Phraseological types. Phraseology

Stable turns that have a fused, undivided meaning, i.e. a meaning that is not a simple sum of the meanings of the words of turnover (a hare's soul is a coward, beaten bucks - to mess around) are called idioms. Idioms are phraseological units that are not translated verbatim into another language. Idioms are represented in the language by two types - phraseological unions and phraseological units. Phraseological fusion is a turnover of a figurative or ugly nature, the meaning of which is not at all motivated by the meanings of its constituent components (for example: lead by the nose ("to deceive, promising something and not fulfilling the promise"). Among phraseological fusions there are many units characterized by lack of living syntactic connection between their components, for example: no matter how much, how much in vain, so-so. Semantic lack of motivation may be due to the fact that the fusion contains lexical, semantic archaism or historicism, for example: beat the buckets (the bucket is "a chock for making products").

Phraseological unity is a figurative turnover, the meaning of which is to some extent motivated by the meanings of the words that form it (for example: White crow(“about a person who stands out sharply from others”), the game is not worth the candle (“the money or effort spent is not justified”).

Phraseological units that are close in meaning to a word or equivalent to a word (a hare's soul is a coward) are adjoined by those periphrases, i.e. allegorical descriptive designations of an object "(object, person) through an indication of its attribute (s) in which one of the words has direct meaning, and the other is figurative and which have a meaning equivalent to one word: the king of animals is a lion, black gold is oil, air ocean atmosphere, sky; the daylight is the sun (cf. Pushkin: “The daylight went out”).

Phraseological combinations are semantically decomposable turns in which it is limitedly used, one of the components is phraseologically related (it is combined with one, two, less often with a large number words). For example: bosom friend, open your mouth.

A peculiar group consists of those phraseological combinations in which related component is not a word, but a stable turnover. For example: to fight (free component) like a Sidorov's goat, to yell (or scream) in all of Ivanovskaya, to run away with all your shoulder blades, etc.

Phraseological expressions are also semantically decomposable; unlike phraseological combinations, they consist of components, the meaning of which, in principle, is realized without restrictions, freely. They are combinations of words reproduced by memory in this particular composition. Phraseological expressions include different kind cliches and those sayings and winged words, sayings that have a direct (and not allegorical) meaning. For example: seriously and for a long time; at this stage.

It is clear that phraseological units that are logically equivalent to a sentence (expressing a judgment) or equivalent to a phrase or word can play a different syntactic role.

turn common Slavic phraseological unit is erroneous

Characterization of phraseological units in terms of their stylistic and emotional properties and the scope of their initial use

Colloquial phraseological units: the grandmother said in two, it is written with a pitchfork on the water, it burns in her hands, she will heal before the wedding.

Turnovers of a bookish nature: a stumbling block, sink into oblivion, a book with seven seals, a cornerstone.

Neutral phraseological units: stand on your own, a few days, by all means, word for word.

A lot of phraseological units express their attitude to the situations, qualities, properties, actions, persons they designate: irony, mockery, playful admiration, neglect, contempt, etc., and therefore an assessment of what is named with the help of phraseological units. For example: for both cheeks, you lick your fingers, cut the soles on the go (express a joke, playful admiration or admiration), irony, mockery, contempt: a lump out of the blue, like a ram on a new gate.

So, the turns that came from scientific terminology (chain reaction), from biblical texts(manna from heaven) from ancient literature (Achilles' heel) are usually bookish in nature.

Phraseologisms, the appearance of which is associated with the speech of those who are engaged (engaged) in some kind of craft, manual labor, some kind technical activities, with the speech of those whose occupation is of a “non-prestigious” nature or is socially condemned, have a colloquial or colloquial character (without a hitch, beat the thumbs). Colloquial or vernacular are also many of those turns that arose in lively, relaxed speech. They usually contain words of a concrete everyday nature, often words of an evaluative nature. They can reflect specific everyday situations, ideas, specific real events, circumstances, etc. Eg. : chickens laugh like water off a duck's back.

The criterion for distinguishing types of indecomposable combinations is primarily the degree of fusion in them. individual words. The stability and indecomposability of the elements of phraseological turnover is considered, as a rule, from two
points of view: firstly, from the point of view of their semantic solidarity and, Secondly, from the point of view of the possibility of morphological changes in the words that make up this turnover.

At the same time, the fusion of turns in meaning is also reflected in their grammatical properties. Thus, the more clearly the semantic indecomposability of the phrase as a whole is expressed, the weaker the grammatical connections, and sometimes they are completely lost (cf. uneven hour, a joke to say headlong and mislead - mislead, rub glasses - rub glasses - rub glasses, etc.).

