition to a new economic policy, which attracted the peasants to their side. The Whites did not have such centralization, on the contrary, the commanders of their troops competed with each other and they acted more cruelly than the Reds, restoring the pre-revolutionary order.

A civil war is a fierce armed struggle for power between different social groups. A civil war is always a tragedy, turmoil, decomposition of a social organism that did not find the strength to cope with the disease that struck it, the collapse of statehood, a social catastrophe. The beginning of the war in the spring-summer of 1917, considering the July events in Petrograd and the "Kornilovism" as its first acts; others tend to associate it with the October Revolution and the coming to power of the Bolsheviks. There are four stages of the war: summer-autumn 1918 (escalation stage: the rebellion of the White Czechs, the Entente landings in the North and in Japan, England, the USA - in the Far East, the formation of anti-Soviet centers in the Volga region, in the Urals, in Siberia, in the North Caucasus, Don, the execution of the family of the last Russian tsar, the announcement of the Soviet Republic as a single military camp); autumn 1918 - spring 1919 (the stage of intensifying foreign military intervention: the annulment of the Brest Treaty, the intensification of the red and white terror); spring 1919 - spring 1920 (the stage of military confrontation between the regular Red and White armies: the campaigns of the troops of A. V. Kolchak, A. I. Denikin, N. N. Yudenich and their reflection, from the second half of 1919 - the decisive successes of the Red Army); summer-autumn 1920 (the stage of the military defeat of the whites: the war with Poland, the defeat of P. Wrangel). Causes of the Civil War. Representatives of the white movement laid the blame on the Bolsheviks, who tried to destroy centuries-old institutions of private property by force, overcome the natural inequality of people, and impose a dangerous utopia on society. The Bolsheviks and their supporters considered the overthrown exploiting classes to be guilty of the Civil War, which, in order to preserve their privileges and wealth, unleashed a bloody massacre against the working people. There are two main camps - red and white. In the latter, a very peculiar place was occupied by the so-called third force - "counter-revolutionary democracy", or "democratic revolution", which from the end of 1918 declared the need to fight both against the Bolsheviks and the general dictatorship. The Red movement relied on the support of the main part of the working class and the poorest peasantry. The social basis of the white movement was the officers, bureaucracy, the nobility, the bourgeoisie, individual representatives of the workers and peasants. The party that expressed the position of the Reds was the Bolsheviks. The party composition of the white movement is heterogeneous: Black Hundred-monarchist, liberal, socialist parties. The program goals of the red movement are: the preservation and establishment of Soviet power throughout Russia, the suppression of anti-Soviet forces, the strengthening of the dictatorship of the proletariat as a condition for building a socialist society. The program goals of the white movement were not so clearly formulated. There was a sharp struggle over questions about the future state structure (republic or monarchy), about land (restoration of landownership or recognition of the results of land redistribution). In general, the white movement advocated the overthrow of Soviet power, the power of the Bolsheviks, the restoration of a united and indivisible Russia, the convening of a people's assembly on the basis of universal suffrage to determine the future of the country, the recognition of the right to private property, land reform, and the guarantee of fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens. Why did the Bolsheviks win the Civil War! On the one hand, serious mistakes made by the leaders of the white movement played a role. On the other hand, the Bolsheviks were able to use the dissatisfaction with the old order that had accumulated for centuries, mobilize the masses, subordinate them to a single will and control, offer attractive slogans for the redistribution of land, nationalization of industry, self-determination of nations, create combat-ready armed forces, to rely on the economic and human potential of the central regions of Russia. Results of the civil war:

Civil war and foreign intervention that caused the red and white terror, were the greatest tragedy for the people.

Consequences of the civil war:

First, the human losses were palpable. From 1917 to 1922 the population of Russia decreased by 13-16 million hours, while most of the population died from hunger and epidemics. The loss of population amounted to 25 million hours, taking into account the decline in population.

Secondly, given that out of 1.5-2 million emigrants, a significant part was the intelligentsia, => the civil war caused a deterioration in the country's gene pool.

Thirdly, the most profound social consequence was the liquidation of entire classes of Russian society—the landowners, the big and middle bourgeoisie, and wealthy peasants.

Fourthly, the economic disruption led to an acute shortage of food products.

Fifth, the card supply of food, as well as essential industrial goods, consolidated the egalitarian justice generated by communal traditions. The slowdown in the development of the country was caused by equalizing efficiency.