Metaphor - new meaning of old words and examples of use. Metaphor in literature is a hidden comparison

METAPHOR (Greek metaphora - transfer)

1. One of the types of figurative meaning of a polysemantic word based on the similarity in any respect of two objects or phenomena: a tasty apple - an eyeball, a cup (dishes) - a cup of a flower, a black dress - black thoughts.

A word in which the initial metaphorical transfer is no longer perceived figuratively, expressively, is called a lexical metaphor (“dead”, erased, petrified metaphor): a steel pen, a clock hand, a ship’s bow, a sheet of paper.

2. One of the tropes (see tropes), which consists in the use of a word in a figurative sense based on similarity - in shape, color, location, function, etc. - two objects, properties or actions: an oblique look (an unfriendly look = an oblique beam); loud scandal (scandal that many have learned about = loud sound); mask of calmness (calmness behind which anxiety is hidden = carnival mask); credit of trust (trust that still needs to be justified, how to “return” = bank loan); his position has been shaken (the situation has changed for the worse = the person has staggered).

A metaphor is very similar to a simile (see Comparison). However, unlike comparison, which provides both what is compared and what is compared, the metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness of the use of the word: she is cunning, like a fox (comparison - she + fox), again this the fox approaches me with his persuasion (metaphor - she = fox).

The metaphor is simple and detailed:

“Techniques are disappearing.
That is, they still exist for the time being, they live and work, but their very existence is in some way ephemeral, imaginary.
At the Lyubertsy plant, where I went to investigate this strange incident, there are seven thousand workers, more than six hundred engineers and ... sixty-three technicians.

“An army without sergeants. There are soldiers, and there are officers, there are almost no sergeants. Their posts have disappeared, dropped out of the staff lists. The category of workers, powerful and glorious, has lost its former significance. (A. Agranovsky)

- in this text there are also simple, single metaphors (ephemeral in the meaning of “imaginary, ghostly, unreal”, fall out in the meaning of “disappear”), but there is also a chain of words of one topic that in this text have a figurative meaning, i.e. extended metaphor (army, soldiers, sergeants, officers).

Expressively:

Metaphor is powerful means of expression, which allows us to present our thought in a figurative form, reveal our feelings, “infect” readers with them. Therefore, the metaphor can be used in the presentation and in the essay, in public speaking and a newspaper text, regardless of whether we are describing a picture, talking about an event, or discussing something:

“Everyone is involved in creativity. If only because a person creates himself. When he resists circumstances or submits to circumstances, when he chooses a line of conduct, circle of friends, occupation, he creates himself. In the language of the theatre, he is his own playwright, his own director, he can even change the proposed circumstances ... Although the circumstances are sometimes offered such that they seem impossible to change.
You just have to believe that you small man on the big stage, not a mechanical performer, but a character. How are they different in real life? characters and performers! (F. D. Krivin) - a detailed metaphor in reasoning.

Yellow silk, yellow silk
By blue satin
sew invisible hands.
To the golden horizon
Bright Flame Shard
The sun descends at the hour of parting. (V. Ya. Bryusov)
This whole wonderful day passed for me under the golden sign of autumn. (op.) - metaphors in the description of nature.

“A raw man, unripe,” the old man said after a pause. “From such there is only vanity in life.” (K. G. Paustovsky) - metaphors in the characterization of a person.

"The road runs among huge cliffs, either leaning on piles, or diving into tunnels." (V. Peskov); or:

“Bad weather - autumn - you smoke,
You smoke - everything seems to be not enough.
At least I would read - only reading
Moves so slowly.
The gray day crawls lazily,
And chatting unbearably
Wall clock on the wall
The language is tireless.. ”(A. A. Fet) - metaphors in the narrative.

Metaphor is building material to create a pun (see pun):

"The merits and demerits of parents were weighed on the finest administrative scales." (E. Parkhomovsky).

Like any figurative meaning, the metaphor can be fixed in the language system ( language metaphor). But often we create a metaphor ourselves, for this particular context (contextual metaphor).

Not right:

Contextual metaphor is not always successful. The main mistake in the author's use of the word in a metaphorical sense is that the metaphor is created on the basis of a very approximate, dim similarity between objects, signs or actions: "It was possible to neutralize the criminal only when his criminal intellect leaked." (rhetoric.) - the combination to leak has a direct meaning "to allow liquid to penetrate into" (any room or from it), let's say the ship leaked: the same combination is also used in figuratively“fail, fail”, however, the writer gives this combination its own meaning “to fail”, but the similarity, on the one hand, between the ship that leaked, or the life that leaked, and, on the other hand, intelligence is doubtful , the metaphor remains unfounded, and besides, it causes unnecessary associations, ridicule.