According to the degree of lexical indivisibility and grammatical fusion of constituent parts, many researchers, following Academician V.V. Vinogradov distinguish the following types of phraseological units: phraseological fusions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations.

Some quotations, proverbs, sayings and a number of terminological phrases that acquire certain features of phraseological units proper, for example, reproducibility in the same composition and emerging metaphoricality, should be singled out as a special group. Such turns are called phraseologized, they gradually move into one or another group of phraseological units proper. Note that N.M. Shansky calls them phraseological expressions and includes them in the general composition of phraseology.

Phraseological unions

Phraseological fusions are called such lexically indivisible phrases, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the individual words included in them. For example, the meaning of turns from the bay-floundering is “rashly”, like pit dat - “certainly” and others are not motivated by the value of the constituent components, since, firstly, in lexical system modern language is not complete in meaning on its own existing words bays, flounders; secondly, the meaning of the words give, drink turns out to be lexically weakened in the conditions of this phrase, even devastated (dat - “hand over”, pit - “to absorb liquid”).

Thus, the main feature of phraseological fusion is its lexical indivisibility, absolute semantic cohesion, in which the meaning of a whole phrase cannot be deduced from the meaning of its constituent words.

Phraseological units

Phraseological units are such lexically indivisible turns, the general meaning of which is to some extent motivated figurative meaning the words that make up this turn.

For example, the general meaning of such unities as throwing dust in the eyes, holding a stone in the bosom depends on the figurative meaning of the individual elements that make up the figurative "core" of the whole turnover.

The imagery inherent to some extent in phraseological units of all types is the result of the use of individual words that make up phraseological units in a figurative sense. However, not all types of stable combinations have the same imagery, and far from each of them this imagery can be correlated with the meaning of individual components and motivated.

Lexical composition phraseological units are indivisible. This brings them closer to the group of adhesions. But unlike fusions, parts of phraseological units can be separated from each other by inserting some words. For example: Pour water on (your, mine, yours, someone else's, etc.) a mill (compare with fusions like a joke to say).

Phraseological combinations

Phraseological combinations are such stable turns, the general meaning of which completely depends on the meaning of the constituent words. Words in a phraseological combination retain relative semantic independence, however, they are not free and show their meaning only in conjunction with a certain, closed circle of words, for example: the word is tearfully combined only with the words ask, beg. Consequently, one of the members of the phraseological combination turns out to be more stable and even constant, the other - variable.

Phraseological combinations differ from phraseological unions and unities in that they are not absolutely lexically indivisible. Despite the phraseological isolation of this type of phrases, even lexically non-free components can be replaced by a synonym without prejudice to the general phraseological meaning (cf. ). This creates favorable conditions for the emergence of variants of phraseological units, and often synonyms.

Phraseological combinations are quite numerous in composition and very common in use group.

More on the topic Types of phraseological units:

1. § 33. Phraseologisms as units of language. Types of phraseological units
2. Reflection of phraseological units in dictionaries. Use of phraseological units: functions, transformation of phraseological units. Erroneous use of phraseological units.
3. Types of phraseological units and phraseological phrases by structure and lexical and grammatical composition
4. 1.38. Phraseological units borrowed from other languages, phraseological units of professional speech, jargons
5. 14 Phraseological units, their types, and main features. Stylistic coloring of phraseological units. The stylistic role of Ф and methods of their use. Mistakes in using F. Dictionaries F.

Phraseology(from Greek φρσις - expression and Greek λογος - concept, doctrine) - a section of theoretical linguistics that studies stable speech turns and expressions - phraseological units, the totality of phraseological units of any language is also called its phraseology.

In applied linguistics, especially in Anglo-Saxon countries, instead of phraseology, the broader discipline of “formula language” (en: Formulaic speech) is studied, which is related not only to stable phrases, but also to fluency in general (en: Automatic speech)).

Unlike lexicology, which studies individual words and the vocabulary of its language - vocabulary, phraseology studies non-single word units of the language: stable non-free phrases - collocations, phraseological units (idioms), sayings and proverbs, speech cliches and phrase schemes, etc.

Phraseology - a branch of linguistics that studies the phraseological composition of a language in its current state and historical development. Critical Issues F. - the delimitation of phraseological units from combinations of words formed (and not reproduced) in speech, and the definition on this basis of the signs of phraseological unit.

The scope of phraseology turns out to be the widest when defining a phraseological unit based on the sign of reproducibility in its finished form, regardless of the semantic coherence of the combination or its divisibility into the meanings of component words, regardless of the nominative or communicative value of the unit.

