Principality of Poland within the Russian Empire. Legal status of Poland within the Russian Empire

Like Finland, the Kingdom of Poland was part of the Russian Empire, in fact, until the end of its existence as autonomous education having its own constitution. In 1915, after the occupation of Polish territory by Austro-Hungarian troops, the unrecognized Kingdom of Poland was formed, and after the end of the First World War, the independence of Poland was guaranteed for

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

According to the Union of Lublin in 1569, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania united into one state, called the Commonwealth (literal translation into Polish of the Latin respublica). It was an atypical state formation: the king was elected by the Sejm and gradually he lost the levers of government. The gentry, that is, the nobility, had considerable power. However, the work of the Sejm was also paralyzed, since any decision could only be taken unanimously. During the XVII-XVIII centuries. The Commonwealth gradually turned into an object of European politics, and its territory was claimed by much stronger neighbors: Sweden and the Moscow kingdom. Despite the awareness of the Polish society numerous problems and bleak prospects no decisive steps have been taken to correct the situation. The king became a nominal figure, and the gentry did not want to part with their privileges even in the face of the threat of the state losing its independence.

By the end of the 18th century, Prussia, Austria and Russia were most interested in the Polish territories. However, Empress Catherine II sought to preserve an independent Poland, since this allowed her to control this state alone through her proteges. The Austrians and Prussians did not agree with this position. They put pressure on the Russian government, and Catherine, realizing that because of the Polish lands, new war, agreed to the section.

In 1772, an agreement was imposed on the Commonwealth, according to which it lost a third of its territory. Russia received the eastern regions of Belarus and the Polish part of Livonia. In 1793 the second partition took place. Russia became the owner of the central regions of Belarus and the Right-Bank Ukraine. Only a quarter of the Commonwealth retained its independence. After an unsuccessful one in 1795, Prussia, Austria and Russia divided the remnants of the country among themselves.

During the divisions, the process of returning the lands lost was completed. Russia did not claim historical Polish territory, which allowed Catherine to renounce the title of Queen of Poland.

Formation of the Kingdom of Poland

One of the reasons for the creation of the autonomous Kingdom of Poland within the Russian Empire was the need to achieve the loyalty of the local population and thereby secure the western borders. Another reason stemmed from the declarations of the Congress of Vienna, which took place after the defeat of Napoleonic France. The three states that participated in the partitions guaranteed autonomy to the Polish lands, but this was realized only by the Russian side.

The liberal-minded Russian emperor Alexander I played an important role in the process of creating autonomy. He sincerely believed that this would allow organizing cooperation and mutually beneficial existence between the two Slavic peoples.

Legal aspects

Inclusion in the Kingdom of Poland took place in accordance with the provisions of the Vienna Treaties, ratified on May 3, 1815. From them it followed that the Polish lands were assigned to Russia forever.

During the Napoleonic wars, the lands divided between the three states were redistributed. So, in addition to the former territories, it was annexed to Russia. Such a significant territorial increase, of course, met Alexander's desire to create a foothold for Russia in Europe, but at the same time it brought new problems. They were supposed to be resolved by granting a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland under Alexander I. The emperor's plan aroused sharp opposition from England and Austria. In particular, representatives of these states, referring to the anarchy of the gentry in last years existence of the Commonwealth, they argued that the Poles had not reached the necessary level of development to receive a constitution. They proposed to confine ourselves to the introduction local government, but Alexander resolutely rejected such an offer.

Preparation of the Polish constitution

After final accession to Russia of the Kingdom of the Polish special body involved in the development of the constitution, was not created. The first draft of the document was prepared by the emperor's closest advisers, including Prince Adam Czartoryski, a Pole by birth. But Alexander was not satisfied with the document. Firstly, he was excessively large, and secondly, he was imbued with an oligarchic spirit. Czartoryski agreed with the emperor's remarks and set about developing a new project.

Many prominent Polish public figures. Through their efforts, a new constitutional draft consisting of 162 articles was drawn up. The emperor personally got acquainted with him and made amendments regarding the expansion of his powers. Only after that the text of the constitution on French was signed. On June 20, 1815, it was made public, and next year entered into force. Thus, it took a little more than two weeks to develop the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, which became part of the Russian Empire.

The document consisted of seven sections devoted to the main problems of the state structure of the newly formed autonomy. Briefly, they can be summarized as follows:

the basic principles of the state structure of the Kingdom of Poland as part of the Russian Empire;
fixed rights and obligations of the Poles;
organization and functioning of the executive branch of government;
principles of formation of legislative bodies;
administration of justice and organization of Polish judicial institutions;
formation of local armed forces.

Such an organization of articles, their specific gravity from the general body of the text of the constitution (the articles relating to the executive power are developed in the most detail) is fully consistent with the Constitutional Charter adopted a year earlier in France.

Legislature

According to the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815, the bicameral Sejm became the highest legislative body, which also included Polish king(that is, the Russian emperor). The Sejm was convened every two years, but if an extraordinary session was necessary, the tsar issued a special decree. The members of the Senate, the upper chamber, were appointed by the tsar for life from among the princes, bishops, governors and castellans. In order to become a senator, it was necessary to overcome the age and property qualifications.