We often combine words in a metaphorical sense in a sentence incorrectly because we do not think about the sign that underlies the metaphor and which is its essence: “It is difficult to convey that explosion of emotions that ran through the crowd of people when Oleg Gazmanov and his Squadron group. (op.) - to run in a figurative sense means “to appear and quickly disappear, to flash”, the basis of this meaning is “movement”, and an explosion in a figurative sense means “a sudden strong and noisy manifestation of something”, the basis of this meaning is “strength and loudness”, there is no “movement”, so you can’t say “an explosion that ran through the crowd”.

And it is connected with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor, in essence, is almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases, there is a transfer of meaning from one word to another.

1. An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using comparison.
2. A figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.

There are 4 "elements" in the metaphor

1. category or context,
2. An object within a specific category,
3. The process by which this object performs a function,
4. Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

• A sharp metaphor is a metaphor that brings together concepts that are far apart. Model: stuffing statements.
• An erased metaphor is a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative nature of which is no longer felt. Model: chair leg.
• The metaphor-formula is close to the erased metaphor, but differs from it in even greater stereotype and sometimes the impossibility of converting into a non-figurative construction. Model: Doubt Worm.
• An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented over a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: Book hunger continues: products from the book market are increasingly stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying.
• A realized metaphor involves operating a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comical. Model: I lost my temper and got on the bus.

theories

Among other tropes, metaphor occupies a central place, as it allows you to create capacious images based on vivid, unexpected associations. Metaphors can be based on the similarity of the most diverse features of objects: color, shape, volume, purpose, position, etc.

According to the classification proposed by N. D. Arutyunova, metaphors are divided into

1. nominative, consisting in replacing one descriptive meaning with another and serving as a source of homonymy;
2. figurative metaphors that serve the development of figurative meanings and synonymous means of language;
3. cognitive metaphors resulting from a shift in the combination of predicate words (meaning transfer) and creating polysemy;
4. generalizing metaphors (as the end result of a cognitive metaphor), erasing in lexical meaning words of the boundary between logical orders and stimulating the emergence of logical polysemy.

Let's take a closer look at metaphors that contribute to the creation of images, or figurative.

AT broad sense the term "image" means a reflection in the mind of the external world. AT work of art images are the embodiment of the author's thinking, his unique vision and vivid image of the picture of the world. The creation of a vivid image is based on the use of the similarity between two objects far from each other, almost on a kind of contrast. In order for the comparison of objects or phenomena to be unexpected, they must be sufficiently dissimilar to each other, and sometimes the similarity may be quite insignificant, imperceptible, giving food for thought, or may be absent altogether.

The boundaries and structure of the image can be practically anything: the image can be conveyed by a word, a phrase, a sentence, a superphrasal unity, it can occupy an entire chapter or cover the composition of an entire novel.

However, there are other views on the classification of metaphors. For example, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson distinguish two types of metaphors considered in relation to time and space: ontological, that is, metaphors that allow you to see events, actions, emotions, ideas, etc. as a kind of substance ( the mind is an entity, the mind is a fragile thing), and oriented, or orientational, that is, metaphors that do not define one concept in terms of another, but organize the entire system of concepts in relation to each other ( happy is up, sad is down; conscious is up, unconscious is down).

George Lakoff in his work "The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor" talks about the ways of creating a metaphor and the composition this tool artistic expressiveness. Metaphor, according to Lakoff's theory, is prosaic or poetic expression, where a word (or several words) that is a concept is used in an indirect sense to express a concept similar to this one. Lakoff writes that in prose or poetic speech metaphor lies outside of language, in thought, in imagination, referring to Michael Reddy, his work "The Conduit Metaphor", in which Reddy notes that metaphor lies in language itself, in everyday speech and not just in poetry or prose. Reddy also states that "the speaker puts ideas (objects) into words and sends them to the hearer, who extracts the ideas/objects from the words." This idea is also reflected in the study of J. Lakoff and M. Johnson "Metaphors by which we live." Metaphorical concepts are systemic, “metaphor is not limited to the sphere of language alone, that is, the sphere of words: the very processes of human thinking are largely metaphorical. Metaphors as linguistic expressions become possible precisely because there are metaphors in the human conceptual system.

Metaphor is often seen as one of the ways to accurately reflect reality in artistically. However, I. R. Galperin says that “this concept of accuracy is very relative. It is a metaphor that creates a specific image abstract concept, gives the possibility of different interpretations of real messages.