The volume of phraseology turns out to be narrow when defining a phraseological unit based on the sign of semantic solidarity of the meaning of the combination and its equivalence to the word in terms of the nominative function. The issue of including communicative units such as proverbs and sayings and combinations formed according to a typical model with an associated meaning of words (to be furious, delighted, furious) remains controversial.

The main problems of phraseology are the determination of the consistency of the phraseological composition and, in connection with this, the study of the sign nature of phraseological units ; description of synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy and variance of phraseological units; establishing the specifics of words and verbal meanings implemented as part of phraseological units; clarification of the correlation of phraseological units with parts of speech; defining them syntactic roles; the study of the formation of new meanings of words based on the phraseological context, etc. Some scientists recognize the existence of a special phraseological level of the language and rely on the analysis of only interphraseological system links. Others consider phraseological units in connection with the entire lexical-semantic system of the language, syntax and word formation. F. also studies the stylistic differentiation of phraseological units.

The methods developed in phraseology are diverse. The structural-semantic description is dominated by the system-classifying, basically static method; when focusing on a word, the study of the phrase-forming properties of word-components and a dynamic approach to describing the structural organization of phraseological units prevails. Methods for the classification description of phraseological units are being developed, using a comparison of the elements of the structure of a phraseological unit with a free combination of words, as well as methods of distributive analysis - a description of the relationship between the elements of the structure of phraseological units and the features of their external environment.

Phraseology as an independent linguistic discipline arose in Sov. linguistics in the 40-50s. 20th century (works by V. V. Vinogradov and his school). The prerequisites for the creation of phraseology were laid in the works of A. A. Potebnya, I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, A. A. Shakhmatov, K. Brugman, G. Paul, J. O. Jespersen and others, who singled out close verbal groups in speech , irregular in meaning and syntactically indecomposable. Theoretical basis functional-semantic analysis of phraseological units within the framework of lexicology were first developed by S. Bally. The development of phraseology as a special discipline was stimulated by the development in Soviet linguistics of questions of lexico-semantic variation and its phraseological forms, as well as by the understanding of the phrase as a syntactic category, correlative with the word according to the nominative function, which led to interest in stable combinations as building material suggestions. In the owls linguistics, the phraseological composition of the languages ​​of different structures and, above all, the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR is studied, the main problems of phraseology are discussed from the standpoint of the methods developed in various schools and directions. To coordinate research, a phraseological center was created at Samarkand University, which publishes special collections.

Phraseological parameters

The sphere of phraseology in different theoretical concepts is defined differently. Nevertheless, most researchers agree that phraseological units should be characterized by three important parameters: ambiguity, stability and idiomaticity. The first of these parameters can be considered the only relatively clear and operational concept, although even here problems arise related to the presence or absence of an orthographic tradition in a given language, the distinction between words and phrases, words and sentences in a given language. morphological type language, etc. The category of stability turns out to be much less definite, but the concept of idiomaticity raises the greatest questions. In the very general case idiomatic means a certain complexity in the way of expressing content - complexity not in the sense of the maximum complication of linguistic forms as such, but in the "concentration" of expression and the complexity of understanding. Phraseology is only one of the manifestations of idiomaticity.

The most consistently distinguished by various scientists properties of phraseological units are:

• reproducibility
• stability,
• overwordiness (separate formatting),
• belonging to the nominative inventory of the language.

Idiomaticity as a phraseological parameter

All definitions of idiomaticity come down to two basic ideas - reinterpretation and opacity.

1. Reinterpreting the "A" value of an expression A as a value "B" is an operation resulting in the transformation of "A" into "B" according to some principle R.

2. Sign opacity A is a property BUT, preventing the "calculation" of the value "A" due to the absence of a productive rule that allows to identify "A" or due to the absence of one or more components A in dictionary.

Yes, the expression let the goat into the garden idiomatic in terms of (1) - the R principle in this case turns out to be a metaphorization mechanism, while the expression without hesitation idiomatic on the basis of (2) - the components of this phraseological unit are not found anywhere except in its composition in the Russian language.

We can say that reinterpretation is a look at idiomatic expression from the point of view of its generation, and opacity - from the point of view of its understanding. That is why they intersect in some cases.

Types of phraseological units

Phraseologism (phraseological turn, phrase) is a stable phrase peculiar only to a given language, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the words included in it, taken separately. Due to the fact that a phraseological unit (or idiom) cannot be translated literally (meaning is lost), translation and understanding difficulties often arise. On the other hand, such phraseological units give the language a bright emotional coloring. Often grammatical meaning idioms do not meet the norms of the modern language, but are grammatical archaisms. An example of such expressions in Russian: “stay with the nose”, “beat the buckets”, “give back”, “play the fool”, “point of view”, etc.