The lower chamber was formed from representatives of the provinces of the Kingdom of Poland, and therefore it was called the Chamber of Ambassadors. 77 people belonged to the number of nobles, and in total 128 deputies sat in the chamber. The size of the Senate was not to exceed half of that number. Elections to the Chamber of Ambassadors were two-stage, and for voters there was a moderate property qualification.

Equality was established between the two chambers: the king could send a bill to either of them. An exception was made only for laws related to the financial sector. They were necessarily sent first to the Chamber of Ambassadors. The Sejm had no legislative initiative. The vote on the bill was open, no changes to the text were allowed, this was the prerogative of the State Council. The king had the right of absolute veto.

executive branch

The head of this branch was the king. His powers were extremely wide. So, only the monarch had the right to declare war and conclude peace, as well as control the armed forces. Only he could appoint senators, bishops and judges. The monarch was also in charge of the budget. In addition, the king had the right to pardon and dissolve the Chamber of Ambassadors with the appointment of new elections.

Thus, the tsar was the central figure in the administration of the Kingdom of Poland. At the same time, he was still an unlimited monarch, since he was obliged to take an oath of allegiance to the constitution. Since he could not stay in Poland all the time, the position of governor was introduced, who was appointed by the tsar. His powers coincided with those of the king, with the exception of the right to appoint senior officials.

Under the king or governor, an advisory body was established - the State Council. He could draw up bills, approve ministerial reports, and also declare violations of the constitution.

To address current issues, a government was created, consisting of five ministries. Their area of expertise was as follows:

religion and education system;
justice;
distribution of finances;
law enforcement organization;
military affairs.

Background of the Polish Uprising of 1830

Under Alexander I, the Kingdom of Poland as part of the Russian Empire was one of the most dynamic developing areas. Economic growth was observed in all areas National economy owing to which the budget deficit was overcome. The increase in the population also testifies to the increase in the standard of living: in total, by 1825, 4.5 million people lived on the territory of the autonomy.

However, crises also accumulated. First of all, the Polish national elite counted on the inclusion in the Kingdom of Poland of the lands acquired by Russia during the three partitions. The position of Emperor Alexander allowed counting on this, but, faced with serious opposition, the emperor abandoned this idea.

Another source of dissatisfaction among the Poles was the figure of the governor - the emperor's brother, Konstantin. Although he tried in every possible way to please his wards, his frankly despotic methods of management met with dull resistance. Among the officers, cases of suicide became more frequent, and the intelligentsia united in underground circles, banned after the speech of the Decembrists.

The accession of Nicholas I did not cause joy either, unlike his older brother, who did not sympathize with liberal trends and was hostile to the constitution. Despite his personal attitude, he nevertheless took the oath and intended to maintain the methods of administration that had developed since the inclusion of the Kingdom of Poland into the Russian Empire. But the Poles decided to seek independence. In 1828, the "Military Union" took shape, within which plans for an armed uprising were developed.

The uprising and its aftermath

The revolution of July 1830 in France spurred the Poles to action. Having put forward the slogan of restoring the Commonwealth within the borders before the first partition, the Polish army opposed the Russian units. The governor was overthrown and narrowly escaped reprisal. It is significant that Konstantin Pavlovich was informed about the unrest in the army units, but he was in no hurry to take drastic measures, fearing the Polish nationalists less than the emperor. Nicholas himself, by decision of the rebels, was deposed as the Polish king.

Despite fierce resistance, the Polish army was utterly defeated on May 26, 1831. Soon, only Warsaw remained under the control of the rebels, holding out until September 7. By decisive actions, Emperor Nicholas managed to keep the Kingdom of Poland within the Russian Empire. But the consequences of the uprising for the Poles were tragic. Nicholas got the opportunity to cancel the constitution and bring the system of government in line with the general imperial. The Sejm and the State Council were abolished, the ministries were replaced by departmental commissions. The army of the Kingdom of Poland was disbanded, and the ability of the local government to manage finances was significantly curtailed.

After the uprising

The privileges of the Kingdom of Poland under Nicholas I were rapidly declining. The constitution was replaced by the Organic Statute of 1832, which laid down the idea of a gradual merger of Poland with the Russian Empire. Leadership positions were replaced by Russian officials, and a number of Polish departments (for example, communications or the Warsaw educational district) entered into direct subordination to the central government.

The established authoritarian regime caused a mass emigration of the Polish intelligentsia. From abroad they tried, by means of distributing proclamations and proclamations, to stir up an uprising. Polish people especially the peasantry. However, the contradictions between the gentry and the peasantry, which had been preserved since the time of the Commonwealth, were so strong that none of these attempts was crowned with success. In addition, the Nikolaev administration, in opposition to nationalism, put forward conservatism and clericalism. The influence of the Catholic Church brought to naught all attempts by emigration to convince the people of the need to fight for independence.

