Poetic forms in lyrics. Lyric genres

1. Oh yeah- a genre that usually glorifies some important historical event, person or phenomenon (for example, A.S. Pushkin's ode "Liberty", the ode "On the day of the ascension ..." by M.V. Lomonosov). The origins of the genre date back to antiquity (for example, the odes of Horace). Received special development in classicism. 2. Song- can act both as an epic and as a lyrical genre. An epic song has a plot (see the definition of epic genres) and, as a rule, it is of greater volume than a lyrical one (for example, “Song of Prophetic Oleg"A. S. Pushkin), the basis of the lyrical song is the experience of the protagonist or the author (for example, Mary's song from A. S. Pushkin's "Feast in the Time of Plague"). 3. Elegy- a genre of romantic poetry, the poet's sad reflection on life, fate, his place in this world (for example, A. S. Pushkin's "Daylight went out"). 4. Message- a genre that is not associated with a particular tradition (romantic, classic, etc.). Main characteristic- appeal to any person (for example, "Pushchin", "To Chaadaev" by A. S. Pushkin). 5. Sonnet- a special type of lyrical poem, characterized by strict requirements for form: the sonnet must have 14 lines (for example, "Severe Dante did not despise the sonnet ..." A. S. Pushkin). There are two types of sonnets: 1. An English sonnet consisting of three quatrains and one couplet at the end (eg W. Shakespeare's sonnets). 2. French sonnet, consisting of two quatrains and two tertiary lines. This variety, as the name implies, was widely used by French poets (for example, the Pleiades poets - P. Ronsard, J. Du Bellay and others, later by the French symbolists - P. Verdun, C. Baudelaire, etc.) . In Russia, this variety was especially popular in the era of symbolism, almost all Russian symbolists used it in their work (for example, K. D. Balmont, V. Ya. Bryusov, A. A. Blok and others). 6. Epigram, satire. An epigram is a short poem, as a rule, no more than a quatrain, ridiculing or representing in a humorous way a specific person - (for example, "On Vorontsov" by A. S. Pushkin). Satire is a more detailed poem, both in terms of volume and scale of what is depicted. Usually in satire, not the shortcomings of any particular person are ridiculed, but social vices. Satire is characterized by civic pathos (for example, the satires of A. D. Kantemir, “My ruddy critic, fat-bellied mocker ...” A. S. Pushkin). The origins of the epigram and satire date back to antiquity, especially to ancient Roman literature (for example, the works of Martial, Catullus, etc.). Such a division into genres is conditional, since in pure form These genres are quite rare. Usually a poem combines the features of several genres. For example, "To the Sea" by A. S. Pushkin combines the features of an elegy and a message, while Pushkin's "Village" is an elegy, but at the same time raises civil problems.

Drama genres

Dramaturgy originated in ancient times. Even then, two major dramatic genres arose - tragedy and comedy. The main conflict in the tragedy was the conflict in the soul of the protagonist between duty and conscience. However, the ancient drama had its own distinctive features, the most important of which is the idea of fate, predestination, fate. The choir played an important role in ancient drama - it formulated the attitude of the audience to what was happening on the stage, pushing them to empathy (that is, the audience, as it were, were participants in the action). It is assumed that the playing of tragedies was originally an integral part of the so-called "Dionysia" or, in the Roman version, "Bacchanalia", holidays associated with the veneration of the god of winemaking and viticulture Dionysus (Bacchus); the representation of scenes from the life of this god was an important link in the so-called “orgaiistic” (i.e., erotic) rituals, the ultimate goal of which was: by releasing pent-up instinctive desires, to experience purification, the so-called “catharsis”, which is defined in Aristotle’s “Poetics” as "cleansing through fear and compassion." Comedy was built mainly on everyday plots, which were based on funny misunderstandings, mistakes, comic cases, and so on. In the Middle Ages, the Christian Church contributed to the emergence of new dramatic genres - liturgical drama, mystery plays, miracles, morality, school drama. In the 18th century, drama was formed as a genre (see below), melodramas, farces, and vaudevilles also spread. Dramaturgy reached a special flowering after ancient times in the era of classicism. It was during the era of classicism that the special rules of dramaturgy were formulated, the main of which was the so-called "unity of place, time and action" (see the section "Classicism"). In modern drama all greater value acquires such a genre as a tragicomedy. The drama of the last century also includes a lyrical beginning - the so-called "lyrical dramas" (M. Maeterlinck, A. A. Blok).

Lyrics- one of the three (along with the epic and drama) main literary genera, the display object of which is inner world, the poet's own "I". Unlike the epic, the lyrics are most often plotless (not eventful), unlike the drama, they are subjective. In lyrics, any phenomenon and event of life that can affect the spiritual world of a person is reproduced in the form of a subjective, direct experience, i.e. a holistic individual manifestation of the poet's personality, a certain state of his character. "Self-expression" ("self-disclosure") of the poet, without losing its individuality and autobiography, acquires in the lyrics due to the scale and depth of the author's personality a universal meaning; this kind of literature has access to all the fullness of expression of the most complex problems of being. A. S. Pushkin's poem "... Again I visited ..." is not reduced to a description of rural nature. It is based on a generalized artistic idea, deep philosophical thought about continuous process renewal of life, in which the new comes to replace the departed, continuing it.

Each time develops its own poetic formulas, specific socio-historical conditions create their own forms of expression. lyrical image, and for a historically correct reading of a lyrical work, knowledge of a particular era, its cultural and historical originality is necessary.

The forms of expression of experiences, thoughts of the lyrical subject are different. It can be an internal monologue, thinking alone with yourself ("I remember wonderful moment..." A. S. Pushkin, "About valor, about exploits, about glory ..." A. A. Blok); monologue on behalf of the character introduced into the text ("Borodino" by M. Yu. Lermontov); appeal to to a certain person (in a different style), which allows you to create the impression of a direct response to some phenomenon of life (" Winter morning" A. S. Pushkin, "Seated" by V. V. Mayakovsky); appeal to nature, helping to reveal the unity peace of mind lyrical hero and the world of nature ("To the Sea" by A. S. Pushkin, "Forest" by A. V. Koltsov, "In the Garden" by A. A. Fet). In lyrical works, which are based on acute conflicts, the poet expresses himself in a passionate dispute with time, friends and enemies, with himself ("The Poet and the Citizen" by N. A. Nekrasov). In terms of subject matter, lyrics can be civil, philosophical, love, landscape, etc. For the most part, lyrical works are multi-dark, various motives can be reflected in one experience of the poet: love, friendship, patriotic feelings, etc. I. Rozhdestvensky).

There are various genres of lyrical works. The predominant form of lyrics in the 19th–20th centuries. - poem: a work written in verse of a small, compared with a poem, volume, which makes it possible to embody in a word the inner life of the soul in its changeable and multilateral manifestations (sometimes in literature there are small works of a lyrical nature in prose that use means of expressiveness characteristic of poetic speech: "Poems in prose" by I. S. Turgenev). Message- a lyrical genre in poetic form in the form of a letter or appeal to a certain person or group of people of a friendly, loving, panegyric or satirical nature ("To Chaadaev", "Message to Siberia" by A. S. Pushkin, "Letter to a Mother" by S. A. Yesenin). Elegy- a poem of sad content, which expresses the motives of personal experiences: loneliness, disappointment, suffering, the frailty of earthly existence ("Recognition" by E. A. Baratynsky, "The flying ridge is thinning clouds ..." A. S. Pushkin, "Elegy" N A. Nekrasova, "I do not regret, I do not call, I do not cry ..." S. A. Yesenin). Sonnet- a poem of 14 lines, forming two quatrains and two tertiary lines. Each stanza is a kind of step in the development of a single dialectical thought ("To the Poet", "Madonna" by A. S. Pushkin, sonnets by A. A. Fet, V. Ya. Bryusov, I. V. Severyanin, O. E. Mandelstam, I. A. Bunin, A. A. Akhmatova, N. S. Gumilyov, S. Ya. Marshak, A. A. Tarkovsky, L. N. Martynov, M. A. Dudin, V. A. Soloukhin, N. N. Matveeva, L. II. Vysheslavsky, R. G. Gamzatov). Epigram – little poem, maliciously ridiculing any person or social phenomenon (epigrams by A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, I. I. Dmitriev, E. A. Baratynsky, S. A. Sobolevsky, S. Solovyov,