The concept of phraseological units (fr. unite phraseologique) as a stable phrase, the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent words, was first formulated by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally in his work Precis de stylistique, where he contrasted them with another type of phrases - phraseological groups (fr. series phraseologiques) with a variable combination of components. Later V. V. Vinogradov singled out three main types of phraseological units:

• phraseological fusions(idioms),
• phraseological units
• phraseological combinations.

N. M. Shansky also highlights additional view —phraseological expressions .

Phraseological fusions (idioms)

Phraseological fusion, or idiom (from the Greek ?διος "own, proper") is a semantically indivisible turnover, the meaning of which is not at all derivable from the sum of the values ​​of its constituent components, their semantic independence has been completely lost. For example, sodom and gomorrah- "turmoil, noise." In a literal translation of phraseological fusions, it is usually impossible for a foreigner to understand their general meaning: in English. to show the white feather"to be afraid" (literally - "to show a white feather") none of the words hints at the meaning of the whole phrase.

Often grammatical forms and the meanings of idioms are not determined by the norms and realities of the modern language, that is, such fusions are lexical and grammatical archaisms. For example, idioms beat the buckets- "to mess around" (in the original meaning - "to split a log into blanks for making household wooden items") and slipshod- "carelessly" reflect the realities of the past, absent in the present (in the past, they were characterized by metaphor). In adhesions from small to large, without hesitation preserved archaic grammatical forms.

Phraseological units

Phraseological unity is a stable turnover, in which, nevertheless, the signs of the semantic separation of the components are clearly preserved. As a rule, its overall meaning is motivated and derived from the meaning of individual components.

Phraseological unity is characterized by figurativeness; each word of such a phrase has its own meaning, but in the aggregate they acquire a figurative meaning. Usually phraseological units of this type are tropes with a metaphorical meaning (for example, to study hard, to go with the flow,throw a bait). The individual words included in its composition are semantically dependent, and the meaning of each of the components is subject to the unity of the general figurative meaning of the entire phraseological expression as a whole. However, with a literal translation, a foreigner can guess the meaning of the phrase.

Like idioms, phraseological units are semantically indivisible, their grammatical forms and syntactic structure strictly defined. Replacing a word as part of a phraseological unity, including the substitution of a synonym, leads to the destruction of the metaphor (for example, science granite science basalt) or changing the expressive meaning: fall for the bait and get on the net are phraseological synonyms, but express various shades expression.

However, unlike idioms, unities are subject to the realities of the modern language and can allow the insertion of other words between their parts in speech: for example, bring (oneself, him, someone) to white heat , pour water on a mill (something or someone) and pour water on (one's own, someone else's, etc.) mill.

Examples: come to a standstill, beat the key, keep a stone in one's bosom, lead by the nose; English to know the way the cat is jumping"know which way the wind blows" (literally - "know where the cat will jump").

Phraseological combinations

A phraseological combination is a stable turnover, which includes words both with a free meaning and with phraseologically related, non-free (used only in this combination). Phraseological combinations are stable turns, but their holistic meaning follows from the meanings of their individual words.

Unlike phraseological fusions and unities, combinations are semantically divisible - their composition allows limited synonymous substitution or replacement of individual words, while one of the members of the phraseological combination turns out to be constant, while the others are variable: for example, in phrases burn with love, hate, shame, impatience word burn down is a constant member with a phraseologically related meaning.

As variable members of a combination, a limited range of words can be used, determined by semantic relations within language system: so, phraseological combination burn with passion is a hypernym for combinations of the type burn from..., while due to the variation of the variable part it is possible to form synonymous rows burn with shame, disgrace, disgrace, burn with jealousy, thirst for revenge.

Another example: English to show one's teeth"snarl" (literally - "show your teeth"). Semantic independence in this combination is shown by the word one's"someone". It can be replaced with words my, your, his etc.

Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions are stable in their composition and use phraseological turns, which are not only semantically distinct, but also consist entirely of words with a free nominative meaning. Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.

Often a phraseological expression is a complete sentence with a statement, edification or conclusion. Examples of such phraseological expressions are proverbs and aphorisms. If there is no edification in the phraseological expression or there are elements of understatement, then this is a saying or catchphrase. Another source of phraseological expressions is professional speech. Speech cliches also fall into the category of phraseological expressions - stable formulas like good luck, see you again etc.

Many linguists do not classify phraseological expressions as phraseological units, since they lack the main features of phraseological units.