In 1863, the Poles nevertheless undertook a new uprising, which the Russian army again managed to suppress. Another attempt to get rid of Russian rule showed that the integration course of Nicholas I was not crowned with success. Mutual distrust and hostility were established between the two peoples. Forced Russification did not alleviate the situation either: in educational institutions taught the history of Russia, and the training itself was conducted in Russian.

It should be noted that in the educated circles of almost all Western states, the divisions of the Commonwealth were considered a historical injustice. This was especially evident when the Poles were divided between two opposing camps during the First World War and were forced to fight each other. Many Russian public figures were also aware of this, but it was dangerous to express such thoughts aloud. However, the stubborn desire of the Poles for independence did its job. At the final stage of the First World War, the American President, in his 14 points on a peaceful settlement, separately brought up the Polish question. In his opinion, the restoration of Poland within the historical borders was a matter of principle. However, the vagueness of the term " historical borders"caused a fierce debate: should we consider those that had developed by 1772 or the borders of the medieval Polish kingdom as such? Dissatisfaction with the decisions of the conferences in Versailles and Washington led to a war between the RSFSR and Poland, which ended in the victory of the latter. But international contradictions did not end there. Polish regions were claimed by Czechoslovakia and Germany.This, as well as other controversial decisions peace conferences after World War I led to a new big war in Europe, the first victim of which was an independent Poland.

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Incorporation of Poland into the Russian Empire

The Polish state ceased to exist in 1795, when it was divided between Austria, Prussia and Russia. Lithuania, Western Belarus, Western Volyn and the Duchy of Courland, which was a vassal of Poland, went to Russia.

In 1807, after the victory of France over Prussia on the part of Polish territory that belonged to her, Napoleon formed a new state - the Principality of Warsaw, to which in 1809 part of the Polish lands that were part of Austria was annexed. The Principality of Warsaw was a constitutional monarchy. The Prince of Warsaw, on the basis of a union with the Kingdom of Saxony, was the Saxon king, dependent on France. The Principality of Warsaw participated in the war of 1812-1814. on the side of Napoleonic France.

On the Congress of Vienna 1815 Alexander I, who believed that Russia, as a victorious country, should receive new lands and secure its western borders, achieved the inclusion of most of the territory of the Principality of Warsaw into the Russian Empire. Austria. Prussia and Russia came to an agreement that the Principality of Warsaw would be transformed into the Kingdom of Poland, would receive a new constitution, according to which the Russian Emperor would become the Tsar of Poland, the head of the executive branch of the Polish state. Thus, the new Polish state was part of the Russian Empire on the basis of the union.

According to the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, the Russian emperor appointed his governor to it. The post of Secretary of State for the Affairs of the Kingdom of Poland was established. The legislature was the Sejm, elected by direct elections by all estates on the basis of a property qualification.

All participants in the war with Russia on the side of Napoleon received an amnesty and had the right to enter the service in the state apparatus and in the army of the Kingdom of Poland. Commander Polish army appointed the Russian emperor as the king of Poland. Many subjects of the Russian emperor were dissatisfied with the fact that the Poles who participated in the war on the side of Napoleon and the defeated Poles received more rights than the winners.

Having become part of the Russian Empire, retaining the effect of its laws, administration, having a legislative body, Poland simultaneously received access to the Russian, and through Russia to the Asian market for its goods. In order to reduce anti-Russian sentiment among the Polish nobility and bourgeoisie, customs privileges were established for Polish goods. Many products of the Polish industry were subject to a customs duty of 3%, while Russian ones were 15%, despite the fact that "Russian manufacturers yelled against such an order" 1 Kornilov A.A. Course of Russian history of the XIX century. M., 1993. S. 171..

The economic development of Poland, the growth of the influence of the national bourgeoisie, intensified the desire for complete political independence and the restoration of the Polish sovereign state within the borders that existed before its first partition in 1772. In 1830, an uprising began in Poland, main force which was the army of the Kingdom of Poland. The Polish Sejm announced the deprivation of the Russian emperor of the Polish crown, thus breaking the union between Poland and the Russian Empire.

After the suppression of the uprising Russian troops Emperor Nicholas I in 1832 issued the "Organic Status", which abolished the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815 and liquidated the Sejm, the Polish army. The Kingdom of Poland - this "internal abroad", as it was called in the Russian Empire, was liquidated. Instead, the Warsaw General Government is formed. Field Marshal I.F. Paskevich, who received the title of Prince of Warsaw.

Of the state institutions provided for by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815, only the Polish State Council continued to operate, which became a kind of information and advisory institution under the State Council of the Russian Empire. But in 1841, during the preparation of the new "Regulations on the State Council of the Russian Empire", it was abolished. Since 1857, the Warsaw governorship began to be divided administratively not into voivodeships, as before, but into provinces. Certain privileges for the local nobility and tax breaks for industry were preserved, which contributed to the further socio-economic development of the former Kingdom of Poland, incorporated into the Russian Empire.

So, in the first half of the XIX century. the territory of the Russian Empire increased by almost 20%. This was due not so much to economic goals as. for example, in the case of the British Empire, but military-political tasks, the desire to ensure the security of their borders. The policy of the Russian administration in the annexed territories proceeded from their military-strategic significance and was aimed at their social and economic development, and not on the use of the resources of new territories, for the development of the central provinces of Russia 2 See: Ananin B., Pravilova E. Imperial factor in the Russian economy // Russian Empire in a comparative perspective. M., 2004. S. 236-237..