D. D. Minaeva). In Soviet poetry, the epigram genre was developed by V. V. Mayakovsky, D. Bedny, A. G. Arkhangelsky, A. I. Bezymensky, S. Ya. Marshak, S. A. Vasiliev. Romance - lyric poem designed for musical arrangement. Genre features (without strict observance): melodious intonation, syntactic simplicity, completeness of a sentence within a stanza (verses by A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, A. V. Koltsov, F. I. Tyutchev, A. A. Fet , N. A. Nekrasov, A. K. Tolstoy, S. A. Yesenin). Epitaph- a tombstone inscription (usually in verse) of a commendable, parodic or satirical nature (epitaphs by R. Burns translated by S. Ya. Marshak, epitaphs by A. P. Sumarokov, N. F. Shcherbina). The stanzas are a small elegiac poem in a few stanzas more often meditative (in-depth reflection) than love content. Genre attributes are indefinite. For example, "Do I wander along the noisy streets ...", "Stans" ("In the hope of glory and goodness ...") by A. S. Pushkin, "Stans" ("Look how calm my eyes are ..." ) M. Yu. Lermontov, "Stans" ("I know a lot about my talent") S. A. Yesenin and others.

Eclogue- a lyrical poem in a narrative or dialogic form, depicting everyday rural scenes against the backdrop of nature (eclogues by A.P. Sumarokov, V.I. Panaev).

Madrigal- a small poem-compliment, more often of a love-lyrical content (found in N. M. Karamzin, K. N. Batyushkov, A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov).

Each lyrical work, which is always unique, carries a holistic worldview of the poet, is considered not in isolation, but in the context of the entire work of the artist. A lyrical work can be analyzed either holistically - in the unity of form and content - observing the movement of the author's experience, the poet's lyrical thoughts from the beginning to the end of the poem, or combine a number of works thematically, dwelling on the core ideas, experiences revealed in them ( love lyrics A. S. Pushkin, the theme of the poet and poetry in the works of M. Yu. Lermontov, N. A. Nekrasov, V. V. Mayakovsky, the image of the Motherland in the works of S. A. Yesenin).

It is necessary to abandon the analysis of the poem in parts and from the so-called questions on content. It is also impossible to reduce the work to a formal list visual means language taken out of context. It is necessary to penetrate the complex system of coupling of all elements poetic text, try to reveal the main feeling-experience that permeates the poem, comprehend the functions language tools, ideological and emotional richness of poetic speech. Even V. G. Belinsky in the article "The division of poetry into genera and types" noted that a lyrical work "can neither be retold nor explained, but only what can be made to feel, and then only by reading it the way it came out of -under the pen of a poet; being retold in words or translated into prose, it turns into an ugly and dead larva, from which a butterfly shining with iridescent colors has just fluttered out.

Lyrics are a subjective kind of fiction, unlike epic and drama. The poet shares his thoughts and feelings with readers, talks about his joys and sorrows, delights and sorrows caused by certain events, personal or public life. And at the same time, no other kind of literature awakens such a reciprocal feeling, empathy in the reader - both a contemporary and in subsequent generations. If the basis of the composition of an epic or dramatic work is a plot that can be retold "in your own words", a lyric poem cannot be retold, everything in it is "content": the sequence of depicting feelings and thoughts, the choice and arrangement of words, repetitions of words, phrases, syntactic constructions, speech style, division into stanzas or their absence, the ratio of the division of the flow of speech into verses and syntactic articulation, poetic size, sound instrumentation, rhyming methods, the nature of the rhyme.

The main means of creating a lyrical image is language, a poetic word. The use of various tropes in the poem (metaphor, personification, synecdoche, parallelism, hyperbole, epithet) expands the meaning of the lyrical statement. The word in the verse has many meanings. In a poetic context, the word acquires, as it were, additional semantic and emotional shades. Thanks to its internal connections (rhythmic, syntactic, sound, intonation), the word in poetic speech becomes capacious, compacted, emotionally colored, and as expressive as possible. It tends to generalization, symbolism. The selection of a word, especially significant in revealing the figurative content of a poem, in a poetic text is carried out in various ways (inversion, transfer, repetitions, anaphora, contrast). For example, in the poem "I loved you: love still, perhaps ..." A. S. Pushkin's leitmotif of the work is created by the key words "loved" (repeated three times), "love", "beloved".

Many lyrical statements tend to be aphoristic, which makes them winged like proverbs. Such lyrical phrases become walking, memorized, used in relation to a certain mood of thought and state of mind of a person. In the winged lines of Russian poetry, the most acute, polemical problems of our reality at different historical stages are focused, as it were. The winged line is one of the primary elements of true poetry. Here are some examples: "Yes, but things are still there!" (I. A. Krylov. "Swan, Pike and Cancer"); "Listen! lie, but know the measure" (A. S. Griboyedov. "Woe from Wit"); "Where are we going to sail?" (A. S. Pushkin. "Autumn"); "I look at the future with fear, I look at the past with longing ..." (M. Yu. Lermontov); "Here comes the master - the master will judge us" (N. A. Nekrasov. " forgotten village"); "It is not given to us to predict how our word will respond" (F. I. Tyutchev); "So that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious" (N. A. Nekrasov. "Imitation of Schiller"); "And eternal fight! We can only dream of peace" (A. A. Blok. "On the Kulikov Field"); "You cannot see a face face to face. Great is seen at a distance "(S. A. Yesenin. "Letter to a woman"); "... Not for the sake of fame, for the sake of life on earth" (A. T. Tvardovsky. "Vasily Terkin").

In lyrics, two types of genres are especially clearly distinguished: one is a rigid unity of genre content and genre form, the other is a rather free combination of artistic content and form.

Genres of the first type developed in the early eras of artistic development. These are such lyrical genres as elegy, iambic, epinicium in ancient Greek lyrics; canzona, pastoral, Alba - in the Middle Ages; sonnet in the lyrics of the Renaissance.

The lyric poetry of the centuries is dominated by genres with a free unity of form and content. Most often just lyric poems or lyrical songs with very different artistic content. The general essence of the lyrical content lies in the artistic and creative development of the inner world of a person from the most complex reflections to the subtlest overflows of feelings. Therefore, in terms of their content, lyrical genres absorb in their own - lyrical refraction, the most diverse types of artistic content with all the diversity of their internal varieties.

- Epos as a kind of literature.

"Epos" in Greek - "word, speech, story." The epic is one of the most ancient genera, associated with the formation of national identity. There are many hoaxes in the 17th and 18th centuries. Lucky - Songs of Ossian, Scotland, an attempt to raise national identity. They influenced the development of European literature.

Epos - the original form - a heroic poem. Arises at break of a patriarchal society. In Russian literature - epics, folding into cycles.

The epic reproduces life not as a personal, but as an objective reality - from the outside. The purpose of any epic is to tell about an event. The content dominant is the event. Earlier - wars, later - a private event, facts of inner life. The cognitive orientation of the epic is an objective beginning. A story about events without evaluation. "The Tale of Bygone Years" - all the bloody events are told dispassionately and ordinary. epic distance.

The subject of the image in the epic is the world as an objective reality. The life of a person in her organic connection with the world, fate is also the subject of the image. Bunin's story. Sholokhov "The Fate of Man". It is important to understand fate through the prism of culture.