Features of phraseological units:

Phraseologisms, unlike lexical units, have a number of characteristic features.

1. Phraseologisms are always complex in composition, they are formed by combining several components, which, as a rule, have a separate stress, but do not retain their meaning. independent words: puzzle, blood with milk, ate the dog. (Prepositional-case combinations of the type with kondachka, under the arm do not belong to phraseological units.)
2. Phraseologisms are semantically indivisible, they usually have an undifferentiated meaning, which can be expressed in one word: spread the mind - "think", the fifth wheel in the cart is "extra", upside down - "backward", the cat cried - "little", etc. True, this feature is not characteristic of all phraseological units. There are those that are equated with the whole descriptive expression to run aground - "to get into an extremely difficult situation", to press all the pedals - "to make every effort to achieve or accomplish something." Such phraseological units arise as a result of figurative rethinking of free phrases.
3. Phraseologisms, in contrast to free phrases, are characterized by the constancy of the composition. One or another component of a phraseological unit cannot be replaced by a word with a similar meaning, while free phrases easily allow such a replacement. For example, instead of a cat crying, you can’t say “cat cried”, “kitten cried”, “puppy cried”, instead of throwing with your mind - “scatter with your mind”, “spread your head”; (cf. free phrases I read a book, I look through a book, I study a book, I read a novel, I read a story, I read a script).

   However, some phraseological units have options: with all my heart - with all my heart, cast a shadow on the wattle fence - cast a shadow on a clear day. Nevertheless, the existence of variants does not mean that in these phraseological units one can arbitrarily update the composition: one cannot say “from the whole spirit”, “from the whole consciousness”, and also “cast a shadow on the fence” (on a clear morning).

4. Phraseological units are distinguished by reproducibility. Unlike free phrases, which are built by us directly in speech, phraseological units are used in finished form, as they are fixed in the language, as our memory holds them. So, having said bosom, we will definitely pronounce friend (not: friend, acquaintance, young man, comrade), the sworn can only be an enemy (not an enemy, a pest). This indicates the predictability of the components of phraseological units.
5. Most phraseological units are characterized by the impenetrability of the structure: it is impossible to arbitrarily include any elements in their composition. So, knowing the phraseological unit to look down, we do not have the right to say "low down the eyes", "downward the eyes even lower", "downward the sad look", etc. The exception is phraseological units that allow the insertion of some clarifying words incite passions - incite fatal passions .

   A structural feature of individual phraseological units is the presence of a truncated form along with a complete one: to pass through fire and water (... and copper pipes); drink a cup - drink a bitter cup (to the bottom), measure seven times (... cut once). The reduction in the composition of a phraseological unit in such cases is explained by the desire to save speech means.

6. Phraseological units are inherent in the stability of the grammatical form of their components: each member of the phraseological combination is reproduced in a certain grammatical form, which cannot be arbitrarily changed. So, you can’t say “beat the bucket”, “grind the lace”, replacing the forms plural baklushi, lyasy in the singular form, do not use a full adjective instead of a short one in phraseological units on bare feet, etc. Only in special occasions possible variations of grammatical forms in the composition of individual phraseological units: warm the hand - warm the hands; whether the case has been heard - whether the case has been heard.
7. Most phraseological units are characterized by a strictly fixed word order. For example, it is impossible to rearrange the components in phraseological units, everything flows, everything changes, neither light nor dawn; blood with milk, etc. At the same time, phraseological units of the verb type, that is, consisting of a verb and words dependent on it, allow a rearrangement of the components: take water in your mouth - take water in your mouth; leave no stone unturned - leave no stone unturned.

The heterogeneity of the structure of a number of phraseological units is explained by the fact that phraseology combines a rather motley language material, and the boundaries of some phraseological units are not clearly outlined.

Phraseological units can be:

• adjectives: (adjective phraseological units): drunk as a fiddler (drunk as a lord, as a boiled owl - drunk as an insole);
• interjections: gracious me! (that's how it is!);
• adverbs (adverbial phraseological units): in one's cups (drunk), tirelessly; headlong etc.

Phraseologisms are already difficult in themselves: besides their characteristic features we need to remember them meaning which, by the way, is not always "derived" from the meanings of component words. It is by the "fusion" of meanings that phraseological units are divided into phraseological fusions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions.

Phraseological unions, or idioms, are such lexical indivisible phrases, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the individual words included in the bottom.Phraseological fusions, thus are a prime example maximum "solidity" of the components of the phraseological unit. As the most characteristic signs of adhesions, we note the following: lexical indivisibility, semantic solidarity, one member of the sentence. In general, phraseological fusions most clearly demonstrate the concept of "phraseologism".