Metaphor: definition from Wikipedia

Metaphor (from other Greek μεταφορά - “transfer”, “figurative meaning”) - a word or expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with any other on the basis of their common feature. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor, in essence, is almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases, there is a transfer of meaning from one word to another.
An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using comparison.
A figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense on the basis of some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.
There are 4 "elements" in the metaphor
category or context,
An object within a specific category,
The process by which this object performs a function,
Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.
In lexicology - semantic connection between the meanings of one polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarity (structural, external, functional).
Metaphor often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and displaces the original original meaning of the word. In Shakespeare, for example, what is often important is not the original everyday meaning of the statement, but its unexpected metaphorical meaning - new meaning. This perplexed Leo Tolstoy, who had been brought up on the principles of Aristotelian realism. Simply put, metaphor not only reflects life, but also creates it. For example, the Nose of Major Kovalev in Gogol's general uniform is not only a personification, hyperbole or comparison, but also a new meaning that did not exist before. Futurists did not strive for the plausibility of the metaphor, but for its maximum removal from the original meaning. For example, "a cloud in your pants." Researchers note the relatively rare use of metaphor in Soviet fiction, although there is no need to talk about its “expulsion” (see, for example: “So we parted ways. The clatter is silent, and the field is empty” (A. Gaidar, “The Fate of a Drummer”) In the 1970s, a group of poets appeared who inscribed on their banner “a metaphor in a square” or “meta-metaphor” (the term of Konstantin Kedrov). hallmark metaphor is its constant participation in the development of language, speech and culture in general. This is due to the formation of a metaphor under the influence of modern sources of knowledge and information, the use of a metaphor in determining the objects of technological achievements of mankind.

Metaphor: definition from Ozhegov's dictionary

MET'APHORA, -s, f.
1. Hidden trail view figurative comparison, assimilation of one object, phenomenon to another (for example, the cup of being), as well as in general figurative comparison in different types arts (spec.). Symbolic, romantic M. M. in cinema, in painting. Expanded m.
2. In linguistics: portable use words, the formation of such a meaning.
adj. metaphorical, th, th. M. the image of a trinity bird in Dead Souls. metaphorical thinking.

Metaphor: definition from Dahl's dictionary

METAPHOR Greek other words, other words, allegory; bluntly; rhetorical trope, transfer direct meaning to the indirect, by the similarity of the understood; e.g. Sharp tongue. You can’t beg even iron prosvir from a stone priest. -ric, pertaining to a metaphor, allegorical.

Metaphor: definition from Efremova's dictionary

well.
Turn of speech, consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative
meaning to determine an object or phenomenon based on analogy, comparison or
similarities (in literary criticism).

Metaphor: definition from Ushakov's dictionary

metaphors, g. (Greek metaphora) (lit.). Trope, a figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense on the basis of some. analogies, similarities, etc. (from Pushkin): the voice of the waves; snakes of heart remorse. Brilliant metaphors. Bad metaphor.

The current page defines the word metaphor in plain language. We hope that after reading this explanation in simple words, you no longer have questions about what a metaphor is.

This is called avatar, which is highlighted in separate view expressive ways.

« reifying«:

• "deep sadness"
• "brisk argument"
• "iron character"
• "subtle thoughts"
• "bitter truth",
• "sweet lips"
• "door handle"

They can safely be called epithets.

We bring to your attention a small video lesson by Elena Krasnova:

Different ways of expressing feelings

The metaphor in our everyday speech makes it more emotional and expressive, but to make the verses more lively, bright and colorful. A beautiful metaphor will evoke the desired response from the reader, will give rise to many different associations. By itself, it affects not only the mind, but also the feelings, our subconscious. It is not for nothing that poets devote so much time to the selection of the necessary metaphors in their text.

All poets, in their work, very rarely confine themselves to one phrase-metaphor. There are a lot of them. They clearly form a memorable image. Unfortunately, there are both original and banal words. Not escaped this fate and metaphor. Such clichés as: take root, the forest of legs, the toe of a boot and others have become firmly established in our everyday life. But in poetry, they will not give imagery to the verses. It is necessary to carefully approach their choice and not to stoop to complete banality.

Such Russian poets as Yesenin, Mayakovsky, Lermontov very often used expressive metaphors in their work. “The lonely sail turns white” can be said to have become a designation of loneliness. Feelings need to be described, not named. Readers should be imbued with our image. In this case, the poet manages to influence aesthetically.