Forms of verbal expression in the epic (type of speech organization) - narration. The functions of the word - the word depicts the objective world. Narration is a way/type of utterance. Description in the epic. The speech of heroes, characters. Narration is the speech of the image of the author. The speech of the characters - polylogues, monologues, dialogues. In romantic works, the confession of the protagonist is obligatory. Internal monologues are the direct inclusion of the words of the characters. Indirect forms - indirect speech, improper direct speech. It is not isolated from the author's speech.

The important role of the system of reflections in the novel. The hero can be endowed with a quality that the author does not like. Example: Silvio. Pushkin's favorite characters are verbose. Very often it is not clear to us how the author relates to the hero.

A) narrator

1) The character has his own destiny. " Captain's daughter"," Belkin's Tale.

2) Conditional narrator, faceless in terms of speech. Very often we are. Speech mask.

3) Tale. Speech coloring - says society.

1) Objective. "History of the Russian State" Karamzin, "War and Peace".

2) Subjective - orientation to the reader, appeal.

A tale is a special speech manner that reproduces a person’s speech, as if not literary processed. Leskov "Lefty".

Descriptions and lists. important for the epic. The epic is perhaps the most popular genre.

- Drama as a kind of literature.

Merging subjective and objective. The event is shown as being generated, not ready. In the epic, the author gives a lot of comments and details, but this is not the case in the drama. Subjective - what is happening is given through perception actors. Many eras in the development of the theater have tried to break down the barrier between the audience and the actors. The idea of "theater in the theater" - romanticism, developed rapidly at the beginning of the 20th century. "Princess Turandot" - the actors ask the audience. Gogol has the same principle in The Government Inspector. The desire to break convention. Drama comes out of the rites. Dramatic text is largely devoid of authorial presence. Shown speech activity heroes, monologue and dialogue are relevant. Author's presence: title (Ostrovsky loved proverbs), epigraph (Gogol's "Inspector" - the theme of the mirror), genre (Chekhov's comedies - a feature of perception), a list of characters (often determined by traditions), speaking the name, comments, remarks - a description of the scene. Characteristics of the speech of heroes, actions, internal action in the drama. "Boris Godunov" by Pushkin, "Masquerade" by Lermontov. Chekhov is different. Early theater - exercises in monologues. The dialogue was more auxiliary means for communication between monologues. This changes Griboyedov - a dialogue of the deaf, a comic dialogue. Chekhov too. Gorky: "But the threads are rotten."

Thomas Mann: "Drama is the art of the silhouette." Herzen: “The stage is always contemporary to the viewer. It always reflects the side of life that the parterre wants to see.” Echoes of the present are always visible.

- Lyrics as a kind of literature.

Cognitive orientation of the lyrics. The subject of the image in the lyrics is the inner world of a person. Content dominant: experiences (some kind of feeling, thought, mood). The form of verbal expression (type of speech organization) is a monologue. Functions of the word - expresses the state of the speaker. emotional sphere human emotions, inner world, the way of influence - suggestiveness (suggestion). In epic and drama they try to reveal general patterns, in the lyrics - individual states of human consciousness.

Emotionally colored reflection - sometimes external unemotionality. This is a lyrical meditation. Lermontov "Both boring and sad ..." Strong-willed impulses, oratorical intonations in the lyrics of the Decembrists. Impressions can also be the subject of a lyrical text.

Irrational feelings and aspirations. Uniqueness, although there is an element of generalization to convey their thoughts to contemporaries. Consonance with the era, age, emotional experiences. As a kind of literature, lyrics are always important.

The end of the 18th - the beginning of the 19th century is very important - the period of the destruction of the idea of lyrics, the destruction of genre thinking in lyrics, new thinking - style. Associated with Goethe. In the 70s of the 18th century, Goethe creates a new feature of the lyrical work, which broke with tradition. There was a strict hierarchy of genres: it was clearly distributed which forms of lyrics were used when. Poetic forms are very branched.

Oda is an idealization of a superior person, therefore certain form. Decathlete, solemn introduction, descriptive part, part about the prosperity of the country.

Goethe destroys the link between theme and form. His poems begin as a cast of an instant experience - an image. could turn on and natural phenomena, but not conditional. The process of stylistic individualization. In the 19th century it is often impossible to define a genre.

Each poet is associated with a certain range of emotions, special treatment to the world. Zhukovsky, Mayakovsky, Gumilyov.

Feelings are at the core. The lyrical plot is the development and shades of the author's emotion. It is often said that the lyrics are plotless, but this is not so.

The poet defends the right to write in a light, small genre. Small genres were elevated to the absolute. Imitation of other genres, playing with rhythms. Sometimes cycles of poems appear due to life background.

Lyrical hero - this concept is introduced by Yu. Tynyanov and L.Ya. Ginzburg "About Lyrics". There are synonyms "lyrical consciousness", "lyrical subject" and "lyrical self". Most often, such a definition is the image of the poet in the lyrics, the artistic counterpart of the poet, which grows out of the text of lyrical compositions. This is the bearer of experience, expression in the lyrics. The term arose due to the fact that it is impossible to put an equal sign between the poet and the bearer of consciousness. This gap appears at the beginning of the 20th century in Batyushkov's lyrics.

There can be different media, so there are two types of lyrics: autopsychological and role-playing. Example: Block "I am Hamlet ..." and Pasternak "The rumble has subsided ...". The image is the same, but the lyrics are different. Blok plays in the performance, this is the experience of interpersonal relationships - autopsychological lyrics. Pasternak has a role-playing one, even included in the cycle of Yuri Zhivago. Most of in poetic form. Installation on clumsy verse - Nekrasov.

- Division of literature into genera and species. The concept of literary genre.

Epos, poetry and drama. Socrates (in the presentation of Plato): the poet can speak for himself, mainly dithyramb. The poet can build a work in the form of an exchange of remarks, to which the words of the author can also be mixed. The poet can combine his own words with the words of strangers, which belong to other actors. "Poetics" of Aristotle. Art is an imitation of nature. “There are many ways to imitate the same thing.” 1) Talking about the event as something separate from itself, as Homer does. 2) To tell in such a way that the imitator remains itself, but to change one's face is lyricism. 3) The writer presents all actors as acting and active.

Science ontology. In different eras, a person needs different literary genres. Freedom and Necessity. Psychology matters. Expressiveness, appeal.

Drama is something that develops before our eyes. The lyrics are an amazing fusion of time. At one time, they wanted to declare the novel a separate family. Lots of transitions.

Intergeneric and non-generic works. Intergeneric - signs different kinds. "Eugene Onegin", "Dead Souls", "Faust". Extranatal: Essay, Essay, and Stream of Consciousness Literature. The dialectic of the soul. "Anna Karenina". Joyce "Ulysses". Species are not exactly genres. A species is a specific historical embodiment of a genus. A genre is a group of works that have a complex stable signs. Important: the theme, the theme is a genre object. Artistic time is definite. Special composition. Speech carrier. Elegy - different understanding. Tale.

Some genres are universal: comedy, tragedy, ode. And some are local - petitions, walking. There are dead genres - the sonnet. Canonical and non-canonical - settled and unformed.

Lyricism is a literary genre in which the feelings, thoughts, moods of the poet are directly reproduced, caused by the phenomena of life that excited him. L. I. Timofeev notes that "lyricism is a reflection of the whole diversity of reality in the mirror human soul, in all the subtlest nuances of the human psyche and in the fullness of the speech expression corresponding to them" * .

* (L. I. Timofeev. Fundamentals of Literary Theory, p. 108.)

Unlike all other literary genres, lyric poetry is primarily and most of all oriented towards the emotional perception of the reader. And this brings it closer to another area of art - music, which is also a figurative expression of human experiences and affects precisely the feelings of a person. Even the name itself literary kind("lyre" - musical instrument in ancient Greece) emphasizes its connection with music. This synthesis of word and music has survived to this day and led to the allocation of related genera, such as lyrical-vocal and musical-dramatic.

