Types of antonymy. Antonyms

Antonyms are words of one part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings, for example: “truth” - “false”, “good” - “evil”, “speak” - “keep silent”.

Antonym types:

1. Diverse. This type of antonyms is the most representative. Opposite meanings belong to these words as a whole (for example, high - low, heat - cold, catch up - lag behind, etc.). Some prepositions are opposed as antonyms (for example, for and in front (behind the closet - in front of the closet), in and out (into the room - out of the room).

2. Single root. For them, the meaning of the opposite is expressed not by the root parts of words, but by affixal morphemes. Antonymy arises on the opposition of prefixes (for example, at- and u- (come - leave), v- and s- (climb - get off), or as a result of the use of negative prefixes that give the word the opposite meaning (for example, literate - illiterate, tasty - tasteless, military - anti-war, revolution - counter-revolution, etc.).

3. Contextual (or contextual) antonyms are words that are not opposed in meaning in the language and are antonyms only in the text: Mind and heart - ice and fire - this is the main thing that distinguished this hero.

4. Enantiosemy - the opposite of the meaning of the same word. Sometimes antonymous may not be individual words, but different meanings of one word (for example, the word priceless, meaning: 1. having a very high price(priceless treasures). 2. having no price (bought for next to nothing, i.e. very cheap). The word blessed, meaning: 1. in the highest degree happy (blissful state). 2. foolish (earlier meaning holy fool).

5. Proportionate (having opposite actions: rise - fall, get fat - lose weight) and disproportionate (inaction is opposed to some action: leave - stay, light - extinguish).

6. Linguistic (exist in the language system: high - low, right - left) and speech (formed in speech turns: priceless - worthless, beauty - marsh kikimara);

Functions of antonyms:

1. The main stylistic function of antonyms is lexical device to construct an antithesis. P: And we hate, and we love by accident.

2. Opposite to the antithesis is the reception, which consists in the use of antonyms with negation. It is used to emphasize the lack of a clearly defined quality in the subject being described. P: She was not good, not bad-looking

3. Antonymy is the basis of oxymoron (from the Greek oxymoron ‘witty-stupid’) - a stylistic figure that creates a new concept by combining words that are contrasting in meaning. P: The shadow of uncreated creatures sways in sleep. Like the blades of a lotanium enamel wall(Bryusov).

4. Antonyms are used to emphasize the completeness of the coverage of the depicted - stringing antonymic pairs. P: In the world there is good and evil, lies and truth, sorrow and joy.

Anaphrasis - the use of one of the antonyms, while it is necessary to use the other: where, smart, are you wandering, head? (referring to donkey). Antonymic pairs should be logical.

Original Russian vocabulary.

The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words , preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. e. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living on a rather vast territory. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was Balkan-Danubian, or South Russian, localization 1 The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

The words ascend to the Indo-European parent language-base denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc.: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew and etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary is made up of common Slavic words, inherited by our language from common Slavic (Proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious even in our time.

Among o pan-Slavic there are a lot of nouns. This is first of all specific nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought.

From other parts of speech in the common Slavic vocabulary are verbs: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one two Three; pronouns: I, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, how and some auxiliary parts of speech: over, ah, and, yes, but etc.

The common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this relatively small vocabulary is the core of the Russian dictionary, it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.

Slavic languages, which had the ancient Proto-Slavic language as their source, according to sound, grammatical and lexical features separated into three groups: southern, western and eastern.

The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. in the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages of the Western and Southern Slavs.

As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish:

1) names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch;

2) names of labor tools: axe, blade;

3) names of household items: boots, ladle, casket, ruble;

4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller;

5) names of settlements: village, freedom and other lexico-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of primordially Russian words is the Russian vocabulary itself, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e., in the era of independent development of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages already have their own equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary. Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative basis: bricklayer, flyer, dressing room, community, intervention and under.

It should be emphasized that in the composition of the Russian vocabulary itself there may also be words with foreign roots that have passed the path of Russian word formation and acquired Russian suffixes and prefixes: partisanship, non-partisan, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; compound words: radio station, locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry, wall newspaper and etc.

The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a wide variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.

borrowed vocabulary.

The process of moving foreign language elements from one language to another language is called borrowing by linguists. Speaking of ʼʼforeign language elementsʼʼ, we mean the units of all levels of the structure of the language - phonology, morphology, vocabulary, syntax. Lexical elements are most often borrowed.