Perfectly illustrates the category of phraseological fusion phraseologism "beat the buckets". Beat the thumbs- means, to idle, to idle. This expression is understandable to everyone, but its “literal” meaning has little to do with the meaning of “final”: buckwheat called logs, respectively, beat the buckets - cut the logs, process them in a special way(it was from this wood that spoons were later made). In other words, beating the bucks was not such an easy thing to do. As you can see, the value of the entire expression is not derived from the value of its individual components, hence - voila! - in front of us really phraseological fusion.

Among other examples of idioms, we note the most significant units for us:

out of the blue, sodom and gomorrah, topsy-turvy, hand on heart, out of hand, coward to celebrate, from young to old, on bare feet, mediumin broad daylight, without hesitation, so-so, wherever it went, on your mind, to say a joke, to be amazed and etc.

Phraseological units- This lexically indivisible phrases, the general meaning of which is to some extent already motivated by the figurative meaning of the words that make up this turnover. The distinctive features of phraseological units are the possibility of "understanding" the meaning both in direct and in figuratively, as well as possibility of insertionbetween components of a phraseological unit of other words.

Consider the expression "pouring water on the mill", What means " by their actions, behavior indirectly help someone". This expression goes well with direct value (i.e. literally pour water on the mill- to a water mill that rotates under the influence of water power), and with the value portable with which we are already familiar. In addition, this expression often occurs with inserts from pronouns and adjectives: pour water on St. oyu mill, pour water on mine mill, pour water on his mill, pour water on someone else's mill and under.

Vivid examples of phraseological units are expressions: throw dust in your eyes, keep a stone in your bosom, go with the flow, go into your shell, suck blood with milk from your finger; first violin, freezing point, inclined plane, center of gravity, specific gravity and etc.

Phraseological combinations- This stable revolutions, the value of which depends entirely on the value of their constituent components. In other words, such phraseological units retain relative semantic independence , showing its significance in extremely vicious circle words . As a rule, in such phraseological units we can distinguish permanent member, which does not change, is a kind of basis of expression, and variable member, i.e. able to change, vary. For example, the expression "tearfully ask" may look like "tearfully beg" and others. So, “tearfully” is a constant component, and “beg”, “ask” and other interpretations are variable components. Similarly: burn down can from shame, from shame, from shame, from love, impatience, envy and etc.; take maybe melancholy, meditation, annoyance, anger, fear, horror, envy, hunting, laughter etc. Despite the variety of variants of the variable component, phraseological combinations require only a certain set of words - a rather closed one: for example, one cannot say “ takes loneliness" or " takes the disease". As a rule, such expressions are "friendly" with their synonyms: touch the sense of honor = touch the sense of honor.

Phraseological expressions- This combinations of words that are reproduced as ready-made speech units. The lexical composition and meaning of such phraseological units is constant. The meaning of phraseological expressions depends on the meaning of the words included in their composition. becoming Traditional phraseological units of this type do not contain words with a limited meaning. Also in phraseological expressions components cannot be replaced. Phraseological expressions include proverbs, sayings, quotes, sayings, which acquired the features of generalization, figurative typification, those. turned into metaphors.

It is known to many lexical units:if the enemy does not surrender, he is destroyed; you need to eat to live, not live to eat; the dog barks - the wind carries; a rolling stone gathers no moss; like a dog in the hay: she does not eat herself and does not give to cattle; you can't see the forest for the trees; that's where the dog is buried; man in a case; trishkin caftan; wise gudgeon; and the chest just opened; to be or not to be: that is the question; No matter how you feed the wolf, you still look at the vles and etc.

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The study of the entire set of phraseological units of the Russian language involves their classification according to a variety of criteria.
V.V. Vinogradov, proposed one of the most famous and widespread classifications in linguistics, based on varying degrees idiomatic (unmotivated) components in the phraseological unit.

There are three types of phraseological units.