The genetic connection of poetry with music is manifested in its subordination to rhythm and many other specific features of this art (up to the development of leitmotifs or compositional forms such as rondo or ballad). The musicality of poetry is recognized by both poets and composers. The development of lyrics has always been to a large extent connected with the development of music.

A specific feature of the lyrics is the subjective reflection of experiences in images.

The subjective perception of reality manifests itself in poetry in different ways. An obvious exaggeration is the attempt of some literary critics to reduce the content of any lyrical work only to the "self-expression" of the poet, only to the disclosure of his "I", considered moreover in a narrow biographical plan. Even in the most intimate poems, such as, for example, "I loved you" by Pushkin, not only the author's feelings are expressed, but also what is close, what is deeply understandable and dear to readers. In other words, through the specific, uniquely individual experience of the poet, the general, essential, characteristic is transmitted, which is the specificity of the figurative reproduction of life.

In many of the best works, the artist typifies those experiences that are either a concentration of his emotions, or become, as it were, their projection for transmission to a fictional character who is endowed with qualities that are not directly characteristic of the poet. In this regard, an important question about the lyrical hero arises. The introduction of this concept into literary criticism is justified by the theorists' desire to distinguish between the author's "I" and the typified "I" of a fictional character whose feelings and thoughts are expressed in the work in the first person.

Even N. G. Chernyshevsky, in his article "Poems of Countess Rostopchina", argued that "it should not be assumed that each "I" who expresses his feelings in a lyrical play is necessarily the "I" of the author himself, who wrote the play "*.

* (N. G. Chernyshevsky. Poll. coll. cit., vol. 3, pp. 455-456.)

Considering poems like Pushkin's Black Shawl, one can only speak of a lyrical hero who was created by the author's creative imagination and who expresses in a peculiar way the feelings and thoughts that excited him.

The concept of a lyrical hero cannot also be interpreted too broadly, associating it with the image of the narrator in the epic. The lyrical hero is only one of the possibilities for expressing the personality of the poet in the work. The Soviet critic L. Ginzburg rightly asserts that "in lyrics, the author's consciousness can be expressed in a variety of forms - from a personified lyrical hero to an abstract image of a poet included in classical genres, and, on the other hand, to all sorts of" objective "plots, characters , objects that encrypt the lyrical subject precisely so that he continues to shine through them" * .

* (L. Ginzburg. About lyrics. M.-L., 1964, p. 6.)

This "encryption of the lyrical subject" is especially characteristic of epigrams and madrigals, in which specific characters are depicted, and the author's subjective attitude towards them is manifested precisely in the assessment of certain of their qualities, deliberately exaggerated, and most importantly, one-sidedly selected and isolated from others, characterizing the appearance of a prototype person. .

At the same time, it is necessary to recognize the conventionality of distinguishing between the image of a lyrical hero and the image of a poet. Even N.V. Gogol rightly wrote that in any work, to a greater or lesser extent, the personality of the author himself is reflected. However, in poems like Pushkin's "Monument", the poet directly expresses his thoughts, feelings, thoughts about poetic work, about the meaning of creativity, about the connection of literature with life. The poetic declaration expressed in the work fully coincides with the views of the author himself. Before us stands the image of the poet with his worries, anxieties, sympathies, with his philosophical reflections.

In other poems, the image of the poet approaches the image of the narrator. In Nekrasov's "Reflections at the Front Door" all events are conveyed through the perception of the author, who is an eyewitness to the sinister injustice and cruel heartlessness of those in power, their disdain for the hardships and needs of the people. The image of the poet is revealed through his emotional attitude to the events depicted.

In many lyrical poems, the image of the poet appears along with the central characters in real everyday situations (for example, in the poems "Schoolboy" by Nekrasov or "To Comrade Netta - a steamboat and a man" by Mayakovsky).

In a lyrical poem, images-characters can also be reproduced, acting quite objectively, regardless of the author. Such, for example, is the image of Katyusha in Isakovsky's song of the same name. However, the feelings of these images-characters are colored by the likes and dislikes of the poet himself. In satirical poems, these author's emotions are expressed in the form of the artist's direct condemnation of the negative phenomena of reality.

The problem of plot in lyrics is quite complex. Some researchers attribute all or almost all lyrical poems to plotless works due to the fact that they do not directly convey the development of events. Others consider this issue too broadly, without taking into account the specifics of the genus.

Of course, landscape poems have no plot. This also applies to those lyrical works that only describe certain emotional states (epitaphs, madrigals, etc.).

A peculiar, so-called lyrical plot can be discussed in relation to works that depict the complex development of growing feelings. In this sense, we can talk, for example, about A. S. Pushkin's poem "I loved you", revealing the history of the relationship between the lyrical hero and his beloved.

One can speak quite definitely about the plot in connection with the characteristics of those poems in which, in the form of memoirs or in the form of a response, events from the life of the characters, the history of their relationships, and changes in their destinies are reflected.

In the 19th century the process of convergence of lyric poetry with epic prose began, which determined the widespread use of elements of the epic plot even in such traditional lyrical genres as a message or an elegy.

In some poems, the composition is directly determined by the plot, in others it is subordinated to the development of the central image. This image, which appears directly at first, can then be replaced by a metaphor, as, for example, in the poem "Spark" by Isakovsky.

Often the compositional integrity of a work is achieved with the help of a repeat ring (sometimes changed) of the first lines (stanzas) at the beginning and at the end.

Classification of lyrical works

The classification of lyrical works by types and varieties is very complex. A variety of lyrical poems expressing the most diverse shades of feelings, moods, experiences; more definite than in works of other kinds, the dependence of the genre on the features of composition and language, as well as on rhythm and strophic - all this makes it difficult to systematize, makes it very difficult to distinguish according to any single principle.

There were different principles of genre differentiation of lyrics.

In antiquity, and then in the era of classicism, they sought to clearly differentiate genres in form and content. The rationalistic views of the classicists determined the establishment of certain genre canons. In the future, many traditional types of lyrics did not receive their development (eclogue, epithalam, pastoral), others changed their character, acquiring a different social meaning(elegy, epistle, epigram).

In poetry from the second half of XIX in. the distinctions between the preserved species became very conditional. The message, for example, often acquired the features of an elegy or an ode.

The classification based on the differentiation of poems by stanza has almost become obsolete. From it, in modern European poetry, only the allocation of sonnets remained, and in Eastern poetry - eight lines, gazelles, rubaiyas and some other stable strophic forms.

The most common classification is now based on the thematic principle. In accordance with it, the lyrics are divided into patriotic (for example, "Poems about the Soviet" passport "by Mayakovsky), socio-political ("Communist Marseillaise" by Poor), historical ("Borodino" by Lermontov), philosophical ("Man" by Mezhelaitis), intimate, (“Lines of Love” by Shchipachev), landscape (“Spring Thunderstorm” by Tyutchev).

Of course, this distinction is very conditional, and therefore the same poem can be attributed to different types. So, Lermontov's "Borodino" is a work both historical and patriotic. In the landscape poems of F. I. Tyutchev, his philosophical ideas are expressed (for example, in "Fountain"). "Poems about the Soviet passport" by Mayakovsky, usually referred to as patriotic lyrics, with no less reason can be considered both as an example of a socio-political and as an example of an intimate poem. In this regard, when determining the type, it is necessary to take into account the ratio in the lyrical work of various leitmotifs, determining which of them has the dominant role.

At the same time, lyrical poems continue to appear in modern poetry, corresponding to a greater or lesser extent to such traditional genre forms as an epigram, a message, an elegy, an ode.

Oh yeah

In modern literary criticism, an ode is usually defined as a lyrical poem that glorifies an important historical event or an outstanding historical figure.