In the conditions of the destruction of the Ottoman and Persian empires, some of the peoples they conquered voluntarily became part of the Russian Empire.

The management of the annexed, conquered peoples, their legal status in the empire was built taking into account their socio-economic, legal, religious and other characteristics and was diverse, although it tended to unify, apply the principles to them. administration and laws of the Russian Empire.

Poland within the Russian Empire formed the Kingdom (Kingdom) of Poland, which at first had autonomy, and then existed in the status of a governor-general. Having become part of the Russian Empire in 1815, the Polish lands were actually there until 1915, until they were completely occupied by the armies of the Central Powers, and formally - until the collapse of the empire in 1917.

Kingdom of Poland in 1815-1830

In May 1815, during the Congress of Vienna, the Russian Emperor Alexander I approved the Fundamentals of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, in the development of which he took Active participation ally of the monarch Adam Jerzy Czartoryski. According to the constitution, the Kingdom of Poland was bound by a personal union with the Russian Empire. Approving the constitution, Alexander I made some amendments to the original text: he refused to provide the Seimas with a legislative initiative, reserved the right to change the budget proposed by the Seimas and postpone the convocation of the Seimas for an indefinite period.

Having retained earlier acquisitions at the expense of the lands of the Commonwealth, Russia has grown with most of the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw, which formed the "kingdom of Poland. In administrative-territorial terms, the Kingdom was divided into eight voivodships: Augustow, Kalisz, Krakow, Lublin, Mazovia, Płock, Radom and Sandomierz. The executive power belonged to the Russian emperor, who at the same time was Polish king, legislative - was distributed between the king and the Sejm (actually the last word remained with the monarch). The State Council became the highest government body, and the governor appointed by the king carried out the administration of the Kingdom. Administrative and judicial office work was supposed to be carried out in Polish, their own Polish army was formed, the inhabitants were guaranteed the inviolability of the person, freedom of speech and the press. A significant part of the Polish public reacted positively to the granted constitution: the Poles received more rights than subjects of the Russian Empire; the Polish constitution of 1815 was one of the most liberal constitutions of the time.

General Józef Zajonczek, a former Polish Jacobin and participant in the Uprising of 1794, became the royal governor. The brother of Alexander I was appointed commander-in-chief of the Polish army Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, and commissar in the Administrative Council of the Kingdom of Poland - N. N. Novosiltsev. They took control of the situation in the Kingdom of Poland: it was Konstantin, and not Zaionchek, who was the real viceroy of the emperor, and the functions of the imperial commissioner were not provided for by the constitution at all. At first, this did not cause serious protests from the Poles, since the Polish society sympathized with Alexander I.

In March 1818, the first Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland met. It was opened by Alexander I himself. Speaking to those present, the emperor hinted that the territory of the Kingdom could be expanded at the expense of Lithuanian and Belarusian lands. In general, the Sejm showed itself to be loyal, while in the meantime, there was an increase in opposition sentiments in society: secret anti-government organizations arose, periodicals published articles of the corresponding content. In 1819, preliminary censorship was introduced on all printed editions. At the second Sejm, convened in 1820, the liberal opposition clearly manifested itself, headed by the brothers Vincenty and Bonaventura Nemoyovsky. Since they were deputies from the Kalisz voivodship, the liberal oppositionists in the Sejm began to be called the "Kalisz Party" ("Kalishans"). They insisted on the observance of constitutional guarantees, protesting, in particular, against prior censorship. Under the influence of the Kalishans, the Sejm rejected most draft government regulations. Alexander I ordered not to convene the Sejm - its meetings were resumed only in 1825. During its preparation, an "additional article" appeared on the abolition of the publicity of the Sejm sessions. Opposition leaders were not allowed to attend meetings.

The suppression and persecution of open, albeit moderate, opposition in the Sejm led to an increase in the influence of the illegal opposition: new secret revolutionary organizations were created, especially among student youth and military personnel, including officers. These organizations were not numerous and influential, and besides, they did not interact with each other. Most of them were destroyed during the arrests of 1822-1823. The most famous student organization was the Society of Philomaths in Vilna, in which Adam Mickiewicz was a member. One of the secret organizations in the army, National Freemasonry, was headed by Major Valerian Lukasiński. In 1822 he was arrested and sentenced to nine years in prison. Both Lukasiński and the persecuted Philomaths acquired the aura of Polish national heroes and martyrs.