It should be the brightest, abstract from the essence, unexpected. Otherwise, where to get imagery in your text? However, it must have realistic roots. Do not turn into a beautiful set of words and letters, but evoke beautiful associations.

A metaphor is an expression or a word in a figurative sense, the basis of which is a phenomenon or an object that has a similarity with it. In simple words, one word is replaced by another that has a similar sign with it.

Metaphor in literature is one of the oldest

What is a metaphor

Metaphor has 4 parts:

1. Context - a complete passage of text that combines the meaning of its constituent elements. individual words or suggestions.
2. An object.
3. The process by which the function is executed.
4. Application of this process or its intersection with any situations.

The concept of metaphor was discovered by Aristotle. Thanks to him, now a view has been formed on it as a necessary accessory of the language, which makes it possible to achieve cognitive and other goals.

Ancient philosophers believed that the metaphor was given to us by nature itself and was so established in everyday speech that many concepts do not need to be called literally, and its use replenishes the lack of words. But after them, it was assigned the function of an additional application to the mechanism of the language, and not to its main form. It was believed that for science it is even harmful, because it leads to a dead end in the search for truth. Against all odds, the metaphor continued to exist in literature because it was necessary for its development. AT more it was used in poetry.

Only in the 20th century was metaphor finally recognized as an integral part of speech, and scientific research using it began to be carried out in new dimensions. This was facilitated by such a property as the ability to combine materials of different nature. in the literature, it became clear when they saw that the extended use of this artistic technique leads to the appearance of riddles, proverbs, allegories.

Building a Metaphor

Metaphor is created from 4 components: two groups and properties of each of them. Features of one group of objects are offered to another group. If a person is called a lion, then they assume that he is endowed with similar characteristics. Thus it is created new look, where the word "lion" in a figurative sense means "fearless and mighty".

Metaphors are specific to different languages. If the Russians "donkey" symbolizes stupidity and stubbornness, then the Spaniards - diligence. Metaphor in literature is a concept that may differ from different peoples which should be taken into account when translating from one language to another.

Metaphor Functions

The main function of metaphor is a vivid emotional assessment and figuratively expressive coloring of speech. At the same time, rich and capacious images are created from incomparable objects.

Another function is nominative, which consists in filling the language with phraseological and lexical constructions, for example: bottle neck, pansies.

In addition to the main ones, the metaphor performs many other functions. This concept is much broader and richer than it seems at first glance.

What are metaphors

Since ancient times, metaphors have been divided into the following types:

1. Sharp - connecting concepts that lie in different planes: "I'm walking around the city, shot with my eyes ...".
2. Erased - so commonplace that the figurative character is no longer noticed ("Already in the morning to me people were reaching out"). It has become so familiar that the figurative meaning is difficult to grasp. It is found when translating from one language to another.
3. Metaphor-formula - its transformation into a direct meaning is excluded (the worm of doubt, the wheel of fortune). She has become a stereotype.
4. Expanded - contains a large message in a logical sequence.
5. Implemented - used for its intended purpose (" Came to my senses, and there again a dead end).

It is hard to imagine modern life without metaphorical images and comparisons. The most common metaphor in literature. This is necessary for a vivid disclosure of images and the essence of phenomena. In poetry, the extended metaphor is especially effective, presented in the following ways:

1. Indirect communication using or history using comparison.
2. A figure of speech using words in a figurative sense, based on analogy, similarity and comparison.

Consistently disclosed in the text fragment: “ A fine rain with dawn washes the dawn», « The moon gives New Year's dreams».

Some classics believed that metaphor in literature is separate phenomenon, which acquires a new meaning due to its occurrence. In this case, it becomes the goal of the author, where the metaphorical image leads the reader to a new meaning, an unexpected meaning. Such metaphors from fiction can be found in the classics. Take, for example, the Nose, which acquires a metaphorical meaning in Gogol's story. Rich in metaphorical images where they give characters and events a new meaning. Based on this, it can be said that their widespread definition is far from complete. Metaphor in literature is more broad concept and not only decorates speech, but often gives it a new meaning.

Conclusion

What is metaphor in literature? It affects the mind more effectively due to emotional coloring and imagery. This is especially evident in poetry. The impact of the metaphor is so strong that psychologists use it to solve problems related to the psyche of patients.

Metaphorical images are used when creating advertisements. They spark the imagination and help consumers make the right choice. The same is also carried out by society in the political sphere.

Metaphor is becoming more and more everyday life manifested in language, thought and action. Its study is expanding, covering new areas of knowledge. By the images created by metaphors, one can judge the effectiveness of a particular media.