The origins of the ode are in ancient poetry. However, in ancient Greece, this name denoted not only laudatory songs, but also works of various contents, performed to the accompaniment of a musical instrument. The development of this genre was further influenced by the "epinikia" (laudatory odes) of the ancient Greek poet Pindar (518-442 BC), who glorified the heroes - the winners of the competitions in a solemn form saturated with exquisite paths and figures. The odes of Pindar and Horace were considered as models by the classicists, who developed the main criteria for this genre. Already in the work of the founder of classicism in France, F. Malherbe (1555-1628), the ode appeared as the "highest" genre, most accurately and fully reflecting the principles of this literary trend. The ode served to praise absolute monarchy and its adherents, glorifying the victories of kings and generals. The solemn loftiness of the content determined the originality of the composition and the peculiarities of the language.

Poets resorted to numerous tropes (especially metaphors and paraphrases) and rhetorical figures in their odes. words from the living spoken language, and even more so vernacular and vulgarisms, were expelled from the odes as alien to its sublime nature. The mandatory requirements for the ode included the accuracy of the strophic construction (the most common was a ten-line stanza), the purity of the rhythmic structure (the inadmissibility of the Pyrrhic), the sonority of rhymes, the inadmissibility of hyphenation, etc.

The theory and practice of the French classicists had strong influence on the development of this genre in the literatures of other European countries until the end of the 18th century.

Odes were intended to be recited in a solemn, festive atmosphere, which brought them closer to the speeches of orators.

In Russian poetry, solemn odes were created by M. V. Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin and other classicists. Became a textbook "Ode on the day of the ascension to All-Russian throne Her Majesty the Empress Empress Elizabeth Petrovna of 1747 "Lomonosov is a classic example of the works of this genre. "Lomonosov's ode, - wrote Y. Tynyanov - can be called oratorical, not because or not only because it is thought to be pronounced, but because, mainly, that the oratorical moment became defining, constructive for her. Oratory principles of greatest impact and verbal development subjugated and transformed all the elements of the word ... ".

The outstanding Russian poet G. R. Derzhavin, adhering to these classic principles in his "Discourse" On Lyric Poetry or on the Ode ", in his creative practice significantly expanded the narrow framework of this genre. depiction of everyday details, irony and even a satirical element.

In the future, both the content and the form of the ode evolved. In the work of progressive poets of the XIX century. criticism of tyrants was combined with the glorification of freedom. These are the ode "Liberty" Radishchev, poem of the same name Pushkin, a number of works by Decembrist poets. The creation of odes was especially often addressed during the years of the rise of the revolutionary movement. However, this largely rhetorical, traditional genre did not correspond to the basic principles of progressive romanticism and critical realism. In the second half of the XIX century. the ode gives way to hymns, cantatas, oratorios and other types of lyric-vocal kind. In this one cannot fail to notice a return to the origins of odic poetry, organically connected with music at the dawn of its development.

In Soviet poetry, "Ode to the Revolution" was created by V. V. Mayakovsky. Other poets also turned to the creation of works of this genre. Serious changes in the specifics of the ode that occurred during this period are expressed in a significant reduction in volume, in the renewal of vocabulary, in a more limited use of tropes and figures.

Elegy

The elegy has also undergone a significant evolution in the history of world poetry. It originates from the ancient vocal genre - a plaintive song (the term itself comes from the name of the ancient Greek instrument that accompanied this song).

However, later the term "elegy" began to denote works of various fields of art: in music - small instrumental works of a sad, mournful nature, in poetry - small lyrical poems expressing sadness. This genre was widely spread among sentimentalists. "An Elegy Written in a Country Cemetery" by Gray rendered strong impact not only on English poetry, but also on the work of German, French and Russian poets, in particular on V. A. Zhukovsky.

I. Goethe, F. Schiller, A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov turned to the genre of elegy, who filled these poems with deep philosophical thoughts, sincere, excited feelings and experiences. Such, for example, is the elegy of A. S. Pushkin "Crazy years of extinct fun ..." (1830), imbued with sadness past days and heavy forebodings.

Elegies are close to the genre (some works by N. A. Nekrasov and others. However, in the poetry of critical realism, it gradually loses its specific specific features. The content of even the most mournful lyrical poems of these poets is not limited to regret for personal losses, they reflect social contradictions. The elegy also acquires a social character, for example, Nekrasov's poem "In Memory of Dobrolyubov" in which bitterness over the untimely death of a young talented friend translates into the poet's civic grief over the loss of one of best sons Motherland.

In the literature of socialist realism, this genre in its classical form hardly develops. Very close in content to the elegy is the poem by V. V. Mayakovsky "To Comrade Netta - the steamer and the man." It is filled with thoughts about the fate of a friend who died in the fight against enemies for Soviet power, and at the same time (imbued with optimism, faith in the immortality of the heroes who gave their lives to the people. All this sharply contradicts the sad emotional mood that determined the specificity of this species.

In the era of the Great Patriotic War in the intimate lyrics, those features were clearly manifested that allow many of the poems to be attributed to elegies ("With you and without you" by Simonov, "I was killed near Rzhev" by Tvardovsky, etc.). “Sorrow, sadness, bitterness of loss, a feeling of pity that squeezes the heart - these are their emotional content,” writes modern explorer Kuzmichev. - But not only sadness or bitter feeling determines their tone ... great truth feelings in them are connected with deep anxiety for the fate of the fatherland "*. The poems of Y. Smelyakov, N. Zabolotsky, M. Svetlov, written in the post-war years, are also distinguished by optimism, an inextricable connection between the personal and the public.

* (I. Kuzmichev. Genres of Russian literature of the war years. Gorky, 1962, p. 166.)

Message

A message is a poem written in the form of an appeal, most often to a well-known person directly named by his own name. In it, poets express their thoughts and feelings caused by the events of the political, scientific, literary struggle. In accordance with this, the main types of messages are distinguished: political ("To Chaadaev" by Pushkin), scientific (Lomonosov's message to Shuvalov "On the Usefulness of Glass"), literary ("Epistole on Poetry" by Sumarokov). Joking and satirical messages very close to epigrams and madrigals, but more lengthy than them, are also widespread. ("Message to my servants" Fonvizin). Poems of this genre are usually distinguished by sincerity, wit.

The very form of address provides an opportunity for a direct presentation of the views expressed by close friends, like-minded people. For all its specific "attachment" even to certain historical figures, each poetic message has a generalizing character. Many of them are so saturated theoretical provisions, polemics on scientific problems that approach treatises. This led to the attribution of the message by some literary critics to didactic poetry or journalism.

emergence poetic message as an independent type of lyric poetry, it is attributed to the time when Horace and Ovid appeared in Roman poetry with works of this genre. Poets of later literary epochs (Voltaire, Rousseau, Goethe, and others) also willingly turned to him.

The heyday of the message in Russian poetry is associated with the work of A. S. Pushkin and the Decembrist poets, who gave it a sharp socio-political orientation, an agitational and propaganda character and, at the same time, exceptional emotional tension, a simple and elegant form. "Message to Siberia" by A. S. Pushkin and the answer of the Decembrist A. I. Odoevsky ("Fiery sounds of prophetic strings ...") belong to the masterpieces of this genre.

Researchers of Russian lyrics note a decline in interest in the message in the literature of the second half of the 19th century, believing that in the future poets use it mainly for the purpose of stylization. However, in Soviet poetry, this genre was intensively developed, acquiring a distinct concreteness and publicism (“Message to the proletarian poets” by Mayakovsky, “ Open letter"Simonova and others).

Epigram

In terms of volume, and most importantly in content, the epigram differs sharply from odes, elegies and epistles. So now they call laconic satirical or humorous poems directed against a certain person or event. These works are distinguished by a peculiar composition. They usually consist of two parts - a premise that tells the signs of the person or event referred to in the poem, and a short final witticism (French point), which, with its unexpectedness, accuracy, aphorism, determines the meaning of the epigram. Such, for example, is the well-known epigram of A. S. Pushkin to Count M. S. Vorontsov (1824):

Half-my lord, half-merchant, Half-sage, half-ignorant, Half-scoundrel, but there is hope, What will be complete at last.