One of the main issues that worried Polish socio-political circles concerned the expansion of the territory of the Kingdom of Poland to the east: both the Sejm and the illegal opposition sought to restore the former Polish borders at the expense of Lithuanian, Belarusian and Ukrainian lands. There was no movement in this direction on the part of the Russian authorities, and this aggravated disappointment even in the conservative environment. A. Czartoryski, at that time the leader of one of the influential Polish conservative groups, resigned as a sign of protest from the post of curator of the Vilna educational district. Another reason for the dissatisfaction of the conservatives was the decisions of the Sejm court in the case of the activists of the anti-government Patriotic Society. In 1828, Polish judges did not find the defendants guilty of high treason and sentenced them to a short-term imprisonment, but Nicholas I, considering this a challenge to himself, ordered that the main defendant in the case, Severin Krzyzhanovsky, be sent to Siberia. The confrontation between the Poles and the imperial power reached its limit. The latter clearly sought to avoid conflict: in 1829, Nicholas I was crowned in Warsaw as the Polish king.

The education system began to develop already in the first years of the existence of the Kingdom of Poland, including in rural areas, but it was soon affected by restrictions: secondary schools and the University of Warsaw, established in 1816, came under strict political control. Much has changed for the better in the economic sphere, especially after K. Drutsky-Lubetsky, a staunch supporter of the union of Poland with Russia, became the head of the Ministry of Finance in 1821. The Kingdom of Poland attracted artisans with favorable settlement conditions and tax exemptions. Under Drutsk-Lubecki, the budget of the Kingdom of Poland was balanced, Lodz became a major textile center. For the Kingdom of Poland, Russia was a necessary, huge market.

"November" uprising

The beginning of the uprising, known in Polish historiography as "Noyabrsk", hastened the news that Nicholas I was going to send Polish troops to suppress the French Revolution. On November 29, armed insurgents led by leaders of the Patriotic Society L. Nabelyak and S. Goshchinsky attacked the Belvedere, the residence of the governor of the Grand Duke Konstantin. At the same time, a group of participants secret society in the school of cadets under the leadership of P. Vysotsky, she tried to capture the barracks of the Russian army located nearby. The plan of action of the conspirators was poorly thought out, their forces were not numerous, and the prospects were unclear. The attack on the Belvedere did not bring success: Konstantin managed to escape, and the Polish generals refused to support and lead the rebels. Despite this, the rebels, having enlisted the support of many residents of Warsaw, by November 30 captured the city. On December 4, a provisional government of the Kingdom of Poland was created, and the next day, the popular general Yu. Khlopitsky received dictatorial power in the Kingdom. He did not believe in the success of the uprising and hoped that Nicholas I would pardon the Poles. Drutsky-Lyubetsky went to negotiate with the emperor. Nicholas I refused any concessions to the Poles, demanding that the rebels surrender. On January 17, Khlopytsky resigned his dictatorial powers, and he was replaced by a conservative government headed by A. Czartoryski. On January 25, the Sejm deposed Nicholas I from the Polish throne. Soon hostilities began. In early February 1831, Russian troops moved to suppress the uprising. At the end of the same month, the rebels managed to stop the enemy near Grochow and thereby thwarted his plan to capture Warsaw, although they themselves were forced to retreat. The rebels achieved some success in Lithuania and Volhynia. From the end of May, the situation began to change: the rebels suffered one defeat after another, and after the battle of Ostroleka fell back to Warsaw. The city was ready for defense, but conciliatory tendencies began to emerge in the rebel camp. The head of the rebel government, J. Krukovetsky, contrary to the wishes of the Sejm, was ready to enter into negotiations with the commander of the Russian troops F.I. Paskevich and was removed from his post for this. On September 8, 1831, Paskevich's forces took Warsaw. As a "punishment", the Kingdom of Poland was deprived of autonomy, and the Constitution of 1815 was cancelled. Instead, in 1832 the "Organic Statute" was granted to the Kingdom, which abolished the Sejm and sharply limited its independence. In the Kingdom was introduced state of emergency, the Polish army - abolished, now the Poles served in the Russian army. Thousands of representatives of the gentry from the eastern lands of the former Commonwealth were resettled in other provinces of the Russian Empire, landlord estates were confiscated, and Polish scientific, cultural and educational organizations were liquidated. In administrative-territorial terms, voivodeships were replaced by provinces. Several thousand representatives of the Polish intellectual and political elite ended up in exile, primarily in France. Politically heterogeneous, the emigration, later called the "Great", was united by the idea of the struggle for the liberation of Poland and hatched plans for a new uprising. The former comrade-in-arms of Alexander I A. Czartoryski became the leader of one of the most influential emigrant centers.

Between two rebellions

Back in the 1820s, in the background agrarian reforms in Prussia, in the Kingdom of Poland, discussions on the agrarian question revived. Determined to improve farming methods, Polish landowners needed money. One of the sources of funds could be the transfer of peasants from corvee to chinsh, that is, to cash rent. After the uprising of 1830-1831, the process of thinning began. First, it covered state estates and donations (lands given to high-ranking figures), where it lasted for about 20 years. In private farms, cleaning was more difficult: the cash ransom was so high that many not very wealthy peasants, paying it, turned into “enclosures”, landless peasants. In 1846, only about 36% of peasant households on private estates switched to chinsh. The position of the peasants was difficult: the landowners resorted to driving the peasants off the land and raising taxes. This caused protests among the peasants: some complained to the authorities, others took radical measures, setting fire to the landowners' estates. This brought certain results: in 1833 the authorities banned forced hiring, in 1840 they banned the imposition of corvée duties on landless peasants. In 1846, Emperor Nicholas I imposed a ban on the herding of peasants whose farms exceeded three morgues (1 morgue = 0.56 hectares).