Types	signs	Examples
Antonyms-qualitatives	They express a qualitative opposite. Between the words of an antonymous pair, a middle link is possible, indicating a gradual change in the designated quality	Cold cool normal temperature warm hot
Antonyms-contratives	Express the opposite direction of actions, properties and signs	Dawn - get dark, sunrise - sunset, gain weight - lose weight, in - out, etc.
Complementary antonyms	Express complementarity. Members of an antonymous pair complement each other to a whole. The negation of one of the antonyms gives the meaning of the other, because. there is nothing in between: not + true means "false"	Alive - dead, war - peace, south - north, life - death, sighted - blind, truth - lies, etc.

Table 7

Antonym types by structure

Table 8

Varieties of single-root antonyms

Sample Semantic and Structural

classification of antonyms

Give semantic and structural classification antonyms in the proverb below.

In a smart conversation to be - to buy a mind, in a stupid one - to lose one's own.

Smart - stupid (the main antonymic pair, they are antonyms-qualitatives, they are opposed by qualitative feature, heterogeneous).

Buy - lose (a quasi-antonymous pair: "buy" is the antonym of the word "lose" only in the meaning of "acquire"; denote multidirectional actions, are antonyms-contratives, heterogeneous).

Task 2. Read the poem by F. Krivin and underline the antonyms in it.

Faces of lies

Lies are good or bad

Compassionate or merciless.

Lies are clever and clumsy,

Cautious and reckless

Delightful and joyless

Too complex and too simple.

Lies are sinful and holy,

She is modest and elegant,

Outstanding and ordinary

frank, impartial,

And it's just a hassle.

Lies are scary and funny

Now omnipotent, now completely powerless,

Now humiliated, then wayward,

fleeting or lingering.

Lies are wild and tame

Everyday life can also be a front door,

Inspirational, boring and different...

The truth is only the truth.

Task 3. Determine what is the general semantic feature by which opposition occurs in each of the pairs of antonyms from F. Krivin's poem. Check which of them are recorded in the antonym dictionary and which are not. How can this be explained?

Task 4. Make up antonymic pairs of these words, use them in phrases.

Water, progressive, weaken, backward, help, advanced, rejoice, hard, wet, interfere, sad, regressive, joyful, easy, talk, alien, withering, twilight, strengthen, dry, dry, silent, mournful, dawn, own, heyday, last, enchant, excess, knowledge, love, idealist, minimum, heavy, heat, sighted, married, first, light, cold, materialist, blind, single, maximum, insufficient, disappoint, ignorance, hatred.

practical session No. 5 in the course "Lexicology".

Subject. Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of its active and passive stock.

Time - 2 hours.

1. The concept of the active and passive composition of vocabulary.

2. Obsolete and obsolete words. Historicisms and archaisms. Historicism of meaning and historicism of the word.

3. Types of archaisms according to the degree of obsolescence and the nature of archaism. Changing the stylistic affiliation of words.

4. Language and individual neologisms.

Exercise 1. Carefully study the tables below, make detailed answers on them.

Vocabulary of the Russian language

Table 9

Archaisms and historicisms

Characteristic	Archaisms	historicisms
Reason for leaving active vocabulary	Displaced by other words	The objects, phenomena denoted by these words disappeared
Is it possible to choose synonyms?	Yes: neck - neck, eyes - eyes, cheeks - cheeks, finger - finger, etc.	Not
Degree of obsolescence	1) disappeared completely (vya, persi, dennitsa); 2) exist in the form of connected roots or as part of stable phrases: beef (beef - cattle), furrier (fast - skin), mentor (nastava - sample), artist (hudog - skillful); 3) preserved as toponyms (Mytishchi), hydronyms (Ob), anthroponyms (Vyacheslav)	1) the word has disappeared completely. In this case, one speaks of historicism of the word: policeman, clerk, bailiff; 2) the word functions in the language in a meaning derived from the main one. But in its basic meaning, the word is not actively used. In this case, one speaks of historicism of the meaning of the word: squad (army) - pioneer squad
Purpose of use in active dictionary	Used as a stylistic	1. Used as a stylistic device 2. Used as neutral words (For example, in historical works)

Antonyms are words that are different in sound and have opposite meanings: lie - truth, evil - good, silence - speak. Examples of antonyms show that they refer to the same part of speech.

Antonymy in Russian is presented much narrower than synonymy. This is due to the fact that only words that are correlated in terms of quality (good - bad, native - alien, smart - stupid, dense - rare, high - low), temporal (day - night, early - late), quantitative (single - multiple, many - few), spatial (spacious - cramped, large - small, wide - narrow, high - low) features.