The epigram has a complex centuries-old history. In ancient Greek poetry, this was the name given to inscriptions on monuments to the dead or on any objects (the very word "epigram" in ancient Greek means "inscription").

Antique epigrams were distinguished by a special rhythm: the first line was a hexameter, the second - a pentameter. Subsequently, any poems corresponding to this poetic form (elegiac distich) began to be called epigrams in ancient poetry. From them originate the so-called anthological epigrams, which are short poems philosophical nature, written in elegiac distich. They were also created in Russian poetry of the 19th century. An example of an anthological epigram is a poem by A. S. Pushkin addressed to N. I. Gnedich, the translator of Homer's Iliad:

I hear the silenced sound of the divine Hellenic speech, I feel the shadow of the great Elder in my confused soul *.

* (A. S. Pushkin, Poli. coll. cit., vol. 3, p. 183.)

More intensive development was received by another kind of epigram - satirical. Researchers consider the Roman poets Martial and Catullus, the creators of caustic and witty poems with unexpected endings, to be the founders of this genre. Many French and German poets XVIII-XIX centuries, including J. La Fontaine, I. Goethe, F. Schiller.

The heyday of this genre in Russian poetry belongs to the first thirds of XIX in. Widespread since the end of the 17th century. in our literature, the varieties of the epigram - everyday, political, literary - during this period become a sharp weapon in the struggle of progressive poets with the reactionary phenomena of Russian reality. Such is the sharply accusatory epigram of A. S. Pushkin on Tsar Alexander I.

In the middle and in the second half of the XIX century. the role of the epigram in the literary and political struggle in Russia begins to weaken due to the emergence and development of those satirical and journalistic genres (feuilletons, pamphlets, etc.), which made it possible to more specifically and purposefully denounce the enemies of freedom. However, even during this period, witty epigrams were created by N. A. Nekrasov, N. P. Ogarev, M. Mikhailov and other representatives of revolutionary democracy. In the last decades of the XIX century. there is a "shredding" of the epigram, which responds only to minor everyday questions or insignificant phenomena of literary life.

The revival of the epigram in Russian poetry is associated with the work of poets of socialist realism. Back in the pre-October years, D. Bedny successfully used this genre to denounce representatives of autocratic-bourgeois Russia. In Soviet poetry, the epigram was successfully developed by V. V. Mayakovsky, S. Ya. Marshak, M. Svetlov. A. Bezymensky, S. Smirnov, E. Krotky and other satirists turn to this genre.

In literature recent years there has been a close convergence of the epigram with the caption to the friendly caricature and with the so-called short fable.

One of the founders of Russian literary criticism was V. G. Belinsky. And although even in antiquity serious steps were taken in the development of the concept of literary gender (Aristotle), it is Belinsky who belongs to scientifically grounded theory three literary genera, which you can get acquainted with in detail by reading Belinsky's article "The Division of Poetry into Genus and Types".

There are three types of fiction: epic(from the Greek. Epos, narration), lyrical(a lyre was a musical instrument, accompanied by which verses were chanted) and dramatic(from Greek Drama, action).

Presenting a particular subject to the reader (meaning the subject of conversation), the author chooses different approaches to it:

First approach: can be detailed tell about the subject, about the events associated with it, about the circumstances of the existence of this subject, etc.; at the same time, the position of the author will be more or less detached, the author will act as a kind of chronicler, narrator, or choose one of the characters as the narrator; the main thing in such a work will be precisely the story, narration about the subject, the leading type of speech will be exactly the narrative; this kind of literature is called epic;

The second approach: you can tell not so much about events, but about impression, which they produced on the author, about those feelings that they called; image inner world, experiences, impressions and will refer to the lyrical genre of literature; exactly experience becomes the main event of the lyrics;

Third approach: you can portray thing in action, show him on stage; present to the reader and the viewer surrounded by other phenomena; this kind of literature is dramatic; in the drama itself, the voice of the author will be the least likely to sound - in remarks, that is, the author's explanations for the action and replicas of the characters.

Consider the following table and try to memorize its contents:

Genres of fiction

EPOS	DRAMA	LYRICS
(Greek - narration) story about the events, the fate of the heroes, their actions and adventures, the image of the external side of what is happening (even feelings are shown from the side of their external manifestation). The author can directly express his attitude to what is happening.	(Greek - action) image events and relationships between characters on the stage(a special way of writing text). The direct expression of the author's point of view in the text is contained in the remarks.	(from the name of the musical instrument) experience events; image of feelings, inner world, emotional state; feeling becomes the main event.

Each type of literature in turn includes a number of genres.

GENRE- This is a historically established group of works, united by common features of content and form. These groups include novels, stories, poems, elegies, short stories, feuilletons, comedies, etc. In literary criticism, the concept of a literary type is often introduced, it is more broad concept than the genre. In this case, the novel will be considered a type of fiction, and genres - various varieties of the novel, for example, adventure, detective, psychological, parable novel, dystopian novel, etc.

Examples of genus-species relations in the literature:

Genus: dramatic; type: comedy; Genre: sitcom.
Genus: epic; type: story; genre: fantasy story etc.

Genres, being historical categories, appear, develop and eventually "leave" from the "active reserve" of artists, depending on historical era: ancient lyricists did not know the sonnet; in our time, an ode born in antiquity and popular in the 17th-18th centuries has become an archaic genre; nineteenth-century romanticism gave rise to detective literature, and so on.

Consider the following table, which lists the types and genres related to the different kinds of word art:

Genera, types and genres of fiction

EPOS		DRAMA		LYRICS
Folk	Author's	Folk	Author's	Folk	Author's
Myth Poem (epos): Heroic Strogovoinskaya fabulous- legendary Historical... Story Bylina Thought Legend Tradition Ballad Parable Small genres: proverbs sayings riddles nursery rhymes...	epic novel: Historical. Fantastic Adventurous Psychological R.-parable Utopian Social... Small genres: Tale Story Novella Fable Parable Ballad Lit. story...	A game rite folk drama Raek nativity scene...	Tragedy Comedy: provisions, characters, masks... Drama: philosophical social historical social-philosophical. Vaudeville Farce Tragifarce...	Song	Oh yeah Hymn Elegy Sonnet Message Madrigal Romance Rondo Epigram...

Modern literary criticism also highlights fourth, an adjacent genre of literature, combining the features of the epic and lyrical genera: lyrical-epic to which it refers poem. Indeed, by telling the reader a story, the poem manifests itself as an epic; revealing to the reader the depth of feelings, the inner world of the person who tells this story, the poem manifests itself as a lyric.

LYRICAL called a kind of literature in which the author's attention is paid to the image of the inner world, feelings, experiences. The event in the lyrics is important only insofar as it evokes an emotional response in the soul of the artist. It is the experience that becomes the main event in the lyrics. Lyrics as a kind of literature arose in ancient times. The word "lyric" is of Greek origin, but does not have direct translation. In ancient Greece, poetic works depicting the inner world of feelings and experiences were performed to the accompaniment of a lyre, and this is how the word "lyric" appeared.

The most important character in the lyrics is lyrical hero: it is his inner world that is shown in the lyrical work, on his behalf the lyric artist speaks to the reader, and the external world is depicted in the context of the impressions that he makes on the lyrical hero. Note! Do not confuse the lyrical hero with the epic one. Pushkin reproduced in great detail the inner world of Eugene Onegin, but this is an epic hero, a participant in the main events of the novel. The lyrical hero of Pushkin's novel is the Narrator, the one who is familiar with Onegin and tells his story, deeply experiencing it. Onegin only once becomes a lyrical hero in a novel - when he writes a letter to Tatyana, just as she becomes lyrical heroine when writing a letter to Onegin.