• Phraseological fusions are stable combinations, the generalized-holistic meaning of which is not derived from the meaning of their constituent components, that is, it is not motivated by them from the point of view state of the art vocabulary: to get into a mess, to beat the buckets, without hesitation, to eat the dog, out of the blue, out of hand, how to give a drink, was not, wherever it went and under. We don’t know what a “prosak” is (this is how a machine for weaving nets was called in the old days), we don’t understand the word baklushi (wooden blanks for spoons, the manufacture of which did not require skilled labor), we don’t think about the meaning of obsolete grammatical forms nothing (not at all), hesitating (doubting). However, the integral meaning of these phraseological units is clear to every Russian person. Thus, the etymological analysis helps to clarify the motivation of the semantics of modern phraseological fusion. However, the roots of phraseological units sometimes go back to such distant times that linguists do not come to an unambiguous conclusion about their origin [See, for example, differences in the interpretation of phraseological units coward to celebrate in B. A Larin and N. A. Meshchersky in the book: Mokienko V. M. Slavic phraseology. M., 1989. S. 18-19].
  Phraseological fusions may include obsolete words and grammatical forms: to say a joke (not a joke!), cheese boron flared up (not raw!), which also contributes to the semantic indecomposability of turns.
• Phraseological units are stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is partly related to the semantics of their constituent components, used in a figurative sense: to reach a dead end, beat with a key, go with the flow, hold a stone in your bosom, take it in your hands, bite your tongue. Such phraseological units may have "external homonyms", i.e. phrases coinciding with them in composition, used in a direct (non-metaphorical) sense: We had to to go with the flow rivers for five days. I got so thrown up on a bump that I bit my tongue and was in pain.

  Unlike phraseological fusions, which have lost their figurative meaning in the language, phraseological units are always perceived as metaphors or other tropes. So, among them we can distinguish stable comparisons (like a bath leaf, like on pins and needles, like a cow licked with its tongue, like a saddle for a cow), metaphorical epithets (tinned throat, iron grip), hyperbole (golden mountains, a sea of ​​\u200b\u200bpleasure, as far as the eye can see), litotes (the size of a poppy seed, grasping at straws). There are also phraseological units that are periphrases, i.e. descriptive figurative expressions that replace one word: far away - "far", there are not enough stars from the sky - "not far off", oblique fathom in the shoulders - "mighty, strong" .
  Some phraseological units owe their expressiveness to a pun, a joke underlying them: a hole from a donut, from a sleeve vest, not himself, a week without a year, slaughter without a knife. The expressiveness of others is based on the game of antonyms: neither alive nor dead, neither give nor take, not a candle to God, not a poker to hell, more or less; on the clash of synonyms: from the fire to the frying pan, the mind has gone beyond the mind, to pour from empty to empty, around and around. Phraseological units give speech a special expressiveness and folk-colloquial coloring.

• Phraseological combinations are stable turns, the meaning of which is motivated by the semantics of their constituent components, one of which has a phraseologically related meaning: look down (head) (there are no stable phrases "down your hand", "down your foot" in the language). The verb to lower in the meaning of "lower" has a phraseologically related meaning and cannot be combined with other words. Another example: a sensitive issue (situation, position, circumstance). The adjective ticklish means "requiring great discretion, tact", but the possibilities of its compatibility are limited: one cannot say "delicious proposal", "delicious decision", etc.
  The phraseologically related meaning of the components of such phraseological units is realized only under conditions of a strictly defined lexical environment. We say the velvet season, but we will not say "velvet month", "velvet autumn"; general epidemic, but not "general morbidity", "general runny nose"; total arrests, but not "total rehabilitation", "total conviction", etc.

  Phraseological combinations often vary frown eyebrows - frown eyebrows; touch the feeling of pride - touch the feeling of pride; to win - to gain the upper hand, to fail - to fail (defeat); fear takes - anger (envy) takes, burn with impatience - burn with shame, etc.

  In speech, there are cases of contamination of the components of phraseological combinations: "plays a value" - "has a role" (instead of having a value - plays a role), "take measures" - "take steps" (instead of take measures - take steps), "pay attention" ( from to pay attention - to attach importance), "to render significance" (from to pay attention - to attach importance). Such errors are associative in nature and are perceived as a sharp violation of the norm.

This classification of phraseological units is often supplemented, highlighting after N.M. Shansky the so-called phraseological expressions, which are also stable, but consist of words with free meanings, that is, they differ in semantic articulation: Happy hours do not watch; To be or not to be; Fresh giving, but hard to believe. This group of phraseological units includes idioms, proverbs, sayings. In addition, many phraseological expressions have a fundamentally important syntactic feature: are not phrases, but whole sentences.

The desire to separate phraseological expressions from phraseological units proper encourages linguists to look for a more accurate name for them: sometimes they are called phraseologized combinations, phraseologized expressions. Clarifying the concept, sometimes it is proposed to refer not all proverbs and sayings to combinations of this type, but only those that have acquired a generalized figurative metaphorical meaning and are perceived as units close to phraseological units proper: a man in a case, from a ship to a ball, after a rain on Thursday , high point, etc.