There are antonymic pairs denoting the names of states, actions. Examples of antonyms of this kind: rejoice - grieve, cry - laugh.

Types and examples of antonyms in Russian

According to the structure, antonyms are divided into heterogeneous (morning - evening) and single-root (enter - exit). The opposite of the meaning of single-root antonyms is caused by prefixes. However, it should be remembered that the addition to adverbs and prefixes without-, not- in most cases, it gives them the value of a weakened opposite (high - low), so the contrast of their values turns out to be "muffled" (low - this does not mean "low"). Based on this, not all prefix formations can be attributed to antonyms, but only those that are extreme points lexical paradigm: strong - powerless, harmful - harmless, successful - unsuccessful.

Antonyms, as well as synonyms, are in close connection with ambiguity: empty - serious (conversation); empty - full (cup); empty - expressive (look); empty - meaningful (story). Examples of antonyms show that different meanings of the word "empty" are included in different antonymic pairs. Single words, as well as words with specific meanings (iambic, pencil, desk, notebook, etc.) cannot have antonyms.

Among antonyms, the phenomenon of enantiosemy also exists - this is the development of mutually exclusive, opposite meanings of some polysemantic words: carry (into the room, bring) - carry (out of the room, take away); abandoned (a phrase just said) - abandoned (abandoned, forgotten). The meaning in such cases is specified in the context. Enantiosemy is often the cause of ambiguity in certain expressions. Examples of antonyms of this kind: he listened to the report; the director looked through these lines.

Contextual antonyms: examples and definition

Contextual antonyms are words that are opposed in a specific context: moonlight - sunlight; not a mother, but a daughter; one day - the whole life; wolves are sheep. The polarity of the meanings of such words in the language is not fixed, and their opposition is an individual decision of the author. The writer in such cases reveals the opposite qualities different concepts and contrasts them in speech. However, these pairs of words are not antonyms.

Antonym types:

4. Enantiosemy - the opposite of the meaning of the same word. Sometimes not individual words can be antonymous, but different meanings of one word (for example, the word priceless, meaning: 1. having a very high price (priceless treasures). 2. not having any price (bought for nothing, i.e. very cheaply) The word blessed, meaning: 1. supremely happy (blissful state) 2. foolish (an earlier meaning foolish).

5. Proportionate (having opposite actions: rise - fall, get fat - lose weight) and disproportionate (inaction is opposed to some action: leave - stay, light - extinguish).

6. Linguistic (exist in the language system: high - low, right - left) and speech (formed in speech turns: priceless - worthless, beauty - marsh kikimara);

Functions of antonyms:

1. The main stylistic function of antonyms is a lexical means for constructing an antithesis. P: And we hate, and we love by accident.

4. Antonyms are used to emphasize the completeness of the coverage of the depicted - stringing antonymic pairs. P: In the world there is good and evil, lies and truth, sorrow and joy.

Anaphrasis - the use of one of the antonyms, while it is necessary to use the other: where, smart, are you wandering, head? (referring to donkey). Antonymic pairs should be logical.

Homonymy, types of homonyms. Paronyms. Paronomasia. Functions of homonyms and paronyms in speech.

Homonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, identical in sound and spelling, but different in lexical meaning, for example: boron - “a pine forest growing in a dry, elevated place” and boron - “a steel drill used in dentistry”.

Types of homonyms.

There are full and partial homonyms. Full homonyms belong to the same part of speech and coincide in all forms, for example: key (from the apartment) and key (spring). And partial homonyms are consonant words, one of which completely coincides only with part of the forms of another word, for example: tact (in the meaning of “play the last measure”) and tact (in the meaning of “decency rules”). The word with the second meaning does not have a plural form.

Paronyms(from Greek para “near, next to” + onyma “name”) - words similar in sound, similar in pronunciation, lexical and grammatical affiliation and relatedness of roots, but having different meanings. Paronyms in most cases refer to one part of speech. For example: dress and put on, subscriber and subscription, wiser and wiser. Sometimes paronyms are also called false brothers.

The phenomenon of paronomasia (from gr. para - near, onomazo - I call) consists in the sound similarity of words that have different morphological roots (cf .: bunks - sleds, pilot - boatswain, clarinet - cornet, injection - infection). As with paronymy, lexical pairs in paronomasia belong to the same part of speech, perform similar syntactic functions. Such words may have the same prefixes, suffixes, endings, but their roots are always different. In addition to random phonetic similarities, words in such lexical pairs have nothing in common, their subject-semantic reference is completely different.