Gradually, the market of the Kingdom of Poland developed, an idea was brewing in society agrarian reform. Most of the supporters of the reform were in favor of cleaning, some were in favor of the liberation of the peasants. In 1858, the adherents of the reforms united in the Agricultural Society, headed by A. Zamoysky. In 1861, the society adopted its version of the plan for the emancipation of the peasants and sent it to the authorities. At the same time in Russia it was canceled serfdom. This change did not apply to the Kingdom of Poland, but it sharpened the discussions on the agrarian issue. In April 1861, the Agricultural Society was dissolved. Having intercepted the initiative of the Polish public, the Russian government issued two decrees: in October 1861 - on the abolition of corvée, subject to the payment of a high ransom, and in June 1862 - on the introduction of mandatory chinshina.

In general, the reforms of Alexander II gave impetus to the revival of the Polish liberation movement. Measures such as the abolition of martial law, amnesty for prisoners and exiles, and permission to establish an Agricultural Society were considered insufficient by the Poles. In 1860-1861, a series of public demonstrations swept through the country, which could only be stopped by resuming martial law. At the same time, a split occurred in Polish society: the moderate wing, headed by the head of the Agricultural Society A. Zamoyski, hoped to achieve the restoration of the autonomy of the Kingdom of Poland by peaceful means. After negotiations with government officials, moderate circles managed to achieve the lifting of martial law. The radicals, in turn, did not rule out the possibility of an uprising. Since 1862, the civil administration of the Kingdom of Poland was headed by Marquis A. Wielopolsky, in the past the Minister of Education, and then the Minister of Internal Affairs. With his efforts, the Polish language was returned to schools and government institutions, and in Warsaw a Main school(future university), taxes were unified. Wiełopolski favored the union of Poland with Russia, but believed that the autonomy of the Kingdom should be expanded. Wielopolsky's position was condemned by both moderates ("whites") and radicals ("reds"). Among the latter there were many Republicans. In late 1861 - early 1862, the "Reds" took shape in political organization led by the Central National Committee (CNC). Under his leadership, preparations began for a new uprising.

"January" uprising

The second Polish uprising, also known as the "January Uprising", began after recruiting according to pre-compiled lists of "politically unreliable" persons. On January 22, 1863, the Central Committee of People's Commissars proclaimed itself the Provisional National Government and published a manifesto declaring the independence of Poland and the equalization of all citizens in rights. On the night of January 23, the self-proclaimed government published a decree that abolished the duties of peasant land users without redemption and ordered landless peasants to be given land (up to 1.6 hectares). The gentry were guaranteed compensation.

In February 1863, the uprising was supported by the camp of the "whites", where they previously had a negative attitude towards this scenario. Political emigration tried to get support for the uprising from Great Britain and France, but they limited themselves to diplomatic notes with the wish that Russia grant autonomy to the Kingdom of Poland. Alexander II, who considered the Polish events internal affairs Russia, the claims of the Western powers rejected.

The uprising took place for the most part within the Kingdom of Poland, but also covered part of the Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian lands. The disappointing situation of the rebels was aggravated by internal contradictions in their leadership: in October 1863, the National Government transferred all power to the former Russian officer R. Traugutt, making him the dictator of the uprising. In this capacity, Traugutt managed to achieve significant success: he introduced single organization rebel armed forces, insisted on the implementation of the decree on the allocation of land to the peasants. The latter, however, did not help to attract the peasants to the uprising: the peasantry occupied mainly a wait-and-see attitude, and the basis of the insurgent forces, as in 1830-1831, was the gentry. The fact that in March 1864 the Russian authorities abolished serfdom in the Kingdom of Poland also played a role. In April 1864, Traugutt was arrested, by the autumn of that year they were defeated the last detachments rebels. Hundreds of participants in the uprising were executed, thousands were exiled to Siberia or Russian provinces. Despite the defeat, the uprising of 1863-1864 had decisive influence on national consolidation and the growth of Poles' self-awareness.

Kingdom of Poland in 1863-1915

In the period from 1863 to 1915, martial law was maintained de facto in the Kingdom of Poland. The administrative autonomy of the Kingdom was gradually reduced to a minimum: the State and Administrative Councils, departmental commissions, and a separate budget were abolished. All organs local authorities passed into the subordination of the relevant departments in St. Petersburg. After the death of Count F. Berg in 1874, the post of governor was liquidated. In official documentation, the term "Kingdom of Poland" was replaced by "Privislinsky region". The Russian authorities set a course for the gradual merging of the Polish lands of the empire with the metropolis. Especially tough Russification was carried out in Russian Poland during the reign of Alexander III when I. V. Gurko was the governor-general of the Kingdom of Poland. The University of Warsaw was Russified, and then the secondary and primary schools, Polish was taught as an optional subject. The Catholic Church was subordinate to the Catholic College in St. Petersburg, and the Greek Catholic, Uniate, Church - actually ceased to exist.