Creating the image of a lyrical hero, the poet can make him personally very close to himself (poems by Lermontov, Fet, Nekrasov, Mayakovsky, Tsvetaeva, Akhmatova, etc.). But sometimes the poet seems to be "hiding" behind the mask of a lyrical hero, completely far from the personality of the poet himself; so, for example, A. Blok makes Ophelia a lyrical heroine (2 poems called "The Song of Ophelia") or a street actor Harlequin ("I was all in colorful rags ..."), M. Tsvetaeva - Hamlet ("At the bottom she, where the silt ... "), V. Bryusov - Cleopatra ("Cleopatra"), S. Yesenin - a peasant boy from a folk song or fairy tale ("Mother went to the bathing suit through the forest ..."). So it’s more literate, when discussing a lyrical work, to talk about the expression in it of the feelings of not the author, but the lyrical hero.

Like other types of literature, poetry includes a number of genres. Some of them arose in ancient times, others - in the Middle Ages, some - quite recently, one and a half to two centuries ago, or even in the last century.

Read about some LYRICAL GENRES:
Oh yeah(Greek "Song") - a monumental solemn poem glorifying a great event or a great person; distinguish between spiritual odes (arrangements of psalms), moralizing, philosophical, satirical, ode-messages, etc. The ode is three-part: it must have a theme stated at the beginning of the work; development of the theme and arguments, as a rule, allegorical (second part); final, didactic (instructive) part. Samples of ancient ancient odes are associated with the names of Horace and Pindar; the ode came to Russia in the 18th century, the odes of M. Lomonosov ("On the day of the accession to the Russian throne of Empress Elisaveta Petrovna"), V. Trediakovsky, A. Sumarokov, G. Derzhavin ("Felitsa", "God"), A .Radischev ("Liberty"). Paid tribute to the ode A. Pushkin ("Liberty"). By the middle of the 19th century, the ode had lost its relevance and gradually passed into the category of archaic genres.

Hymn- a poem of laudatory content; also came from ancient poetry, but if in ancient times hymns were composed in honor of gods and heroes, then in more late time hymns were written in honor of solemn events, festivities, often not only of a state, but also of a personal nature (A. Pushkin. "Feasting Students").

Elegy(Phrygian "reed flute") - a genre of lyrics dedicated to meditation. Originated in ancient poetry; originally it was called crying over the dead. The elegy was based on the life ideal of the ancient Greeks, which was based on the harmony of the world, the proportionality and balance of being, incomplete without sadness and contemplation, these categories have passed into the modern elegy. An elegy can embody both life-affirming ideas and disappointment. The poetry of the 19th century still continued to develop the elegy in its "pure" form; in the lyric poetry of the 20th century, elegy is found rather as a genre tradition, as a special mood. In modern poetry, an elegy is a plotless poem of a contemplative, philosophical and landscape nature.
A. Pushkin. "To sea"
N. Nekrasov. "Elegy"
A. Akhmatova. "March Elegy"

Read A. Blok's poem "From the Autumn Elegy":

Epigram(Greek "inscription") - a small poem of satirical content. Initially, in ancient times, inscriptions on household items, tombstones and statues were called epigrams. Subsequently, the content of the epigrams changed.
Examples of epigrams:

Yuri Olesha:

Sasha Black:

Epistle, or message - a poem, the content of which can be defined as "letter in verse." The genre also came from ancient lyrics.
A. Pushkin. Pushchin ("My first friend, my priceless friend...")
V.Mayakovsky. "Sergey Yesenin"; "Lilichka! (Instead of a Letter)"
S. Yesenin. "Mother's Letter"
M. Tsvetaeva. Poems to Blok

Sonnet- This is a poetic genre of the so-called rigid form: a poem consisting of 14 lines, organized in a special way into stanzas, with strict principles of rhyme and stylistic laws. There are several types of sonnet in form:

Italian: consists of two quatrains (quatrains), in which the lines rhyme according to the ABAB or ABBA scheme, and two three-verses (tercetes) with the rhyming CDС DСD or CDE CDE;
English: consists of three quatrains and one couplet; general scheme rhymes - ABAB CDCD EFEF GG;
sometimes French is singled out: the stanza is similar to Italian, but in tercetes there is a different rhyming scheme: CCD EED or CCD EDE; he had a significant influence on the development of the next type of sonnet -
Russian: created by Anton Delvig: the stanza is also similar to Italian, but the rhyming scheme in tercetes is CDD CCD.

This lyrical genre was born in Italy in the 13th century. Its creator was the lawyer Jacopo da Lentini; a hundred years later Petrarch's sonnet masterpieces appeared. The sonnet came to Russia in the 18th century; a little later, he received a serious development in the work of Anton Delvig, Ivan Kozlov, Alexander Pushkin. The poets of the "Silver Age" showed particular interest in the sonnet: K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, I. Annensky, V. Ivanov, I. Bunin, N. Gumilyov, A. Blok, O. Mandelstam ...
In the art of versification, the sonnet is considered one of the most difficult genres.
In the last 2 centuries, poets rarely adhered to any strict rhyme, often offering a mixture of various schemes.

features of the sonnet language

vocabulary and intonation should be sublime;
rhymes - accurate and, if possible, unusual, rare;
significant words should not be repeated in the same meaning, etc.

A special difficulty - and therefore the pinnacle of poetic technique - is wreath of sonnets: a cycle of 15 poems, the initial line of each being the last line of the previous one, and the last line of the 14th poem being the first line of the first. The fifteenth sonnet consists of the first lines of all 14 sonnets in the cycle. In Russian lyrics, the wreaths of sonnets by V. Ivanov, M. Voloshin, K. Balmont became the most famous.

Read "Sonnet" by A. Pushkin and see how the sonnet form is parsed:

Text	Stanza	Rhyme	Content(topic)
1 Severe Dante did not despise the sonnet; 2 Petrarch poured out the heat of love in him; 3 The creator of Macbeth 1 loved his game; 4 They mourn the thought of Camões 2 clothed.	quatrain 1	BUT B A B	The history of the sonnet genre in the past, the themes and tasks of the sonnet of the classics
5 And in our day he captivates the poet: 6 Wordsworth 3 chose him as an instrument, 7 When away from the vain light 8 of Nature he draws an ideal.	quatrain 2	A B A AT	The meaning of the sonnet in modern European poetry to Pushkin, expanding the range of topics
9 Under the shadow of the distant mountains of Taurida 10 Lithuanian Singer 4 in size his cramped 11 I instantly concluded my dreams.	tercet 1	C C B	Development of the theme of quatrain 2
12 The virgins did not yet know him among us, 13 How Delvig forgot for him 14 Hexameter 5 sacred tunes.	tercet 2	D B D	The meaning of the sonnet in modern Russian lyrics by Pushkin

In school literary criticism, such a genre of lyrics is called lyric poem. There is no such genre in classical literary criticism. It was introduced into the school curriculum to somewhat simplify the complex system of lyrical genres: if the bright genre features of the work cannot be distinguished and the poem is not in the strict sense either an ode, or a hymn, or an elegy, or a sonnet, etc., it will be defined as a lyric poem . In this case, attention should be paid to individual characteristics poems: the specifics of the form, theme, image of the lyrical hero, mood, etc. So, lyrical poems (in the school sense) should include poems by Mayakovsky, Tsvetaeva, Blok, etc. Almost all the lyrics of the twentieth century fall under this definition, unless the authors specifically specified the genre of the works.

Satire(Latin "mixture, all sorts of things") - as a poetic genre: a work, the content of which is the denunciation - of social phenomena, human vices or individual people- by ridicule. Satire in antiquity in Roman literature (satires of Juvenal, Martial, etc.). The genre received new development in the literature of classicism. The content of satire is characterized by ironic intonation, allegoricalness, Aesopian language, and the technique of "speaking names" is often used. In Russian literature, A. Kantemir, K. Batyushkov (XVIII-XIX centuries) worked in the satire genre, in the 20th century Sasha Cherny and others became famous as the author of satires. Many poems from V. Mayakovsky's "Poems about America" can also be called satires ( "Six nuns", "Black and white", "Skyscraper in section", etc.).