Paronomasia, unlike paronymy, is not a natural and regular phenomenon. And although there are many phonetically similar words in the language, comparing them as lexical pairs is the result of individual perception: one will see paronomasia in a pair of circulation - type, the other - in circulation - a mirage, the third - in circulation - stained glass. However, paronymy and paronomasia are close in terms of the use of similar-sounding words in speech.

The use of homonyms and paronyms in speech

(Homonyms). Like polysemantic words, homonyms are used in mutually exclusive strong positions. This makes it possible to implement the main semantic function of homonyms - to differentiate words that are different in meaning and coincide in sound shells. Since these words are not related in meaning, not motivated, the strength of their mutual exclusion in the text is much greater than. for meanings (LSV) of a polysemantic word.

The contact use of homonyms in the text or even their "overlay", complete "fusion" in one form implements certain stylistic functions, being a means of creating a pun, a figurative collision different meanings, underlined expression: I am able to take a wife without a fortune, but I am not able to go into debt for her rags (P.); By paying your debt, you thereby fulfill it (Kozma Prutkov). The expressiveness of the slogan Mir - peace \ is emphasized by the use of homonyms.

(Paronyms)

Paronyms can be used in speech as a means of expression.

Often, authors put paronyms side by side to show their semantic differences with apparent similarity: Any person, since he lives in society, is a humanist in the sense that he explains, corrects, evaluates his own and others' practical and theoretical behavior in the categories of humanitarian (not necessarily unfortunately, humane) thinking. (V. Ilyin, A. Razumov); This is how it happens when trust is confused with gullibility. (Y. Dymsky).

The clash of paronyms can be used to highlight these words, which enhances the meanings they express: Wrote a businesslike and efficient letter to Valerian (L. Tolstoy).

So, the skillful use of paronyms helps to correctly and accurately express an idea, reveals great opportunities Russian language in the transmission of subtle semantic shades.

1. Counter antonymy- antonyms expressing a qualitative opposite They are characterized by gradual (step) oppositions, and complete, true antonymy is expressed by extreme, symmetrical members of the paradigm. Wed beautiful <симпатичный, миловидный, невзрачный, неприглядный> ugly;young<нестарый, немолодой, пожилой> old;cold< not hot, cool, warm > hot. Beautiful and ugly semantically symmetrical. Relationships of adjacent members of the paradigm - synonymy, asymmetric relationship of extreme members ( graceful - scary, charming - ugly) – quasiantonymy. Quazantonyms can be words that are asymmetrical not only in semantics, but also in stylistic coloring, and in time of use. : health - ailment, spirit - flesh(outdated).

2. Complementary antonymy- antonyms expressing complementarity. This opposition is not gradual, because the entire scale is represented by only two members: blind - sighted, truth - a lie, married - single, sleep - stay awake, alive - dead, without - with. The negation of what one word denotes entails the affirmation of what the other denotes.

3. Vector antonymy- antonyms expressing the opposite direction: increase - decrease, bend - unbend, grow poor - grow rich, light - extinguish, freeze - thaw.

4. Pragmatic antonymy- a small group of words in which the opposition is expressed not purely semantically, but through their frequent figurative use in speech: fathers - children, earth - sky, heaven - hell, soul - body, mind - heart.

Antonymy and polysemy. The following relationships are possible: 1) one polysemantic word is opposite to another in all or some meanings; 2) one polysemantic word in different meanings"attracts" different antonyms; 3) one meaning of one polysemantic word is opposite to another meaning of the same word (enantiosemy).

Antonymy and synonymy. Similarities: both antonyms and synonyms 1) are different words; 2) refer to one part of speech; 3) are included in one LSG; 4) enter into antonymic and synonymous relations in individual values; 5) form macrostructures called synonymic rows and antonymic pairs.

Differences:

1. The main thing is semantics. In both cases, there is a correlation and opposition language units, but for synonyms, the opposition goes along one or more differential features, for antonyms - throughout the entire semantic volume.

2. The synonymic series has a gradual character and is an open structure, the antonymic series consists of two members and is closed.

3. Antonyms have the same stylistic coloration, synonymous series combines words of different stylistic layers.

4. Antonyms have the same compatibility, synonyms have different ones.

5. Both synonyms and antonyms have the property of co-occurrence, but for synonyms this is not necessary, and sometimes undesirable, for antonyms it is a criterion of antonymy.