At the same time, large-scale industry developed in the Kingdom of Poland: in 1864-1879, in terms of growth rates, it was 2.5 times higher than Russian industry. The main industrial branch of Russian Poland was textiles. The main textile centers were Bialystok, Warsaw and, first of all, Lodz. An important industry was metallurgy, concentrated mainly in the Dąbrowa basin. The level of urbanization grew: from 1870 to 1910, the population of Warsaw tripled, and Lodz - eight times.

After the defeat of the uprising of 1863-1864, Polish social and political life calmed down for a long time. A revival in this area took place only in the early 1890s, when socialist parties were created in all three parts of Poland. In Russian Poland, these were the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) and the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL). In 1897, the National Democratic Party appeared in the Kingdom of Poland, its founders were members of the League of Peoples (National League) organization, formed in exile. The national democrats (endeks), unlike the socialists, believed that the independence of Poland should come as a result of a revolution of a national, and not a social nature.

On the eve of the revolutionary events of 1905-1907 in Russia, the degree of protest moods in the Kingdom of Poland increased. The consequences of the global economic crisis 1901-1903: in the face of unemployment and declining wages workers went on strike in factories. In the autumn of 1904, the Poles actively protested against the mobilization into the army. In January 1905, a general strike swept the industry and infrastructure of Russian Poland. Students of secondary and higher educational institutions, who demanded instruction in Polish, joined the protests of the workers. The situation in Lodz was especially tense: in June 1905, demonstrators fought barricade battles against police and troops for several days. The situation reached its peak in October-November of the same year, but then began to wane, and in 1906-1907 political slogans were replaced by economic ones. The revolution revealed political differences in society: in the fall of 1906, a split occurred in the PPS. The left wing of the party achieved the expulsion from the party of J. Pilsudski and his like-minded people, who decided to focus on terrorist methods of activity. The PPS-leftist began to gradually move closer to the SDKPiL and declare the priority of the struggle for socialism, while the revolutionary faction of the PPS put the independence of Poland at the forefront. Piłsudski directed his efforts to training military personnel for the future struggle for the restoration of Polish statehood. Endeks, headed by R. Dmovsky, meanwhile, actively participated in the elections to the State Duma and headed the national faction in it - the Polish Kolo. They sought to obtain concessions from the authorities in Polish question, first of all, granting autonomy to the Kingdom of Poland.

At the beginning of the First World War, Nicholas II promised, after the victory, to unite the Kingdom of Poland with the Polish territories taken from Germany and Austria-Hungary, and to grant autonomy to Poland within the Russian Empire. This position was supported by the Endeks, led by Dmovsky; The teaching staff, on the contrary, advocated the defeat of Russia: J. Pilsudski led one of the Polish legions as part of the army of Austria-Hungary. In the summer of 1915, the entire territory of the Kingdom of Poland was under the occupation of the armies of the Central Powers. On November 5, 1916, the puppet Kingdom of Poland was proclaimed on these lands. After February Revolution In 1917, the new Russian authorities announced that they would contribute to the creation of a Polish state on all predominantly Polish lands.

The next division of the Polish lands took place during the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. Despite the declared autonomy of the Polish lands as part of Prussia, Austria and Russia, in reality this autonomy was realized only in the Russian Empire. At the initiative of the liberal-minded Emperor Alexander I, a Kingdom of Poland, which received its own constitution and lasted until 1915.

According to the constitution, Poland could independently elect the Sejm, the government, and also have its own army. However, over time, the initial provisions of the constitution began to be limited.

This led to the creation of a legal opposition in the Sejm and the emergence of secret political societies.

The uprising that broke out in Warsaw in 1830 and was brutally suppressed by Nicholas I led to the abolition of the constitution of 1815.

After the death of Emperor Nicholas I freedom movement gaining new strength. Despite its division into two warring camps (“whites” - aristocrats and “reds” - social democrats), the main demand is the same: to restore the constitution of 1815. The tense situation leads to the introduction of martial law in 1861. The liberal-minded governor of Poland, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, is unable to cope with the situation. To stabilize the situation, it was decided to conduct a recruitment in 1863, sending "unreliable" youth to the soldiers according to pre-compiled lists. This served as a signal for the beginning of the “January Uprising”, suppressed by the tsarist troops, which resulted in the introduction of a military regime of government in the Kingdom of Poland. Another result of the uprising was the peasant reform in order to deprive the rebellious gentry of social support: the Decree on the Organization of the Peasants of the Kingdom of Poland, adopted in 1864, eliminated the remnants of serfdom and widely endowed Polish peasants with land. At the same time, the tsarist government began to pursue a policy aimed at eliminating Polish autonomy and closer integration of Poland into the Russian Empire.

When on Russian throne Nicholas II entered, there was new hope for a more liberal position of Russia towards Poland. However, despite the refusal to further Russify the Poles, no real shift took place in the attitude of the tsarist government towards them.