Ballad- lyric-epic plot poem of fantastic, satirical, historical, fabulous, legendary, humorous, etc. character. The ballad arose in antiquity (supposedly in early middle ages) as a folklore ritual dance and song genre, and this determines its genre features: strict rhythm, plot (in ancient ballads it was told about heroes and gods), the presence of repetitions (whole lines or individual words were repeated as an independent stanza), called refrain. In the 18th century, the ballad became one of the most beloved poetic genres of Romantic literature. Ballads were created by F. Schiller ("Cup", "Glove"), I. Goethe ("Forest King"), V. Zhukovsky ("Lyudmila", "Svetlana"), A. Pushkin ("Anchar", "Groom") , M. Lermontov ("Borodino", "Three Palms"); at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the ballad was revived again and became very popular, especially in the revolutionary era, during the period of revolutionary romance. Among the poets of the twentieth century, ballads were written by A. Blok ("Love" ("The Queen lived on high mountain..."), N. Gumilyov ("Captains", "Barbarians"), A. Akhmatova (" Grey-eyed king"), M. Svetlov ("Grenada") and others.

Note! The work can combine the features of some genres: a message with elements of an elegy (A. Pushkin, "K *** ("I remember a wonderful moment ..."), a lyrical poem of elegiac content (A. Blok. "Motherland"), an epigram-message, etc. .d.

The creator of Macbeth is William Shakespeare (the tragedy "Macbeth").

Portuguese poet Luis de Camões (1524-1580).

Wordsworth - English Romantic poet William Wordsworth (1770-1850).

Lithuanian singer - Polish romantic poet Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855).

See topic #12.

You should read those works of art that can be considered within the framework of this topic, namely:

V.A. Zhukovsky. Poems: "Svetlana"; "Sea"; "Evening"; "Unspeakable"
A.S. Pushkin. Poems: "Village", "Demons", " Winter evening"," Pushchino "(" My first friend, my priceless friend ... "," Winter Road "," To Chaadaev "," In the depths of Siberian ores ... "," Anchar "," The flying ridge is thinning clouds ... "," Prisoner " , "A conversation between a bookseller and a poet", "The poet and the crowd", "Autumn", "... I visited again ...", "Do I wander along the noisy streets ...", "A gift in vain, a random gift ...", "October 19" ( 1825), "On the Hills of Georgia", "I loved you...", "To ***" ("I remember a wonderful moment..."), "Madonna", "Echo", "Prophet", "To the Poet", "To the sea", "From Pindemonti" ("I don't cheaply appreciate high-profile rights..."), "I erected a monument to myself..."
M.Yu.Lermontov. Poems: "Death of a Poet", "Poet", "How often, surrounded by a motley crowd...", "Duma", "Both boring and sad...", "Prayer" ("I, mother of God, now with a prayer...") , "We parted, but your portrait ...", "I will not humble myself before you ...", "Motherland", "Farewell, unwashed Russia ...", "When the yellowing field is worried ...", "No, I'm not Byron, I'm different ...", "Leaf", "Three palm trees", "From under the mysterious, cold half-mask ...", "The Captive Knight", "Neighbor", "Testament", "Clouds", "Cliff", "Borodino", "Clouds heavenly, eternal pages…”, “Prisoner”, “Prophet”, “I go out alone on the road…”
N.A. Nekrasov. Poems: "I do not like your irony ...", "Knight for an hour", "I will die soon ...", "Prophet", "Poet and citizen", "Troika", "Elegy", "Zina" ("You are still on you have a right to life…”); other verses of your choice
F.I. Tyutchev. Poems: " Autumn evening", "Silentium", "Not what you think, nature ...", "Even the earth looks sad ...", "How good you are, O night sea ...", "I met you ...", "Whatever our life may be taught…”, “Fountain”, “These poor villages…”, “People’s tears, oh human tears…”, “You can’t understand Russia with your mind…”, “I remember the golden time…”, “What are you howling about, night wind? "," The gray-gray shadows have shifted ...", "How sweetly the dark green garden slumbers ..."; other verses of your choice
A.A. Fet. Poems: "I came to you with greetings ...", "It's still a May night ...", "Whisper, timid breathing ...", "This morning, this joy ...", "Sevastopol rural cemetery", "A wavy cloud ...", "Learn they have - at the oak, at the birch ... "," To the poets "," Autumn "," What a night, how clean the air ... "," Village "," Swallows "," On railway"," Fantasy "," shone the night. The garden was full of moon…"; other verses of your choice
I.A. Bunin. Poems: "The Last Bumblebee", "Evening", "Childhood", "It's Still Cold and Cheese...", "And Flowers, and Bumblebees, and Grass...", "The Word", "The Knight at the Crossroads", "The Bird Has a Nest …", "Dust"
A.A. Blok. Poems: "I enter dark temples…”, “Stranger”, “Solveig”, “You are like an echo of a forgotten anthem…”, “Earthly heart freezes again…”, “Oh, spring without end and without edge…”, “About valor, about deeds, about glory …”, “On the Railway”, the cycles “On the Kulikovo Field” and “Carmen”, “Rus”, “Motherland”, “Russia”, “Morning in the Kremlin”, “Oh, I want to live crazy ...”; other poems of your choice
A.A. Akhmatova. Poems: "Song of the last meeting", "You know, I'm languishing in captivity...", "There are such days before spring...", "Tearful autumn, like a widow...", "I learned to live simply, wisely...", "Native land "; "I don't need anything odic ratis…”, “I am not with those who left the earth…”, “Courage”; other verses of your choice
S.A. Yesenin. Poems: "Goy you, my dear Russia ...", "Do not wander, do not crush in the crimson bushes ...", "I do not regret, I do not call, I do not cry ...", "We are now leaving little by little ...", "Mother's letter", " The golden grove dissuaded…”, “I left my dear home…”, “Kachalov’s dog”, “Soviet Russia”, “Hewn drogs sang…”, “Uncomfortable liquid moonlight…”, “The feather grass is sleeping. Dear plain…”, “Goodbye , my friend, goodbye ... "; other verses of your choice
V.V.Mayakovsky. Poems: “Could you?”, “Listen!”, “Nate!”, “To you!”, “Violin and a little nervously”, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans”, “Gift sale”, “ Good relationship to the horses", "Left march", "On rubbish", "To Sergei Yesenin", "Jubilee", "Letter to Tatyana Yakovleva"; other poems of your choice
10-15 poems each (of your choice): M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, N. Gumilyov.
A. Tvardovsky. Poems: "I was killed near Rzhev ...", "I know, no fault of mine ...", "The whole point is in one single testament ...", "In memory of the mother", "To bitter insults of my own person ..."; other verses of your choice
I. Brodsky. Poems: "I went in instead of wild beast…”, “Letters to a Roman friend”, “To Urania”, “Stans”, “You will ride in the darkness…”, “On the death of Zhukov”, “From nowhere with love…”, “Fern notes”

Try everything literary works that are named in the work, read in a book, not in electronic form!
When completing tasks for work 7, pay special attention to theoretical materials, since performing the tasks of this work by intuition means dooming yourself to a mistake.
Do not forget to draw up a metric scheme for each analyzed poetic passage, checking it many times.
The key to success in this complex work is attention and accuracy.

Recommended literature for work 7:

Kvyatkovsky I.A. Poetic dictionary. - M., 1966.
Literary encyclopedic dictionary. - M., 1987.
Literary criticism: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
Lotman Yu.M. Analysis poetic text. - L .: Education, 1972.
Gasparov M. Modern Russian verse. Metrics and rhythm. - M.: Nauka, 1974.
Zhirmunsky V.M. The theory of verse. - L .: Nauka, 1975.
Poetic structure of Russian lyrics. Sat. - L .: Nauka, 1973.
Skripov G.S. About Russian versification. Student aid. - M.: Enlightenment, 1979.
Vocabulary literary terms. - M., 1974.
Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Literary Critic. - M., 1987.