The similarity of synonyms and antonyms determines the contacts between them: the vast majority of antonymic pairs have synonyms either for both members of the series, or for one of them. Wed pale(dim, colorless, faded, dull) - bright(thick, juicy, rich, intense, strong). Special antonym-synonymous dictionaries are published in the West.

There are antonyms general language, commonplace (regular opposition fixed in dictionaries) and occasional, speech, contextual . "Diagnostic contexts" (L.A. Novikov) of antonyms: not x, but y;X but not Y(You are young and I am old You are rich but I am poor); X, Y (I told my friends: there is a lot of grief, little happiness; I swear by the first day of creation, I swear by its last day); X or Y (He had only one opinion about people: good or bad, he either believed or not); then X, then Y (The woman rushed about near the chest of drawers and either untied a warm scarf around her neck, then tied it again); X to Y;X to Y;X to Y with the meaning of covering the entire class of objects, phenomena, qualities, divided into opposites: from start to finish, from morning to evening; X→Y;X=Y with the meaning of turning one opposite into another, identifying them ( Everything suddenly became complex - the simplest; In a hostile struggle, the gain of one is the loss of the other.);X and Y(the meaning of the unity of opposites).

Stylistic figures based on antonyms: antithesis, oxymoron, irony, antiphrasis.

Conversion-type of paradigmatic correlation of words , reflection in the language of "inverse" relations using different words(LSV), whose opposed semes allow such units to express subject-object relations in reversed statements denoting the same situation. Wed (one) The first-ranker beat the champion. – The champion lost to the first-class(antonyms-conversives); (2) We ran out of money - We spent all the money ( synonyms-conversives); (3) The brother owns the house. - The house belongs to my brother(properly convertible).

The same situation is named, but different ("reverse") points of view of the speaker are presented. Conversion, like synonymy and antonymy, is an onomasiological category, however, unlike them, it is characterized by non-contact (non-simultaneous) use.

Paronymy- paradigmatic relation of partial semantic similarity of cognate words belonging to the same part of speech: well-fed // well-fed, subscriber // subscription, fact // factor. The most important difference is compatibility: well-fed person // hearty lunch, used subscription // sloppy subscriber, search for a way out // intrigues of enemies, arguments and facts // fear factor etc.

The emergence of lexical paronyms was facilitated by various intralinguistic processes: 1) the development of antonymic meanings in words ( good/blessed); 2) differentiation of the meanings of Russian and Church Slavonic words ( find // gain, ignorant // ignoramus); 3) semantic or stylistic differentiation of synonyms ( mighty // mighty, wandering // wandering, recumbent // lying, standing // standing, hanging // hanging); 4) the transition of some participles into adjectives in parallel with already existing adjectives, but with a purely independent value (dexterous / / dexterous); 5) penetration into common vocabulary relative adjectives, which in the process of transition to qualitative ones formed lexical pairs ( calculated // prudent, negotiable // resourceful); 6) transition possessive adjectives into qualitative and relative ( general // general, fish // fish); 7) delimitation of values former options one word ( wreath // wreath, shooter // archer, stall // casket; 8) the formation of paronyms from homonyms resulting from polysemy ( fist // kulak).

The most reliable criterion for distinguishing paronyms is compatibility: there are always positions in which only one of them is possible (paronyms are in relation additional distribution ).

Types of paronyms by structure: root (storm / storm, remnants / remnants), suffixal (memorable / memorable, economic / economical, colorful / flowery), prefix (present/grant, condemn/discuss, absorb/swallow). The least productive root. The main way paronyms arise is morphological: -ichsk / -ichn, -n / -sk, -n / -liv, etc. Paronyms are characterized by the formation of paronymic nests: condemn / discuss, condemnation / discussion, condemned / discussed etc.

The study of paronyms is important for the style and culture of speech.

AT artistic speech usually talk about paronomasia(arbitrary sound-semantic convergence of different words): He writes in sweat, he plows in sweat; Minute - passing - pass(Tsvetaeva); ... Homeless, like a demon, smokeless, like gunpowder, thoughtless, propertyless - no thought, no lady(Antokolsky); Cain give repentance(Okudzhava).

Paronomasia is a means of expressiveness in artistic or journalistic speech, paronymy is a source of errors in case of indistinguishability differential signs words: Put the step of the foot back, He clicked the gate with the ankle.

Meronymy- the relation of the part and the whole: face - ear, eye, nose. Not to be confused with genus-species relations(hyponymy). Diagnostic context of meronyms: X - part of Y: room - part apartments, stem - part flower.