The creation in 1897 of the National Democratic Party of Poland (it was organized on the basis of the "People's League") led to a new round of growth national identity. The party, which set itself the strategic goal of restoring the independence of Poland, made every effort to fight the Russification laws and sought, above all, to restore Polish autonomy. Over time, she established herself as a leading political force Kingdom of Poland, and also took an active part in the Russian State Duma, forming the Polish Kolo faction there.

The revolution of 1905-1907 did not bypass Poland, which was swept by a wave of revolutionary uprisings. During this period, the formation of the Polish Socialist Party falls, which organized a number of strikes and strikes. The leader of the party was Jozef Pilsudski, who, in the midst of Russo-Japanese War traveled to Japan, where he tried to obtain funding for the all-Polish uprising and the organization of the Polish army, which would have acted in the war on the side of Japan. Despite the opposition of the National Democrats, Piłsudski achieved some success, and in subsequent years, the Fighting Organization of the Socialist Party was created with Japanese money. Its militants in the period from 1904 to 1908 committed dozens of terrorist acts and attacks on various Russian organizations and institutions.

RUSSIAN FEDERATION SYMBOLS OF RUSSIA

Poland within the Russian Empire

Banners of Polish units in the Russian army

In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place between Austria, Prussia and Russia. May 3, 1791, the so-called. The four-year Sejm (1788-1792) adopted the Constitution of the Commonwealth.

In 1793 - the second section, ratified by the Grodno Seim, the last Seim of the Commonwealth; Byelorussia and Right-Bank Ukraine went to Russia, Gdansk and Torun to Prussia. The election of Polish kings was abolished.

In 1795, after the third partition, the Polish state ceased to exist. Western Ukraine (without Lvov) and Western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland went to Russia, Warsaw - to Prussia, Krakow, Lublin - to Austria.

After the Congress of Vienna, Poland was again divided. Russia received the Kingdom of Poland with Warsaw, Prussia received the Grand Duchy of Poznan, and Krakow became a separate republic. The Republic of Krakow ("the free, independent and strictly neutral city of Krakow with its surroundings") was annexed by Austria in 1846.

In 1815, Poland received the Constitutional Charter. On February 26, 1832, the Organic Statute was approved. Russian emperor crowned king of Poland.

At the end of 1815, with the adoption of the Constitutional Charter of the Kingdom of Poland, Polish flags were also approved:

Naval standard of the Tsar of Poland (that is, the Russian emperor);

Yellow cloth depicting a black double-headed eagle under three crowns, holding four nautical charts in its paws and beaks. On the chest of the eagle is a crowned ermine mantle with a small coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.

Palace Standard of the Tsar of Poland;

White cloth depicting a black double-headed eagle under three crowns, holding a scepter and orb in its paws.

On the chest of the eagle is a crowned ermine mantle with a small coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.

Flag of the military courts of the Kingdom of Poland.

A white flag with a blue St. Andrew's cross and a red canton, which depicts the coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.

In the Polish flag studies literature, the last flag is called the "flag of the Polish Black Sea trading companies XVIII century". However, this statement raises very big doubts.

Most likely in this case we are dealing with fraud. The fact is that the Andreevsky flag with an eagle was used by Polish emigrants as a national one. Due to the very complicated relations between Russia and Poland, it was extremely unpleasant for Polish nationalists to realize that the national flag of the Poles was, in fact, the occupying Russian flag. As a result, the myth of "Polish trading companies" was born.

Other official flags Poland from the time of her stay in the Russian Empire is not known.

section map

Based on materials from vehillographia

When was Poland part of the Russian Empire?

Formally, it ceased to be an independent state on June 7 or 8 (depending on the interpretation of the event) in 1815, after an agreement on the redistribution of Polish lands at the Congress of Vienna. As a result, the Principality of Warsaw became part of the Russian Empire and was renamed the Kingdom of Poland. Where it existed and the end of the First World War, after which the Russian Empire was able to forcibly hold part of the territories. This is what the Polish elite took advantage of by declaring independence in 1918.

How much did Poland (the Commonwealth, in those days) lose to the Russian Empire?

There are two factors to note here. Firstly, the Commonwealth began "democratization" in its state and gave too many liberties to the gentry. And since no one limited it (in our time, people do it in developed countries), they did what they wanted. And the state fell into decline, having lost economic and military force. Yes and human potential fell sharply, good managers ceased to fall into the ruling structures. This is what happens when a negative selection of ethyl begins in a community/state.

Secondly, Peter carried out incredibly effective reforms in the Russian Empire. Which improved almost all elements of the state (except for the life of ordinary people). He reformed the army, turning it into one of the strongest at that time. Raised the economy by removing "nepotism and patronage" from the leadership. He even retrained the boyars to live in a new way, in a European way. Now there is still a saying "Peter opened a window to Europe." And then the Russian Empire continued to move along the given path of reformation (slowly, with a creak, but it moved.)

And then Napoleon appeared, and began to capture all of Europe. And in one of the campaigns he went to Russia, with his allies. Among which was the Polish nobility and the army. Napoleon lost, and they began to drive him back to Paris. Along the way, capturing everything you can. And after the capture of Paris, a new division of Europe took place, as a result of which