Thus, in the selection of the fourth, last of the considered, groups of phraseological units, scientists have not achieved unity and certainty. The discrepancies are explained by the diversity and heterogeneity of the language units, which are traditionally credited as part of phraseology.

Another classification of phraseological units is based on their general grammatical features. At the same time, the following typologies of phraseological units of the Russian language are proposed.

• Typology based on the grammatical similarity of the component composition of phraseological units. The following types are distinguished:
• combination of an adjective with a noun: cornerstone, vicious circle, swan song;
• noun combination in nominative case with a noun in genitive case: point of view, stumbling block, reins of government, bone of contention;
• a combination of a noun in the nominative case with nouns in oblique cases with a preposition: blood and milk, soul to soul, business in the hat;
• a combination of the prepositional case form of a noun with an adjective: on a living thread, according to old memory, on a short leg;
• a combination of a verb with a noun (with a preposition and without a preposition): look around, sow doubts, pick up, take hold of the mind, lead by the nose;
• a combination of a verb with an adverb: get into a mess, walk barefoot, see through;
• a combination of a gerund with a noun: through the sleeves, reluctantly, headlong.
• Typology Based on Correspondence syntactic functions phraseological units and parts of speech with which they can be replaced. The following types of phraseological units are distinguished:
• nominal phraseological units: cornerstone, swan song. In a sentence, they perform the functions of a subject, a predicate, an object; by the nature of the connections with other words, in combination, they can control any member and be controlled;
• verbal phraseological units: lead by the nose, look around. In a sentence, they play the role of a predicate; in combination with other words, they can be consistent, manage and be managed;
• adjective phraseological units: oblique fathom in the shoulders, on one's mind, blood with milk, on fish fur. They matter qualitative characteristics and, like adjectives, they act in the sentence as a definition or nominal part of the predicate;
• adverbial or adverbial phraseological units: on a living thread, through the sleeves, reluctantly, eye to eye. They, like adverbs, characterize the quality of the action and play the role of circumstances in the sentence;
• interjectional phraseological units: neither fluff nor feather!; hell no!; no bottom for you, no tire!; good time! Like interjections, such phraseological units express will, feelings, acting as separate undivided sentences.

Phraseological units can be systematized according to other features. For example, from the point of view of sound organization, all phraseological units are divided into those ordered according to their phonics and neutral ones. The former combine phraseological units with a pronounced rhythmic organization: neither a stake nor a yard, quieter than water below the grass, nor less than a crow; with rhyming elements: Fedot is not the same, naked as a falcon; with sound repetitions (assonances and alliterations): sherochka with mosher, keep your mouth shut, and this and that, here and there.

The classification of phraseological units according to their origin is interesting. In this case, it is necessary to single out the original Russian phraseology, which will include common Slavic phraseological units (goal like a falcon, neither fish nor meat, take it for a living), East Slavic (no stake or yard, under Tsar Pea, put a pig), Russian proper (with gulkin nose, by the whole world, put it on the back burner, in all Ivanovo, reel in fishing rods, pull the gimp). The former have correspondences in the others Slavic languages, the second - only in Ukrainian and Belarusian, and the third are typical only for the Russian language.

Phraseological units borrowed from the Old Slavonic language are distinguished into a special group: forbidden fruit, promised land, fiend of hell, manna from heaven, parable by the town, daily bread, in the sweat of the face, bone from bone, the voice of one crying in the wilderness, Babylonian pandemonium. Their source was Christian books (bible, gospel) translated into Old Church Slavonic.

A significant part is made up of phraseological units that came into the Russian language from ancient mythology: Achilles' heel, Gordian knot, Procrustean bed, sword of Damocles, Augean stables, dragon laws, tantalum flour, between Scylla and Charybdis, wheel of fortune, gardens of Babylon. Most of these phraseological units are also known in other languages, so the international character of the winged combinations, rooted in antiquity, should be emphasized.

Many phraseological units are borrowed from European languages and more late time. These are mainly quotations from world-famous works of art that have become popular: To be or not to be (W. Shakespeare); Leave hope, everyone who enters here (A. Dante); a storm in a teacup (C. Montesquieu), a princess and a pea (G. X. Andersen). Some winged words are attributed to great scientists, thinkers: And yet it spins (G. Galileo); I only know that I know nothing (Socrates); I think, therefore I exist (R. Descartes).

Some phraseological units are tracing papers - a literal translation from the source language: blue stocking (English blue stocking), time is money (English time is money), killing time (French tuer le temps), honeymoon (French la lune de miel), smash on the head (German: aufs Haupt schlagen), that's where the dog is buried (German: Da ist der Hund begraben).